History Final Study Guide
Republican Virtue
Faith in the citizens ability to act virtuously, not just for his or her own good but the common good as well. Supported by Thomas Jefferson,
Election of 1800
Federalist split deeply impacted the _____________ as Hamiltonians were lukewarm in their support of the "disappointing" President Adams. Hamilton's refusal to enthusiastically endorse Adams widened the divide between the two men And contributed to the Jeffersonian's victory. Electors in that era, chosen by their state's legislature, each cast two votes, presumably for the two men they thought most deserved the presidency. Jeffersonian leaders had planned for each of their electors to cast one of their votes for Jefferson and the other for fellow Jeffersonian Colonel Burr of New York, except for one elector, thus electing Jefferson president 73-72. Jeffersonian electors, however, bungled their plan to avoid a Jefferson-Burr tie when somehow all of them cast their two votes for the same two men Jefferson and Aaron Burr of New York thereby tied with 73 electoral votes each. Contributing to Adams' third place finish was the three-fifths clause in the Constitution.
Alexander Hamilton
For ___________, arguably the key weakness of the Articles of Confederation Had been its inability to tax and thus provide funds needed to operate a strong federal government. Agreed with James Madison regarding the importance of a tariff But the new obligations of funding and assumption necessitated a push for new taxes beyond Madison's earlier 5% revenue tariff. _________ saw an increased tariff as the most important source of revenue for the new American republic. He therefore suggested hiking the tariff to 10% Alarming many Americans like Patrick Henry (right) Who feared tyranny emanating from the new taxes being created by a distant national government. _________'s neo-mercantilist method secondarily aimed to foster and help new and/or small US manufacturing companiesHard-pressed to compete with vastly superior British firms and productsThe higher tariff would encourage Americans to buy American-made products
Louisiana Purchase
France had gained control of Saint-Domingue, a valuable sugar island, by treaty in 1795 from Spain. Napoleon then secretly procured Louisiana from Spain in the 1801 Treaty of San Ildefonso Signed by the emperor's younger brother Joseph, the new ruler of Spain following a successful French invasion. After Touissant L'Ouverture's revolt, Napoleon ordered the sale of the vast but now strategically and practically superfluous Louisiana area (French breadbasket) To the stunned American representatives (James Monroe and Robert Livingston) At a cost of about three (3) cents an acre!! Livingston and Monroe were completely surprised When the French offered to sell the entire region (830,000 square miles) to the Americans for $15 million in gold. No one at the time had a clear grasp on the geographic enormity of the Louisiana Territory, least of all Napoleon or Jefferson.
Jeffersonians
Francophiles (France Admiring)Strict interpretationAgrarian economy (farmer)Elitist, but with more faith in the small farmerSupported paying off the national debt at market value, not face valueNational debt is unhealthyDeeply suspicious of banks, especially the BUS
Assumption Plan
Hamilton, as Secretary of the Treasury, proposed that the federal government take over responsibility for the re-payment of individual states' unpaid debts That had been incurred fighting the War for Independence. Thus tying the individual states more closely to the success of the Union by taking on responsibility for repaying their obligationsHamilton's supporters saw this as a brilliant plan to emphasize "united" over "states," and Congress passed the needed legislation. Congress passed a bill transferring remaining state revolutionary war debts ($21.5 million) to the federal governmentEnthusiastically supported by Federalists As a measure that would more closely tether the states to the new central government. Hamilton's Jeffersonian political enemies saw ____________ as a rash and foolhardy overreach by the Federalist-controlled central government That risked bankrupting the fragile new nation and cause further division among the states
Tobacco driven economy
-plant first from South America-used by Indians in Chesapeake region-became Jamestown's eventual cash crop (up to 500% profit)-shaped Virginia's entire colonial culture (controlled political & economic destiny of colony)-labor intensive crop requiring deforestation & cheap, exploitable workers (indentured servants --> slave labor)-England sent "paupers, vagabonds, petty criminals" to work (10% found "rags to riches" success)-England realized __________ was a lucrative source of tax revenue to fill king's depleted royal treasury-eventual market fluctuations caused prices to plunge (oversupply)-landowners increasingly turned to African slaves to meet their desperate labor shortage for tobacco and rice production. By the 1650s __________ prices plunged 90% from their 1620s high as supply for the moment outraced demand. ____________ planters reluctantly began turning more and more to African labor as the cost of the dwindling supply of white indentures rose beyond the price of African slaves (supply and demand).
Thomas Jefferson
A Man of many paradoxes and seeming contradictionsA slave owner who doubted the long-term efficacy of slavery as an institution, but saw no viable way outDid not believe Africans were the equals of whites-they therefore could not live as free citizens. He thus advocated colonization as the best solution for both blacks and whites (as he did not want any free blacks in his home state, Virginia) Yet, paradoxically, as a widower Jefferson had a long-term intimate relationship with Sally Hemmings, and fathered six children with her. Had consistently preached limited national government authority when he did not personally hold the reins of power Yet as president often flip-flopped to advocate strong executive action that could not be found in the Constitution. He exercised enormous executive power while President (impeachment, claim of "executive privilege," Barbary Affair, Louisiana Purchase, Embargo Act).
Glorious Revolution (1688)
A cabal of important English Protestant leaders toppled King James II in the _____________. •William of Orange, the leader of Protestant Holland, and his English wife Mary (daughter of James II) were brought in to govern England •The new English rulers dissolved the entire Dominion experiment....jubilant New England protesters then jailed the despised Andros. In the wake of the ____________ and the fall of the Dominion a working compromise gradually came about between England and the colonies in which a royal governor shared power with the legislature in each colony•Colonial legislatures, taking their cue from the British Parliament, gained important leverage by assuming the power of the purse
Joint Stock Companies
A company made up of a group of shareholders. Each shareholder contributes some money to the company and receives some share of the company's profits and debts. Helped drive economic changes in Europe and the Americas. Risk taking set in motion by entrepreneurs (risk takers) who were willing to invest their capital (money) in the hope of turning a profit by "buying low and selling high" Capitalism (buys at x and flips at X+) Put 10% of costs on 10 ships/merchant voyages so hopefully most of the ships make it back and they make a profit (multiple voyages and spreading the risk) Did not put all capital in one basket (ships could be captured by pirates or sunk in storms) New view: prices fluctuate (peasants would disagree with this view) Supply and demand "I'm going to figure out tomorrow today" Merchants set apart from ordinary citizens Contrasted with the moral economy Peasant, little guy in Europe supports Moral Economy (fixed, fair price for everything) (cannot gauge me) -originally Puritans have similar views -World view of merchant: capitalism (make money and get ahead)
Iroquois League
A confederation of five allied tribes that spanned modern New York state, that was arguably the most formidable military force in colonial and revolutionary America (1607-1783)•Local clans and towns, members of one of the five member tribes, coalesced to form a cohesive and potent alliance, with power wielded by a council in the geographic center of the confederation
Federalists
Adams-Hamilton split fatally weakened the dominant ______________ And opened the door to Jefferson's victory in the presidential election of 1800. Many ordinary citizens were now offended by the perception of an arrogant power grab by Anglophile _____________. Had held total US government power for twelve stormy years But had much to answer for according to their Jeffersonian critics. Many leading citizens believed it was time for a change. Their snobbish reputation and disdain for ordinary citizens Was now cemented in the minds of many American citizens, damaging their reputation with voters. This arrogance also contributed to Jefferson's presidential victory in 1800. Review: support was strongest among merchants, manufacturers, and commercial farmers near the Atlantic coast. ____________ were also divided into two factions: Adams' "peace and patience" group vied against Hamilton's "war against France to please Britain" partisans Partisan Factionalism
Articles of Confederation
