history final !

"Elastic" Clause

"Necessary and Proper Clause". Article 1 Section 8. Gives congress the authority to use powers not explicitly named in the Constitution, if they are necessary in order to perform its responsibilities as outlined in the Constitution.

Supremacy Clause

14th Amendment underscored this. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States. An article in the United States constitution that specifies that federal laws and treaties made under the authority of the Constitution are the supreme law of the land. Article 5, states cannot interfere with federal law, and that federal law supersedes conflicting state laws. Supreme law is binding on state courts.

Panama Canal

A canal across the narrowest part of Central America that had been discussed for decades. A french company led by Ferdinand de Lessups had failed already. The Hay-Pauncefote Treaty with Britain allowed US access to six mile wide strip of land across Colombia on which to build canal. Construction was difficult until US doctors recognized the role of mosquitos in spreading malaria. The Atlantic side is slightly west of the Pacific. As early as the mid-sixteenth century, interest in a canal across the Central American isthmus began to take root, primarily out of trade interests. The subsequent discovery of gold in California in 1848 further spurred interest in connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, and led to the construction of the _______ Railway, which began operations in 1855. Several attempts by France to construct a canal between 1881 and 1894 failed due to a combination of financial crises and health hazards, including malaria and yellow fever, which led to the deaths of thousands of French workers. The most strategic point for the construction was across the fifty-mile isthmus of _______, which, at the turn of the century, was part of the nation of Colombia. Roosevelt negotiated with the government of Colombia, sometimes threatening to take the project away and build through Nicaragua, until Colombia agreed to a treaty that would grant the United States a lease on the land across _______ in exchange for a payment of $10 million and an additional $250,000 annual rental fee. The matter was far from settled, however. The Colombian people were outraged over the loss of their land to the United States, and saw the payment as far too low. Influenced by the public outcry, the Colombian Senate rejected the treaty and informed Roosevelt there would be no canal. Once the ________ victory was secured, with American support, construction on the canal began in May 1904. For the first year of operations, the United States worked primarily to build adequate housing, cafeterias, warehouses, machine shops, and other elements of infrastructure that previous French efforts had failed to consider. Most importantly, the introduction of fumigation systems and mosquito nets following Dr. Walter Reed's discovery of the role of mosquitoes in the spread of malaria and yellow fever reduced the death rate and restored the fledgling morale among workers and American-born supervisors. At the same time, a new wave of American engineers planned for the construction of the canal. Even though they decided to build a lock-system rather than a sea-level canal, workers still had to excavate over 170 million cubic yards of earth with the use of over one hundred new rail-mounted steam shovels.

imperialism

A policy of extending a country's power and influence through diplomacy or military force. Religious leaders and Progressive reformers joined businesses in their growing interest in American expansion, as both sought to increase the democratic and Christian influences of the United States abroad. Imperialism and Progressivism were compatible in the minds of many reformers who thought the Progressive impulses for democracy at home translated overseas as well. Editors of such magazines as Century, Outlook, and Harper's supported an imperialistic stance as the democratic responsibility of the United States. Americans thought of the Spanish colonial regime in Cuba as a typical example of European imperialism. While American forays into empire building began with military action, the country concurrently grew its scope and influence through other methods as well. In particular, the United States used its economic and industrial capacity to add to its empire. The United States shifted from isolationism to empire building with its involvement—and victory—in the Spanish-American War. But at the same time, the country sought to expand its reach through another powerful tool: its economic clout. The Industrial Revolution gave American businesses an edge in delivering high-quality products at lowered costs, and the pursuit of an "open door" policy with China opened new markets to American goods. This trade agreement allowed the United States to continue to build power through economic advantage.