After much discussion and compromise in the midst of a war with Britain •The delegates to the Second Continental Congress drew up a "plan of perpetual union," known as the __________. Were sent out by Congress to the separate states in 1777•All thirteen states had ratified it by 1781. During those years it provided a solid if flawed framework from which to govern while fighting the War for Independence. The clear intent of the "rebel generation" was to place most of what little national government power they allowed in the hands of the unicameral legislative branch •In line with the English Whig tradition •That strongly mistrusted royal power (with authority largely vested in the legislative branch of the national government). Could only be amended by a unanimous vote (with each state getting one vote)•Thus making changes extremely difficult, thereby reigning in the central government•No chief executive was included, a natural outgrowth of the belief among many of the drafters that King George III was a "corrupt tyrant." Many Patriot leaders and ordinary citizens believed governmental and taxation power should rest primarily at the individual state level
Headright System
After what happened in Roanoke and Jamestown, the Virginia Company, desperate for new settlers, initiated the head-right system to attract fresh colonists. Any Englishman who could fund passage and establish himself in the colony was granted fifty acres of free land for himself and every member of his party. So, for example, a settler with one brother and three indentured servants was granted 250 (thickly forested) acres. The plan often attracted the younger sons of English gentlemen frozen out of status (primogeniture) back home and anxious to make their mark in the "new world"
Federalists
Alarmed ____________, although on their heels as a national movement, feared the worst Namely that many more Jeffersonian states would soon be carved from these newly acquired lands (Louisiana Purchase) Thus possibly cementing Jeffersonian political power for decades to come. Did their best to block the purchase in the Senate on constitutional grounds of strict construction.Ironic, given their own recent twelve year embrace of strong central government power. They rejected Jefferson's argument that presidential treaty-making powers alone justified the Purchase. Argued the Constitution contained no provision for such land acquisitions And the US lacked the money to pay for it (Jeffersonian frugality flipped 180 degrees) And that the tax increases needed to pay for Louisiana would alienate voters. also dredged up the 1788 claims of their old rivals the Anti-Federalists Who had predicted that a geographically large republic could never succeed Because factions would inevitably surface and sabotage the nation.
Powhatan Confederacy
Alliance of Native American tribes living in the region of the initial Virginia settlement (Organization of 30 different tribes, along or near coastal Virginia). In Virginia in particular, Powhatan's domains were coveted in order to transform the forests into richly profitable tobacco fields•After his death in 1618 the ____________ rose up in two great military campaigns to resist the English, but were eventually defeated and crushed. The second attack was larger.
Mercantilism
An economic theory that holds that the prosperity of a nation is dependent upon its supply of capital, and that the global volume of international trade is "unchangeable." Economic assets or capital, are represented by economic bullion (gold, silver, and trade value) held by the state, which is best increased through a positive balance of trade with other nations (exports minus imports). Suggests that the ruling government should advance these goals by playing a protectionist role in the economy; by encouraging exports and discouraging imports, notably through the use of tariffs and subsidies. A key goal: foster national economic self-sufficiency for the mother country •By using colonies as pawns to advance the economic and strategic interests and needs of the mother country. Thus strengthening England's international position as it became more self-sufficient thanks to its colonies
Iroquois
An important role in the defeat of the New England tribes in Metacom's war was played by the _____________, •Who were persuaded by the New England colonists to attack their traditional Algonquian enemies in New England. Agreed to fight out of self-interest in order to gain leverage in the fur trade across the New England region (to the south of their traditional hunting grounds)•This vital alliance, secured with gifts, significantly contributed to the ultimate English victory
Hamiltonians
Anglophiles (Britain admiring)Loose interpretationMixed economyUnabashed support of the wealthier AmericansSupported "funding at par"Public Debt as the glue tying the rich to the nationSupported the BUSNationalists
Shay's Rebellion
Angry Massachusetts farmers and war veterans took direct action•They opposed the "hard money" (Specie) policies •As well as the increasing state taxes imposed by Massachusetts leaders. They sought "stay laws" designed to delay or suspend the repayment of the private debts •That plagued many ordinary citizens in the wake of the Massachusetts postwar financial meltdown•When many ordinary citizens had been forced to borrow money to keep their heads above water. The pleas of these ordinary Massachusetts men fell on deaf ears •As the state legislature defiantly levied a new round of taxes that were designed to pay the state's wartime debts. Many of the disgruntled 500 Revolutionary War veterans who marched had been given neither their government-promised backpay nor their agreed upon bonuses for for service in the Patriot Cause. were Revolutionary War veterans whose motto was "we don't sue you, we sack you." Were met in Springfield by a force of militiamen called out by state leaders to "stop anarchy and restore order"•They dispersed after a militia musket volley killed four of their number. Massachusetts leaders were willing to forgive and forget this uprising by patriotic but angry Revolutionary War veterans•Formal pardons were issued, eventually even _________ himself and other top leaders were forgiven.
John Adams
Ardent champion of the patriot cause in the War for Independence. 1780s first US ambassador to Great Britain and then Vice-President under WashingtonDubbed by opponents "His Rotundity" for his short and stout stature and, occasional contrarian arrogance, and belief that Washington should have served for life. An unrepentant elitist, A committed Federalist who believed in a vigorous national government to curb the "passions" of the unwashed masses and the "excesses and corruptions" of the states (stay laws, for example) and __________ was appalled as well by the French Revolution. President ___________ wisely refused the demands of the Hamiltonian hawks for an outright declaration of war against France Knowing this no war stance might well cost him the 1800 presidential election. __________ epitomized Virtue in this instance by placing the needs of his country well above his own political gain
Framers
As one historian noted, "the well bred, the well-fed, the well-read and the well-wed"•More than 1/3 owned slaves•Many of the delegates had been officers in the Continental Army or occupied important government positions during the War. Not saints but human beings with all their faults, flaws, foibles ,and paradoxes•55 prominent men (average age, early 40s), many of whom held the debts, IOUs and securities of the weak national government, •The face value of these notes had plummeted in value. Most of the delegates shared with returning former Loyalists a strong belief in the "rule of law" and social stability based on deference•And embraced key elements of the Organic View of society articulated by Hobbes in the 17th century•Most viewed the masses with distrust while expecting them to pay their debts in full. They suggested that the inept leaders of the individual states abounded in corruption, licentiousness, and mismanagement.
Republican Motherhood
As subjects of the King of England American colonists had no direct voice in governance beyond the local level•But as a republic, the new nation depended for its success on "virtuous citizens." Mothers in the home were thus vested with a new and critical task of educating their sons•Molding their sons into virtuous citizens •Who placed the good of the nation above their private needs, thus ensuring the success of the young republic
Thomas Jefferson
Believed that republican Virtue was best protected By remaining largely a nation of small, independent landowning farmers (yeomen). As a "strict constructionist" he also objected on the grounds that the new Constitution did not expressly allow the Bank's creation While out of power they favored a tight and narrow understanding of powers granted by the Constitution to the national government" Those who govern least govern best," said __________. Citing republican frugality, saw government debt as dangerous And instead sought to take advantage of the low market value of the government IOU'S To retire the national debt at 1/10 its actual face value. ___________, centered in the southern colonies, saw Hamilton's new tariff as unfair Because it increased prices on imported consumer goods, especially important to SouthernersAnd appeared ominously close to the hated British taxes imposed before the War for Independence
Colonial Jamestown
Colony's location was foolish as it lay near swampy, malarial land not conducive to farming. ____________'s "gentlemen" (aka "gentry") found easy wealth elusive and the settlement a disappointment. They refused to work hard and fell victim to starvation and disease (malaria, typhoid fever, scurvy, dysentery). The initial settlement had an 80% mortality rate. Harsh public punishment was enforced for those demonstrating uncivilized behavior such as theft or cannibalism. In the early years, any deserters who left to join nearby tribes were recaptured and brutally executed. "Going native" was a constant concern, especially given the lifestyle of Indian men who hunted and relaxed, in direct contrast to the harsh labor required to survive at ____________.
New France
Decided instead to create northern settlements in modern day Canada•Although fishing was commercially valuable (Catholicism), fur became the most vital export of ____________. To profit from the Fur Trade and turn a handsome profit undermanned New France did not need large settlements or military conquest of the Indian bands •The 1604 creation of a major fort at Port Royal (right) and the 1608 founding of Quebec were defensive in nature, designed to ward off Dutch and English rivals •And establish key bases from which to forge alliances with surrounding Indian tribes. Converting souls and exporting beaver pelts consumed the colony's efforts, activities that required the cooperation of the local Indians. An alliance the Algonquian were only too happy to offer for two key reasons. Stressed intermarriage to improve alliances.
Aztects
Empire began with their migration into the Valley of Mexico. The ruins of the older civilization of Teotihuacan awed the invaders As they expanded and dominated surrounding tribes a rigidly hierarchical society developed composed of warriors, merchants, priests, common folk, and slaves. Conquered neighbors were forced to pay tribute to the capital: textiles, gold, foodstuffs, and even large numbers of human beings for sacrifice to the gods. The priestly class convinced the secular leaders that mass human sacrifice was the only viable way to stave off the final end of the world as decreed by the gods.
Thomas Paine
English by birth, offered a radical call for democratic egalitarianism that disturbed the American Whig elite as well as the British government•A hat-maker living in the colonies who grew frustrated by the mercantilist restrictions that barred him from plying his trade. Elite Patriot leaders needed the white masses to fight the War, and Paine's stirring words certainly spurred enlistments. Sought an egalitarian democratic republic. Wrote Common Sense: the pamphlet sold more copies than any book in colonial history•Its plain language and biblical imagery (despite Paine's personal deistic philosophy) drew in many ordinary Americans •"We have it in our power to begin the world over again," he thundered. Scathing and unsparing denunciation of monarchy.
Eden Complex
English myth that God had bestowed upon his "chosen people" They sailed across the Atlantic and see green lush forest and think its new garden of Eden and God is on our side think we are God's chosen religion; think things are going to fall into their laps. Europeans "never work with hands" they are gentleman (think wealth is going to tumble effortlessly into their lap).
Lewis and Clark
In a remarkable two and a half year mission the courageous and intrepid members of the expeditionWere guided by a Shoshoni women, Sacajawea, and traversed thousands of miles of unmapped and potentially hostile terrain, without losing a single man(Google: "York"). The president tasked them with four specific goals: 1) explore and map the vast unknown region 2) establish friendly relations with Indian bands 3) speed the opening of a fur trade 4) gather scientific and botanical data.
Townshend Acts
In the hope of creating more successful external taxes to defray the costs of maintaining the empire in North America•Parliament was persuaded to impose levies on glass, lead, paper, tea, and other products imported into the colonies. Merchants and Real Whig supporters in the colonial seaports were again angered, alleging the new taxes threatened their livelihood and liberty as Englishmen•Meanwhile a new cadre of zealous British tax agents arrived in the major colonial seaports to collect _____________'s new import taxes. Boycotts as a form of protest and resistance soon reappeared in the key seaports in the wake of the new taxes •Just as they had during the Stamp Act crisis two years earlier•Merchants who accepted these boycotts were again motivated by a complex blend of self-interest and principle.
Abigail Adams
In the years before the War many urban women had participated actively in the boycotts, protests, and resistance to British actions•Later, during the War, with many men absent fighting, Patriot women faced new wartime responsibilities •Temporary managerial and "public roles" that ended when husbands and fathers returned from the War. A remarkable woman, married to John Adams•She chided her husband with the famous remark, "REMEMBER THE LADIES"•Upbraiding John and all Patriot husbands for demanding rights and independence from England while not extending them to their own wives (property ownership while married). Women in the era who married forfeited all their property to the control and ownership of their husbands•Thus, she asserted that as American men condemned the "tyranny" of King George III they themselves were tyrants in the home•Strongly patriarchal Patriot men failed to notice this anomaly.
executive privilege
Jefferson claimed "_____________" when key presidential documents were subpoenaed by Burr's defense lawyers Who also demanded that the President himself testify at the trial In a bid to expose Jefferson's deep-seated animus against Burr in the case. Marshall ordered Jefferson to testify But the president refused although he did hand over some documents demanded by the Burr defense team. Marshall chose not to pursue Jefferson's refusal to testify, knowing it was a fight he probably could not win, and not wanting to weaken the newfound prestige of the Court. The question of __________ had surfaced in Washington's presidency during the Jay Treaty controversy. The House had requested that Washington turn over executive department documents pertinent to the treaty But he refused to comply, arguing that the Senate alone ratifies treaties, not the House of Representatives. (President claims the right to privacy in the executive branch from the other branches of gov in ____________.)
New England Colonies
Leaders were initially slow to embrace the prospect of planting colonies in the America. Developed around small towns and surrounding family farms•And achieved a thriving mixed economy of agriculture and commerce•While failing over the ensuing century to maintain the Puritan zeal, orthodoxy, and homogeneity that was their original goal. The "middle colonies" (New York and Pennsylvania) were based on a flourishing export economy of cereal crops. Their colonies in the South, and the West Indies, used long growing seasons and a favorable climate to develop plantation economies based on exporting staple crops like sugar. The _____________ colonies with a more widely based system of land ownership developed participatory town meetings and "stake in society" based legislatures•While in the southern colonies political affairs were dominated by a planter elite who self-interestedly controlled the legislature and decision-making within their respective colony.