Andrew Carnegie

A poor Scottish immigrant. He saved and invested shrewdly. Already wealthy when he left the railroad business to enter steel making.He said a man should spend the first third of his life learning as much as possible, the middle third earning as much as possible, and the last third giving it away. He bought up much of Mesabi Range in Minnesota for iron ore.Owned thousands of acres of coal lands. He ran own steamers, railroads, and docks. Controlled every phase of steel-making from mining to marketing. Retained majority ownership of his companies, plowed profits into plant expansion. Located plants near raw materials, river and rail connections. Negotiated special freight rates. Reduced costs, drove down cost of steel. Marketed steel creatively, increased use. Hired Henry Clay Frick, and Charles M Shwab. By 1900, his plants accounted for more than all of Britain's mills combined. Often spoke of the welfare of his workers. Allowed 8 hour work day, payed workers every two weeks, they were more loyal. He used scabs to limit Union influence and reduced wages during recessions. Sold his whole operation to JP Morgan for $480 million, without lawyers. Spent the rest of his life giving away his fortune. Ingratiating himself to his supervisor and future president of the Pennsylvania Railroad, Tom Scott, he worked his way into a position of management for the company and subsequently began to invest some of his earnings, with Scott's guidance. One particular investment, in the booming oil fields of northwest Pennsylvania in 1864, resulted in him earning over $1 million in cash dividends, thus providing him with the capital necessary to pursue his ambition to modernize the iron and steel industries, transforming the United States in the process. His first company was the J. Edgar Thompson Steel Works, and, a decade later, he bought out the newly built Homestead Steel Works from the Pittsburgh Bessemer Steel Company. By the end of the century, his enterprise was running an annual profit in excess of $40 million. Although not a scientific expert in steel, he was an excellent promoter and salesman, able to locate financial backing for his enterprise. He was also shrewd in his calculations on consolidation and expansion, and was able to capitalize on smart business decisions. Always thrifty with the profits he earned, a trait owed to his upbringing, he saved his profits during prosperous times and used them to buy out other steel companies at low prices during the economic recessions of the 1870s and 1890s. He insisted on up-to-date machinery and equipment, and urged the men who worked at and managed his steel mills to constantly think of innovative ways to increase production and reduce cost. Social Darwinism added a layer of pseudoscience to the idea of the self-made man, a desirable thought for all who sought to follow his example. Ultimately, Morgan's most notable investment, and greatest consolidation, was in the steel industry, when he bought him out in 1901. Initially, he was reluctant to sell, but after repeated badgering by Morgan, he named his price: an outrageously inflated sum of $500 million. Morgan agreed without hesitation, and then consolidated his holdings with several smaller steel firms to create the U.S. Steel Corporation. When the union contract was up for renewal in 1892, he—long a champion of living wages for his employees—had left for Scotland and trusted Frick—noted for his strong anti-union stance—to manage the negotiations.

Andrew Johnson

A pro-Union democrat from Tennessee, named Vice President in 1864 and was then President. Hated the radical plan. Vetoed reconstruction acts. Removed cabinet officers sympathetic to Congress, hindered the work of Freedmen's Bureau agents, limited the actions of the military commanders in the South. Did all he could to delay or block implementation of until after the 1868. elections. Sought to restrict presidential powers and established legislative control over the Executive branch. Lincoln's assassination elevated Vice President, a Democrat, to the presidency. He had come from very humble origins. Born into extreme poverty in North Carolina and having never attended school, he was the picture of a self-made man. He was elected to serve in the House of Representatives in the 1840s, became governor of Tennessee the following decade, and then was elected a U.S. senator just a few years before the country descended into war. When Tennessee seceded, he remained loyal to the Union and stayed in the Senate. The nomination of him, a Democrat and a slaveholding southerner, was a pragmatic decision made by concerned Republicans. It was important for them to show that the party supported all loyal men, regardless of their origin or political persuasion. He appeared an ideal choice, because his nomination would bring with it the support of both pro-Southern elements and the War Democrats who rejected the conciliatory stance of the Copperheads, the northern Democrats who opposed the Civil War. In keeping with Lincoln's plan, he desired to quickly reincorporate the South back into the Union on lenient terms and heal the wounds of the nation. This position angered many in his own party. The northern Radical Republican plan for Reconstruction looked to overturn southern society and specifically aimed at ending the plantation system. President quickly disappointed Radical Republicans when he rejected their idea that the federal government could provide voting rights for freed slaves. The initial disagreements between the president and the Radical Republicans over how best to deal with the defeated South set the stage for further conflict. President and Congress's views on Reconstruction grew even further apart as his presidency progressed. Congress repeatedly pushed for greater rights for freed people and a far more thorough reconstruction of the South, while he pushed for leniency and a swifter reintegration. President lacked Lincoln's political skills and instead exhibited a stubbornness and confrontational approach that aggravated an already difficult situation. He, who continued to insist that restoration of the United States had already been accomplished, vetoed the 1866 Civil Rights Act. President called openly for the rejection of the Fourteenth Amendment, a move that drove a further wedge between him and congressional Republicans. He felt that ending slavery went far enough; extending the rights and protections of citizenship to freed people, he believed, went much too far. Republicans gained even greater victories. This was due in large measure to the northern voter opposition that had developed toward President because of the inflexible and overbearing attitude he had exhibited in the White House, as well as his missteps during his 1866 speaking tour. Predictably, President vetoed the Reconstruction Acts, viewing them as both unnecessary and unconstitutional. President's relentless vetoing of congressional measures created a deep rift in Washington, DC, and neither he nor Congress would back down. His prickly personality proved to be a liability, and many people found him grating. He removed Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton, who had aligned himself with the Radical Republicans, without gaining Senate approval. He replaced Stanton with Ulysses S. Grant, but Grant resigned and sided with the Republicans against the president. Many Radical Republicans welcomed this blunder by the president as it allowed them to take action to remove him from office, arguing that he had openly violated the Tenure of Office Act. The House of Representatives quickly drafted a resolution to impeach him, a first in American history. Democrats were in shambles, even though this man, a pro- Union Democrat from Tennessee, had been named vice president in 1864 & was now president. He endured a three month trial in the Senate. Ultimately, he was acquitted by a single vote. Congressional Republicans initially thought he would support their plans. Instead, Johnson stubbornly pursued his own agenda, blanket amnesty for all but the highest ranking Confederates, called for new state constitutions barring slavery, but without input from free Blacks or upper-class whites. His plan was a disaster. Few of the new state constitutions gave blacks even basic rights, much less voting rights, most state governments were dominated by former Confederates, some states even balked at ratifying the 13th Amendment. President urged states to reject the 14th Amendment; all southern states except Tennessee did; Ohio & New Jersey ratified, then tried to rescind their ratification. Unwisely, he also campaigned around the country against Congressional Republicans, & alienated what little support he had left.

Hollywood/ cultural values

A small town north of Los Angeles, California, whose reliable sunshine and cheaper production costs attracted filmmakers and producers starting in the 1910s; by the 1920s, Hollywood was the center of American movie production with five movie studios dominating the industry. The increased prosperity of the 1920s gave many Americans more disposable income to spend on entertainment. As the popularity of "moving pictures" grew in the early part of the decade, "movie palaces," capable of seating thousands, sprang up in major cities. A ticket for a double feature and a live show cost twenty-five cents; for a quarter, Americans could escape from their problems and lose themselves in another era or world. People of all ages attended the movies with far more regularity than today, often going more than once per week. By the end of the decade, weekly movie attendance swelled to ninety million people. The silent movies of the early 1920s gave rise to the first generation of movie stars. Rudolph Valentino, the lothario with the bedroom eyes, and Clara Bow, the "It Girl" with sex appeal, filled the imagination of millions of American moviegoers. However, no star captured the attention of the American viewing public more than Charlie Chaplin. This sad-eyed tramp with a mustache, baggy pants, and a cane was the top box office attraction of his time. In 1927, the world of the silent movie began to wane with the New York release of the first "talkie": The Jazz Singer. The plot of this film, which starred Al Jolson, told a distinctively American story of the 1920s. It follows the life of a Jewish man from his boyhood days of being groomed to be the cantor at the local synagogue to his life as a famous and "Americanized" jazz singer. Both the story and the new sound technology used to present it were popular with audiences around the country. It quickly became a huge hit for Warner Brothers, one of the "big five" motion picture studios here along with Twentieth Century Fox, RKO Pictures, Paramount Pictures, and Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. Southern California in the 1920s, however, had only recently become the center of the American film industry. Film production was originally based in and around New York, where Thomas Edison first debuted the kinetoscope in 1893. But in the 1910s, as major filmmakers like D. W. Griffith looked to escape the cost of Edison's patents on camera equipment, this began to change. When Griffith filmed In Old California (1910), the first movie ever shot here in California, the small town north of Los Angeles was little more than a village. As moviemakers flocked to southern California, not least because of its favorable climate and predictable sunshine, it swelled with moviemaking activity. By the 1920s, the once-sleepy village was home to a majorly profitable innovative industry in the United States. Movies had grown rapidly during the 1920s. By mid-decade movie production had moved here & giant firms dominated the industry. Movies created popular "stars" & attracted viewers across class, regional & generational lines. Hollywood's power to influence social attitudes was not always welcomed in small towns. An English immigrant named Charles Chaplin became one of the biggest stars of all portraying the "Little Tramp". Chaplin & two other big stars, Mary Pickford & Douglas Fairbanks, formed their own studio, known as United Artists. During the 1920s, radio, movies, advertising & mass-circulation magazines contributed toward a national secular culture. Although there were no official movie ratings, it had its own code of morality. Even so, life as depicted in the movies & on radio caused deep unease along Main Street, USA. The emphasis was on consumption, pleasure, upward mobility— & sex. These clashed with traditional values of work, thrift, church, family & home. The movies redefined America's cultural values by emphasizing hard-work, personal freedom, leisure, and consumption but not loosening of personal morality.