Localists
Lived mostly in isolated, independent communities that stressed the egalitarianism of the moral economy•Many lived inland well away from the coast and far from trade and commercial routes•Many were indebted farmers and small property owners, many of whom had been militia soldiers or officers during the War. They favored reducing the size and expense of government and resented paying taxes•Most had minimal formal schooling and opposed taxes to fund public schools•Most had little contact or understanding of the wider outside world. Squeezed by the burden of increased taxes many __________ supported debtor relief (stay laws) in their respective states •They also backed inflationary monetary policies: print paper money to make the repayment of their loans easier. feared banks and urban merchants who could win court judgements to seize their assets for non-payment of debts •They viewed both as creditors who threatened their modest stake in society•Few held wartime IOUs (bonds) from either the federal or state governments
Cosmopolitans
Localists leaders clashed with the elite "______________" •Who later favored government by a "natural aristocracy" of rational, educated disinterested men •Men with a deep knowledge of history, politics, and the law should lead the republic, said _____________. Dismissed the masses as a licentious mob of irresponsible provincial bumpkins •While Localists saw the so-called "natural aristocracy" as arrogant, self-interested snobs•Who, if they seized power, would create a new form of tyranny and corruption to oppress ordinary citizens. Were concerned with the lack of a stronger central government, especially in light of the embarrassment of Shays Rebellion•They provided the impetus for a meeting to revise the "weak" Articles of Confederation •In the direction of much more central government power (that could be used to suppress the "anarchy" and "mob rule" within the individual states)
Stamp Act
Mandated that numerous items purchased in the colonies must carry a "stamp" purchased from local "agents" who then extracted a fee from the money collected•Virtually all paper products (wills, birth and death certificates, wedding licenses, newspapers, playing cards, etc.) were included in the tax. It was paid daily in Great Britain by every inhabitant without complaint!!•But colonial proponents of the moral economy viewed the tax as another selfish attempt by the well-to-do to enrich themselves at the expense of ordinary working men. After many protests, Parliament repealed the act
Marbury v. Madison
Marbury, yet another of the midnight appointees by the outgoing Adams administration•Did not receive his official judgeship papers•Drafted literally on the last day, they sat undelivered on the desk of Adams' outgoing Secretary of State. Madison, the new Secretary of State, arrived the next morning for his first day on the job •And refused to deliver Marbury's judicial commission, on orders from President Jefferson•Effectively denying Federalist Marbury his position as a new judge. Marbury then sued, asking the Supreme Court to issue a writ of mandamus (literally, "we order") •To compel the Jefferson administration to deliver his judicial commission •Chief Justice Marshall, by the sheer force of his iron will and personality, then steered the Court in a new and powerful direction. Marshall deftly persuaded the other Supreme Court justices •To rule that the law cited by Marbury's attorneys in their lawsuit, the Judiciary Act of 1789, proved That Congress had granted powers to the Court that exceeded what the Constitution itself had expressly permitted. In an Obiter Dictum (a judicial aside with no legal force behind it, contained in a written legal opinion by a judge) •Marshall said he believed Marbury was entitled to his judgeship•But that the Constitution did not give the Supreme Court power to compel Jefferson to do so. Unlike Marbury and his attorney, Marshall was convinced •The Constitution did not give the Supreme Court the original jurisdiction necessary to issue such writs (orders) •Marshall insisted the Supreme Court instead had only "appellate" jurisdiction.
Louisiana Purchase
Napoleon planned to use the money from the sale of the now superfluous Louisiana area to the shocked Americans To fund renewed European military campaigns against his European enemies, led by the British coalition. Jefferson had dispatched Livingston and Monroe to buy a small tract near New Orleans to create an American port on French soil Because the Spanish, who had retained control of the city even after ceding Louisiana to the French, Refused to re-open the port to US goods flowing down the Mississippi River. The pragmatic Jefferson saw in this opportunity presented by Napoleon something he could not pass up Given his keen desire to lay the groundwork for an agrarian West Inhabited by the white farm families that Jefferson was convinced were the only hope for the future success of the republic. For Jefferson the broad-based equality he sought for citizens Necessitated the acquisition of vast new tracts of land to the west: the "empire of liberty." Such new western lands, he believed, would also draw the restless or downtrodden from loathsome eastern cities. All while also establishing the US as the major power on the North American continent Through the territorial growth of a virtuous nation of yeoman farmers.
Sachems
Native American leaders often the materially poorest members of the community as they used the cultural practice of "gifting" to win the respect and admiration of their people•In direct contrast to the emerging European materialistic mindset that was embraced by the merchants, bankers, and colonizers who sought profits from the "new world"
Mystic River Massacre
New England Indians were shocked and appalled in 1636, for example, by the Puritan destruction and slaughter of the Pequot tribe along this River. Population pressures forced the Puritans to seize the hunting grounds of nearby Indians in order to acquire enough farm land for the growing number of inhabitants•These land seizures were rationalized by the Puritan view that the "savages" were the "sons of Satan" planted by the Devil to thwart the goal of the "city on a hill"
Middle Colonies
New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, developed and sustained a flourishing export economy based on grain crops•These colonies attracted a broad range of European migrant-settlers that bred a social structure with greater cultural, ethnic, and religious diversity and tolerance than in New England
Yorktown
Nowhere was French aid more telling than at the siege of _____________ in 1781• Marquis de Lafayette, General Rochambeau and Admiral de Grasse joined Washington's Continental army to bottle up the British at Yorktown in 1781. Hastening the end the Revolutionary War, and American independence. Forcing a humiliating surrender on the British and paving the way for peace talks and US independence. Forced a humiliating surrender on the British and paving the way for peace talks and US independence.
laboring diligently in a calling
Only God knows, but you still avoid laziness psyche yourself that you could be one of the chosen; lazy are doomed to hell
Disease
The Columbian Exchange, there was an exchange of plants, animals, ___________, and technologies between the Americas and Europe Columbus's voyages. Brought new crops to Europe from the Americas that spurred population growth in Europe. The Europeans however brought ___________ with them, decimating the Native American Population.
Fur Trade
People were in high demand; fashion craze within the rich (big demand in Europe) -hats out of beaver skins etc Native ppl got dragged into proxy wars for European goods had to go far to find animal fur etc and ended up clashing with other natives Indians wanted knives, rakes, iron ploughs, needles and awls, copper cooking kettles, woolen blankets, and weapons from French. Indians are living a stone age life so this is why trade goods are attractive Have to kill animals to get fur in order to trade This was conflicted of their views who saw animals the same as humans opened doors to Iroquias We should seize control of the fur trade
Thomas Jefferson
Philosopher-Statesman Inventor Gentleman Farmer Gifted Writer Diplomat Founder of the University of Virginia Author of the Declaration of Independence Ambassador to France Secretary of State Vice-president President Neo-classical architect: founder of the University of Virginia Conflicted slave owner Sally Hemmings
Royal Land Proclamation
Pontiac's War strengthened the hand of British policy-makers who sought to insure peace (and thus reduce military spending) •By separating King George's red and white subjects, using the Appalachian mountains as a natural buffer (see map, left) in the _____________. Thus minimizing the major source of friction (encroachment on Indian lands) between the colonists and the frontier tribes•And, hopefully, ensuring peace in North American for a war-exhausted and treasury-depleted Britain. Some colonists angered by this Proclamation were thwarted land speculators (deed game) •Who profited from giving liquor to Indian chiefs and fraudulently swindling tribes out of their lands•And then selling these lands to westward moving settlers at a significant profit. With the Proclamation in place these colonial land speculators could no longer buy up Indian lands beyond the Appalachian Mountains
Jonathon Edwards
Preacher of the Great Awakening who emphasized personal religious experience, predestination, and dependence of man upon God and divine grace. The Great Awakening energized his new feelings of self-worth •Leading him to a new skepticism about established dogma and authority •It also exposed fault lines in the colonies over the growing gap between rich and poor, particularly in the major urban seaports. ____________ had a renewed call to place the interests of the community above selfish personal and material gain, especially if the acquisitions of financial assets came at the expense of one's neighbors.
Boston Massacre
Propertied Bostonians welcomed the presence of the troops to keep order and make sure private property was respected. British soldiers were willing to work for low wages in local shops and businesses •Whose owners hired them in order to cut costs, increase profits, and win new business clients. The decision by some Boston businesses to hire the off-duty soldiers undercut the efforts of already struggling local laboring men to gain full employment •The ensuing job competition in Boston triggered deep local resentments against the presence of these outsiders. These mounting tensions exploded in early March, 1770 during a city-wide melee that followed the beating of a British soldier at a rope-making yard where he had inquired about work•Boston was again plunged into near anarchy and against that backdrop an angry crowd gathered around the British guards at the Customs House. Boston protesters at the Customs building taunted and harassed a detachment of British guard troops (crowd action)•Insults and rocks were thrown at the guards as the crowd pressed menacingly in on them. In the noise and confusion one of the British muskets discharged (trigger guard accident?)•The other soldiers then fired a volley into the protestors •Thinking that in the din the order to fire in self-defense had been given by their commanding officer, Captain Preston. The accused soldiers were tried before a Boston jury of propertied men who were alarmed at the chaos and anarchy in the streets.
The Black Legend
Protestant English propaganda: their claim that their rivals, Catholic Spaniards', policies and actions against Indians in the Americans (New Spain) were uniquely vicious and brutal, a grotesque irony that eroded any truth to English claims of moral superiority in colonial America given their involvement in the slave trade, brutality against the Indians, and their more recent brutality against the Irish (whom they deemed feral, inferior, uncivilized).
John Winthrop
Puritan governor of Massachusetts Bay Colony. Speaker of "City upon a hill" (refers to the idea that Puritan colonists emigrating to the New World were part of a special pact with God to create a holy community: a model society to the world/moral commonwealth). Governor of the Puritans, believed he was a righteous and godly man. Placed the needs of the community above those of selfish individuals.
Coercive Acts
Quickly passed by an irate Parliament in the wake of the licentious tea party, the ____________ Acts were soon dubbed the "intolerable acts" by resistance leaders•Closed the port of Boston until reimbursement payment for the destroyed tea had been made to the East India Company. Barred local law courts from trying British troops on criminal charges when suppressing crowds or civil disturbances•Stripped the Massachusetts assembly and governor's council of any real power•Severely constricted local town meetings. Local British military commander General Gage was appointed the new governor of the colony •With one goal: to bring the colony to heel and strangle Massachusetts into submission•More "evidence" to Sam Adams and his supporters of British "corruption and tyranny"
Great Awakening
Religious revival in the American colonies of the eighteenth century during which a number of new Protestant churches were established. Many of the thirteen colonies had an "established" church during the 18th century (least so in Rhode Island, Delaware and Pennsylvania)•A portion of the taxes paid by all citizens in a given colony went to support the established church there•Virtually all of the major elected officials and key political posts in a given colony were occupied by men who belonged to its established church. The primary "establishment" churches in colonial America were 1) Congregationalism, primarily in New England, 2) Anglicanism primarily in the southern colonies and New York •And Pennsylvania Quaker meeting houses although the colony's charter permitted freedom of worship. These established churches were perceived by many in the 1730 as too dull, staid, predictable, and formulaic. Further, the established churches had largely sought to fuse Enlightenment rationalism with their traditional beliefs
Loyalists
Remaining loyal to Britain was a self-interested calculation for the many Americans who were deeply satisfied with their lives as British subjects•They saw no reason for radical political change. Were drawn from all ranks of colonial society, although many whites in their ranks were propertied •They were not the Novus Homo colonists: rather they strongly identified with British culture and institutions and believed strongly in monarchy as the best form of government. Were stripped of their property, farms, businesses, homes, and assets at the end of the War by the victorious rebels
Virginia social structure
Resembles a pyramid With a handful of well-to-do planters at the top, ex-indentures beneath them, and an army of ex-indentures at the base This planter elite of prosperous tobacco growers controlled the political and economic destiny of Virginia The need for cheap, exploitable labor fueled prosperity for some (planter elite) but brutal conditions for others
Halfway Covenant
Seventy years earlier worried New England Puritan parents and grandparents, concerned that their secularizing offspring did not share their strident Providentialism, attempted to stem the tide of secularism. The ____________ was a way, they hoped hoped, to combat religious apathy and lack of godly zeal detected by many ministers•It decreed that any children of full church Puritans were automatically fully accepted as church members as well
Salem Witch Trials
The 1692 ________ witch trials occurred in Essex County, Massachusetts•Witchcraft accusations were made against 144 residents (only 38 of whom were male)•54 confessed to witchcraft (those who "confessed" were seldom tried let alone convicted and executed on the assumption that God had guided them to confess). Voiceless women now found themselves with new authority after admitting they had consorted with Satan. Another factor examined by historians searching to understand the 1692 Salem witchcraft outbreak pivots around the internal problems of the two Salem area communities: Town and Village•Tensions between residents of Salem Village and Salem Town: many of the accusers lived in the Village while many of the accused resided in the Town
Enconmienda System
Spanish colonial leaders rewarded faithful soldiers with feudal land grants in New Spain, harnessed Indian labor to support a plantation-based agricultural economy and extract precious metals and other resources.
Chesapeake indentured servitude
Term for the colonies of Maryland and Virginia, grew prosperous exporting tobacco, a labor-intensive crop initially cultivated by largely male, white _____________. Paupers, vagabonds, petty criminals saw New World as second chance at better life cheap, exploitable labor just above slaves on social pyramid many became landowners with western land grants10% survived their terms to become successful tobacco planters. England gets rid of their homeless problem and petty thieves because they are shipped to Virginia for cheap exploitable labor Dictated that the overwhelming majority of arriving Chesapeake colonists in the 17th century came as _____________ Only about 50% on average of ____________ survived their seven year terms of servitude Disease, the brutal work in a harsh and humid climate, and Indian attacks were largely responsible for the high mortality rate among Chesapeake _____________ Virginia's self-interested planter elite granted frontier land to ____________ who survived their seven year term of servitude The land grants removed unemployed and landless surviving _______________ to the frontier Where they could buffer the colony from the increasingly angry Indians Perhaps 10% of _____________ who survived their terms rose to become successful tobacco planters on the frontier.
Chesapeake Colonies
Term for the colonies of Maryland and Virginia, grew prosperous exporting tobacco, a labor-intensive crop initially cultivated by largely male, white indentured servants
New Spain
Territorially extended from Florida to American Southwest, Mexico, Central and South America. First European settlement was St. Augustine, Florida (Florida became the buffer between British North America and ____________. Settled by the Conquistadors (Spanish adventurers seeking gold, also motivated by Catholic Missionaries). A very dictatorial society (king and Catholic Church had all the power), unlike the French who were in the New World for fur trapping, _____________ made an effort to convert and enslave Indians and convert them to Catholicism. Introduced horses to Native Americans.
Tea Act
The "tea party" was initiated when Parliament sought to bail out the floundering "multinational" British East India Company ("too big to fail")•In a bid to save the company Parliament granted it a monopoly on importing and selling tea in the thirteen colonies •Classic mercantilist tactic: government help to private firms with colonies as pawns. Americans would pay a small tax on imported tea, now monopolized by the East India Company •But have access to less expensive tea, a staple beverage for many colonists. Colonial merchants were furious at this intrusion into their business prerogatives •They and the Real Whigs bitterly denounced the new bailout law
Lifetime
The Constitution granted federal judges ___________ appointments In the hope of securing independence for the judiciary from popular whims and "mob rule." Adams and his followers, genuinely alarmed as they left office in 1801, attempted to stem the Jeffersonian tide by installing ___________ Federalist judges at the last minuteDuring the final weeks of his presidency John Adams filled many federal judgeships with staunch FederalistsWho would presumably check for decades ahead "republican excesses" perpetrated by the "vile" Jeffersonians. "High crimes and misdemeanors," according the the 1787 Constitution, were needed to impeach and remove elected federal officialsJeffersonians insisted these judicial impeachments were not partisan revenge against their Federalist political opponents But were instead justified by the extreme ill conduct of those on trial
New Amsterdam
The Dutch republic also proved remarkably tolerant of other faiths And welcomed scientific and medical investigations, unlike many other European kingdoms that feared the upheaval caused by scientific discoveries The government engaged in little censorship, making Amsterdam a book publishing mecca for freethinkers. Fought a long and bloody war of liberation against Spain that began in 1658 and lasted eighty (80) years•Many had converted to Calvin's brand of Protestantism •And therefore deeply resented being under the control of the Catholic Spanish Hapsburg far to the south. Featured several prosperous important commercial and artisan-based towns, the largest of which was Amsterdam. While some of its leading merchant-citizens, business- minded, imbued with a strong Protestant work ethic, sought profits in global trading. financiers dominated the banking, insurance, and textile trade in Europe• Their privately owned merchant ships and sailors outnumbered everyone else's combined. Tolerant to other faiths, aligned with the Iroquois in an alliance.
Election of 1800
The Federalist lame duck majority delegations in seven states refused to vote for Jefferson (the "anti-Christ" and their main opponent since 1789) And instead threw their support behind Burr as the lesser of two evils, Meanwhile all the eight Jeffersonian states backed their man and refused to budge in the direction of Burr. The Vermont delegation could not decide on either man, leaving each finalist short of the needed nine votes, adding to the mess. The House remained deadlocked for thirty-five hand-wringing ballots spread over a week-long period, At which point it appeared that the widespread predictions of a quick demise for the new American republic were about to come true. Hamilton often disagreed with Jefferson's political positionsBut regarded Burr as dangerously ambitious and duplicitous Because of their many battles and personal disagreements in New York state politics dating back twenty years
XYZ Affair
The French Revolutionary government felt betrayed by the American refusal to back them in the ongoing European war As well as by the US decision to sign a treaty with their enemy Great Britain. A pragmatic President Adams therefore dispatched three diplomats to Paris to negotiate a settlement with the French foreign minister, Talleyrand. Months dragged by with Talleyrand's agents demanding a $250,000 "up-front fee" to begin negotiations with the upstart and feeble Americans (who were refusing to honor their alliance commitment). Congressional Jeffersonians were convinced that Adams was intentionally torpedoing the negotiations in a bid to curry favor with Britain In a contest with the Executive Branch they demanded to see the dispatches being sent back home to the president from France. Adams complied but blacked out the names of the French agents, referring to them instead as "____________." It left the Federalists and, to a lesser degree, the Jeffersonian opposition, internally divided.
General Washington
The delegates of the Second Continental Congress authorized the creation of a "continental army" of 20,000 soldiers •And named the widely admired and respected Virginian ________________ as its commander. Failed to win any pitched battle of major strategic significance (Didn't commit large amounts of troops, just took small L's which also wore down the British and he was able to fend them off long enough till the British caved in). His charismatic leadership of the Continental Army, despite numerous obstacles, helped enable rebel forces to stay active in the field elsewhere
Separation of Powers (Checks and Balances)
The delegates, aware of the necessity of marketing the final product to the skeptical states, had the foresight to spread out the various powers •Between the two houses of Congress, and among the Executive branch, Legislative, and Judicial branches•As well as between the states and the national government. Only the House can impeach elected officials ("high crimes and misdemeanors") •While the impeachment trial is conducted only by the Senate•With the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court presiding (Legislative + Judicial branches). Only the President can ask for a declaration of war, but only Congress, with both Houses voting separately, can grant the request (each by a simple majority vote)•For a bill to become law it must be passed by both houses of Congress and signed by the President •The Supreme Court may later strike down the law as "unconstitutional." The President can "veto" any bill passed by the Congress, but that body may override the veto with a two-thirds vote•Annual budget is proposed by the Executive branch but must be approved by Congress•Amendments to the Constitution only go into effect when ¾ of the separate states have ratified them•Senate can refuse to confirm presidential appointments
Moral Economy
The early modern European view that community needs predominated over competition and profit and that necessary goods should thus be sold at a fair price. (we over me).
Sedition Act
The enthusiastic support for Jefferson (the "anti-Christ") from European exiles (displaced ppl) infuriated the Federalists in the midst of the crisis triggered by the Quasi War. The angry Federalist majority in Congress then retaliated by passing the ___________ In an effort to curb Jeffersonian voting strength, and dissent against their policies. Made it unlawful to publicly criticize the policies and laws being enacted by the Federalists (censorship). Violations were punishable by a fine or imprisonment. Stunned Jeffersonians saw these measures as unconstitutional and an alarming throwback to British "tyranny," as well as a threat to republican liberties. And a dastardly partisan attempt to smother all political opposition to their Federalists opponents. Among the most divisive and bitter moments in American history
Alien Act
The enthusiastic support for Jefferson (the "anti-Christ") from European exiles (displaced ppl) infuriated the Federalists in the midst of the crisis triggered by the Quasi War. The angry Federalist majority in Congress then retaliated by passing the ___________ In an effort to curb Jeffersonian voting strength, and dissent against their policies. Self-interested Federalists passed the ___________ in the hope of weakening and demoralizing the Jeffersonian opposition by reducing the immigrant influx and vote. The new law drastically increased the amount of time an immigrant must wait before becoming a citizen (from five to fourteen years) And allowed President Adams to expel non-citizens deemed "dangerous to the peace and safety of the US"
Columbian Exchange
The exchange of plants, animals, diseases, and technologies between the Americas and Europe Columbus's voyages. Brought new crops to Europe from the Americas that spurred population growth in Europe. Spain's initial imperial successes in turn fueled colonial ambitions from her two main Protestant rivals, England and the Netherlands.
Metacom's War
The fighting was triggered by Plymouth's public execution of three traditionalist Wampanoags. Bloodiest Indian war in New England history: about 1,000 settlers and 3,000 natives died. During the war numerous bands and tribes in New England, weakened by epidemic diseases and divided among themselves because of over-hunting driven by the fur trade, participated in retaliatory raids against the expansionistic English colonists, who had incurred native wrath over several generations by attacking and seizing Indian lands. Sachems (chiefs) relied upon the power of persuasive oratory and gifting to cajole their warriors (autonomous individuals) into a military campaign•This important cultural difference in leadership often confounded European leaders in colonial North America who misread Indian behavior "untrustworthy." Tribesmen, eventually run out of needed gunpowder and musket balls•They were then gradually worn down as patriotic English traders refused to re-supply them, rendering the guns useless
Federalists
The new proposed Constitution stipulated that it would go into effect when nine of the thirteen states had ratified it. The VIP delegates to the Constitutional Convention •Did not want their work put to a direct up or down vote of the individual citizens in each state •For fear it would not win ratification. Acceptance of the proposed Constitution was instead decided in the individual states by special conventions, a major tactical victory by the Nationalists, now termed "____________"•As these state conventions were often stacked with ______________. Were far better organized, determined, and unified than their opponents. Merchants and businessmen ardently supported the new Constitution, as did a good number of urban laborers, artisans, and shopkeepers•Supporters from the "lower orders" did so because of worry over the depressed economy of the post-Revolutionary War era. Southern planters (pro-slavery guarantees) and large commercial farmers (contracts clause) also largely supported ratification. Many of the major leaders of the Revolution also chose the ___________ side
House of Burgesses
The prominent men of the Virginia colony established the _____________•A representative body modeled on the English Parliament and the "stake in society" theory•Its two critical tasks: pass laws and levy taxes•"by the leading men, for the leading men"•Elitist representative government, not democracy in the modern sense. Virginia's ____________ formed the first legislative body in colonial America. Other colonies would follow suit. "Of the planters, by the planters, for the planters" Virginia's government featured an elected representative body, modeled on the English Parliament. This assembly was based on the Stake in Society Theory that allowed all Englishmen with sufficient property and/or land to vote. These propertied voters elected the "substantial and most respected man" in the area to represent their interests (pass laws, levy taxes, etc.)
Yamasee War
The war was fought against the backdrop of the changing demographics of the Carolinas: Angered Local Indians were again driven to action by the seizure of their hunting grounds by land-hungry white planters. In the Carolinas, however, unlike New England, colonial English slave traders bribed Indians with trade goods to capture indigenous rivals to sell as slaves •Geographically, the presence of Catholic Spanish Florida to the south of the Carolinas and French Louisiana to the west added to the colonists' fears, and paralleled the situation in New England (Catholic New France to the north). The ___________ and their Creek and Cherokee allies (right) were worn down by a lack of ammunition as their former Virginia trading partners united against them while siding with fellow white settlers in the Carolinas. Key factor in the eventual peace: the colonists' fear that a devastating Indian defeat would leave vast, empty tracts of western land that might embolden slaves into escape •Similarly, colonial leaders feared driving utterly defeated tribes southward into Spanish Florida or westward into French Louisiana, thus weakening England's position in the complex Game of Empire
Iroquois
They held the key to the balance of power in colonial North America and acted out of self-interest•150 ___________ leaders left the Albany Congress with 30 wagonloads of gifts but no firm commitment to join the British colonists in battle against the French •Sachems need the presents in order to award them to leading men in their towns in order to better persuade them to follow his course of action in the Anglo-French conflict. In the French and Indian War, ___________ leaders strove to persuade their warriors to engage in "active neutrality"•A strategy in which no warriors would be lost in battle while ambassadors to both European sides made the point that, without ongoing gifts and concessions, we Iroquois might well join the other side. Edged toward the British side after a Royal Navy flotilla bottled up the St. Lawrence River, blocking their access to French fur trading posts•Their artful and nuanced diplomacy largely succeeded in advancing their goals in this conflict but failed badly in the American War for Independence a generation later
Jesuit Missionaries
They were the most accepting of Native cultures -- they decided to meet the people halfway by learning language and culture Thought they were "doing savages a favor" by converting them to Christianity They were also tortured by Indians because they were trying to change their ways They liked torture because they thought they were being martyred Jesuit missionaries usually frowned on inter-marriage, but could do little to prevent it, especially on the frontier
Quartering Act
This act passed by Parliament forced colonies to pay the costs of housing and provisioning British troops stationed in North America•British perspective: the troops provided a key a benefit to the colonies as they safeguarded the frontier •And buffered New England in particular from the prickly Indians living to their west and north. Local colonial property owners, however, often profited from housing and provisioning the troops in buildings they owned •With the rent and provisions money coming from increased local taxes on their neighbors. Angered most were disciples of the Moral Economy •Who saw in the ______________ prosperous fellow colonists enriching themselves •At the expense of their struggling neighbors during a time of economic crisis following the French and Indian War. Further, traditional English fears of a "standing army in peacetime" were raised
Virginia Colony
This colony got a charter, or right to organize a settlement granted by the King. Jamestown was the first town in this new colony, first successful settlement in the New World. Tobacco was the main source of income for the colony.
Africans sold into slavery
This early slave trade gradually expanded to become the largest forced migration in human history!! Six of every seven human beings who crossed the Atlantic to the New World in the 300 years before the American Revolution were forcibly removed Africans!! Only about 5% of enslaved Africans were dispatched to the thirteen North American British colonies Slaves to Americas Sugar, cotton, tobaco to Europe Textiles, rum and manufactured goods to Africa Middle Passage Horrific conditions Suicide common Prices of Indentures go up Not as many homeless and criminals in Europe African sold for much less price
Jay Treaty
Treaty in which Britain agreed to evacuate its posts on the US western frontier (1794). The final __________ draft negotiated by John Jay contained a number of vague British promises But was silent on several other important issues: most major points of disagreements remained unresolved. The __________, although ratified by the US Senate, failed to halt impressment or open the British West Indies to US trade goods. After much contentious disagreement from Jeffersonian members and strong support from President Washington The treaty was ratified by the Senate 20-10 (2/3 vote needed for ratification) Those Senators who voted for the treaty did so in the conviction that it was the best that could be obtained given the stark US-British power disparity. Jay's negotiations calmed tensions enough to head off a possible war with England. Hamilton argued that the treaty was a victory for the puny US and its interests under very difficult circumstances. The Federalist "spin" on the treaty focused on the mighty British Empire negotiating a treaty with their former colonists.
Alexander Hamilton
Used the "necessary and proper" clause to justify strong central government action to benefit the new nation. Embraced competitive self-interest as the key to America's economic development (alarming supporters of the moral economy worldview) While tying the self-interest of the wealthy to the development of the new nation. also championed the idea of a "mixed economy" 1) manufacturing, 2) agriculture, and 3) vigorous foreign trade (the latter tied largely to the British orbit). He argued that US economic strength would increase if American entrepreneurs built factories (right) And sold manufactured goods to the nation's citizensInstead of relying on British imported goods. Convinced Washington, the first Realist president regarding foreign policy, that a treaty with Britain was the nation's most rational choice during the French Revolution.
Columbus
Villain 3-1 split Killed millions of Indians in order to get the Indigenous land for Europeans There was a lot of pressure on _________ to produce results (gold) ____________ thought natives were hiding gold but it did not even mean anything to them. ____________ is under pressure and does whatever it takes to get that gold. Post 1960 writers have a negative perspective of ____________ authors before 1960 thought only Europe was superior and see Columbus as a hero
US-French Alliance
Without massive French assistance the Revolution and Patriot Cause would surely have collapsed•Benjamin Franklin (right) brilliantly leveraged the rebel victory at Saratoga under General Gates in 1777 into a formal alliance with France. Franklin persuaded the French that the Patriot victory at Saratoga by General Gates could lead to home rule for the Americans, leaving the British nominally in charge of the thirteen colonies•France's position: if we can't have the region, neither can our British then rivals. Let's use the American rebels to accomplish that by giving them the troops, ships, and material to secure independence. n other words, both sides (Patriot and French) were willing to use the other to bring about their respective goals (quid pro quo)•The rebels wanted independence from Britain while the French want the British out of the region•Franklin well understood that without large-scale French help the Patriot cause stood little chance
Bacon's Rebellion
Virginia Governor Berkley passed laws that ex-indentured frontiersmen found unfair; These frontier landowners felt over-taxed and under-represented by the House of Burgesses. 1676 - _________________ and other western Virginia settlers were angry at Virginia Governor Berkley for trying to appease the Doeg Indians after the Doegs attacked the western settlements. The frontiersmen formed an army, with ____________ as its leader, which defeated the Indians and then marched on Jamestown and burned the city. The rebellion ended suddenly when ____________ died of an illness. -Within a year, royal reinforcements arrived and successfully counter-attacked, crushing the rebels and executing 23 for high treason against the King (Berkeley was a royal governor) -the slave codes that followed the rebellion legally condemned the rising tide of African labor in the Chesapeake to lawful inferior status, defusing class tensions and poor white rebellions --> convincing poor whites (recent rebels), who were the vast majority in the 1670s Chesapeake, that "I may be poor-but I'm white."
Flower Wars
Wars fought by the Aztecs with the sole purpose to gain more sacrificial victims. Many thousands of prisoners were captured and executed, often in Tenochtitlan, the extraordinary Aztec capital. Cortes and his army, now accompanied by Indian allies anxious to throw off the yoke of cruel Aztec rule, marched on Tenochtitlan• Moctezuma (RIGHT), the Aztec ruler, received Cortes with great ceremony, believing he might be the god who had promised to return. Cortes crushed all resistance and toppled the Aztec empire.
Anthony Johnson
Was a black landowner and slave owner, well respected by local whites, who had probably come to the Chesapeake as an indentured servant •The respect Johnson earned from whites suggests that racial bigotry could NOT have been deeply embedded in the Chesapeake in the early to mid 17th century
Popé
Was a charismatic Pueblo shaman who in 1680 led a revolt of his conquered people against a divided Spanish elite in what is today New Mexico•Divisions had widened between a series of colonial royal governors and the local Franciscan missionaries, with each side vying to exploit the Indians' labor. Then sought to persuade the victorious Pueblo to reject Spanish culture and Catholicism, and to return to ancient and traditional tribal rituals, language, and customs•In a manner similar to the shamans of the northeastern tribes who led the traditionalists in their struggle to maintain their culture identity
Alexander Hamilton
Was born in Britain, wealthy patrons funded his education and his move from the Caribbean to New York. He served admirably and courageously as the chief aide to General Washington during the Revolutionary War (the son he never had)•He continued his rise in New York state business and commerce, practicing law and making numerous very profitable investments, •Aided by the members of the "natural aristocracy" to whom he was introduced. A committed nationalist he served as a delegate from New York at the 1787 Constitutional Convention •A staunch Anglophile (lover of all things British)•Who hoped to model an improved American political system on the British approach of "mixed government." He believed the vast bulk of political power should reside with the national government at the expense of the individual states•And that the new chief executive should serve for life and be addressed as "your majesty"
French and Indian War
Was the North American facet of a much larger war in Europe and elsewhere for global hegemony: Seven Years' War•French colonists refused to back down in the face of attempts by their English counterparts to push deeper into the Ohio Valley, an Indian-dominated region claimed by both sides•As in past "colonial wars for empire," the outnumbered French forces counted heavily on Indian allies in their struggles to hold in check the numerically far superior English. Britain, however, was slow to find the appropriate leadership needed to focus on the phase of the war taking place in North America•These efforts were not helped by the catastrophic 1754 defeat of a blundering General Braddock early in the war that induced many Indian groups to side with the French. A victorious English siege at Louisburg in 1758, however, convinced British merchants that the time was ripe to drive the French from Canada and effectively end their influence in North America. Another major factor in the ultimate British victory in the war was the emergence of William Pitt as a strong British leader willing to commit the necessary resources, troops, and warships needed to wear down the numerically smaller French forces in North America.
Stono Rebellion
When twenty slaves from S. Carolina rose up, executed local whites, and attempted to flee south to Spanish Florida•The rebel slaves attacked and burned seven plantations while heading southward to freedom, killing more than twenty whites•While gathering about sixty new recruits ("do you want to live on your knees or die on your feet?") •Within a few days, however, the insurrectionist slaves were found and ambushed by white militia units. New slave codes like the 1740 Negro Act were enacted by the South Carolina legislature •That barred black inhabitants from 1) traveling without a pass, 2) meeting in groups, 3) handling firearms, or 4) attaining an education
Thomas Jefferson
While president, he fought for equal and exact justice for all citizens (befitting an egalitarian republic), An end to unjust political arrests and censorship (repeal of the Sedition Act). Majority rule as opposed to elitist snobbery, Individual autonomy for all citizens (maximum personal freedom). Reduction of federal government spending (shrink the size of the military and reduce US government employees), also tasked his new Secretary of the Treasury, the Swiss financier Albert GallatinTo retire (pay in full) the national debt as soon as possible. ___________'s "containment policy" regarding government overreach or corruption centered on a free press, drawing on the First Amendment Freedom of the press ("I'd rather have newspapers without government than government without newspapers"). believed that journalists protected the citizens from government corruption and tyranny by alerting them to malfeasance in office. Impeachment or ouster by the voters in the next election would then solve the problem and serve as a stern warning to other office-holders tempted to corruption. __________ also oversaw a significant reduction in the size of the army as a frugality measure that would also, he believed, minimize a possible "engine of tyranny"
Burr (Burr Treason Trial)
________, in disgrace for his actions in the presidential election of 1800 and the killing of Hamilton in a duel And therefore dropped by Jefferson in 1804 from further vice-presidential consideration. Now found himself accused of leading a cabal of traitors Who sought to seize for themselves parts of Spanish Florida and nearby areas claimed by the US. His many detractors (both Jeffersonian and Federalist) were convinced that _______ was a vain, cunning, and ambitious megalomaniac. Who was plotting to become the ruler of a new frontier empire _________ claimed he was falsely accused and only sought to lease lands then owned by Spain, not seize them outright. As ________'s treason trial unfolded, presiding Chief Justice Marshall was convinced That mere "intent" was not enough to convict someone of treason. He cited Article III, Section 3 of the Constitution: "overt acts which must be proved by two witnesses."
Puritans
__________ lived in an agony of self-doubt/fear To assume they were among the Elect would make them guilty of the sin of Pride-strong evidence they were among the damned They carefully scrutinized their neighbors for signs of the Devil's presence These signs of the presence and approval of God in their daily lives provided a hint of their possible eternal fate.
Thomas Jefferson
___________ said, the new western lands added under his Louisiana Purchase Would secure the nation's borders against lingering threats by foreign powers like Spain to the south and Britain to the north in Canada. Lastly, he hoped the eventual citizens (yeoman farmers) of the new western states created from the Purchase would vote for Jeffersonian candidates Ensuring that the "right men" voted and held office And that political power was broadened and not just concentrated among an eastern Anglophile elite. Citing the President's treaty making authority under Article II, Section 2, he concluded that the opportunity presented by Napoleon's offer that would double the size of the USJustified temporarily putting aside his long-held principle of limited government and "strict construction" of the Constitution. The "seeds of extinction" for these Indians were therefore sown by President ___________. Removal of the Native peoples to the trans-Mississippi West was deemed the only logical solution. An especially important goal after the unexpected Louisiana Purchase, as ___________'s beloved small farmers needed room to expand.
Hamiltonian
____________ Federalists demanded war against France over the ship seizures and the insult to American honor of the XYZ Affair. They also insisted that the crisis should curtail domestic civil liberties Especially free speech rights enjoyed by their political enemies, the Jeffersonians. They also demanded the creation of a 10,000 man standing army to counter the French threatJeffersonians were thrown on the defensive and could not support the French Because of the ship seizures and France's attempted extortion of $250,000 for opening negotiations with the US (quid pro quo). The Jeffersonians, however, soon regrouped and found renewed purpose by criticizing the Federalist-proposed standing army: Long a fear-inducing topic among many ordinary Americans As well as the "tyrannical" restrictions on civil liberties in peacetime as dire threats to virtuous republicanism and the Bill of Rights
Colonial Quakers
____________ did not believe in the strict rules imposed by the Puritan church. They believed that people could have a direct relation with God, rather than one mediated by a minister. Promoted peaceful relationships with Indians.
slave codes
______________ that severely restricted slave conduct were enacted into law in each of the thirteen colonies in the decades and generations after Bacon's Rebellion•During which a combined poor white-black group of rebels were among the last to surrender to Virginia's authorities, striking fear into the hearts of the colony's elite•Who were vastly outnumbered by the poor and-or black population. No master was legally liable for the death of one of his slaves, for example•Nor was forced sexual activity between a master and a female slave deemed a crime, giving rise to the "black plantation mistress"•Blacks could not be taught to read, use firearms, or testify in court against white residents. Served to systematically de-humanize Africans because of their race, helping to justify African enslavement•And to unite a white population that was deeply divided between a relative handful of prosperous planter elites.