Bessemer Process

A way to manufacture steel quickly and cheaply by blasting hot air through melted iron to quickly remove impurities. After the Civil War, two new processes allowed for the creation of furnaces large enough and hot enough to melt the wrought iron needed to produce large quantities of steel at increasingly cheaper prices. The _______ process, named for English inventor Henry ________, and the open-hearth process, changed the way the United States produced steel and, in doing so, led the country into a new industrialized age. As the new material became more available, builders eagerly sought it out, a demand that steel mill owners were happy to supply.

13th Amendment

Abolished slavery in the entire United States. Some states balked at ratifying this. President Lincoln oversaw the passage of this abolishing slavery, but he did not live to see its ratification. The Republican Party made the abolition of slavery a top priority by including issue in its 1864 party platform. Overturned a centuries old practice by permanently abolishing slavery. For the Southern states, the requirements for readmission were to hold individual state conventions where they would repeal the ordinances of secession and ratify this. The members of the Joint Committee on Reconstruction felt that ending slavery with this did not go far enough.

Mutual Assured Destruction

After the 1962 missile crisis, the U.S. adopted this theory: if a country knew it couldn't survive a nuclear war, it wouldn't start one.

Settlement of the US West

After the Civil War, the western frontier was tamed and transformed by a stream, then flood of settlers. Lots of gold and precious metals brought settlers over as well as Manifest Destiny. Land developers, railroad magnates, and other investors capitalized on the notion to encourage this for their own financial benefit. Soon thereafter, the federal government encouraged this inclination as a means to further develop the West during the Civil War, especially at its outset, when concerns over the possible expansion of slavery deeper into western territories was a legitimate fear. Americans were destined—and indeed divinely ordained—to expand democratic institutions throughout the continent. As they spread their culture, thoughts, and customs, they would, in the process, "improve" the lives of the native inhabitants who might otherwise resist Protestant institutions and, more importantly, economic development of the land. Manifest Destiny justified in Americans' minds their right and duty to govern any other groups they encountered during their expansion, as well as absolved them of any questionable tactics they employed in the process. While the commonly held view of the day was of a relatively empty frontier, waiting for the arrival of the settlers who could properly exploit the vast resources for economic gain, the reality was quite different. In addition to legislation designed to facilitate this, the U.S. government assumed an active role on the ground, building numerous forts throughout the West to protect and assist settlers during their migration. Many had served in the Union army in the Civil War and were now organized into six, all- black cavalry and infantry units whose primary duties were to protect settlers from Indian attacks during this, as well as to assist in building the infrastructure required to support this. The U.S. government was prepared, during this era, to deal with tribes that settlers viewed as obstacles to expansion. As settlers sought more land for farming, mining, and cattle ranching, the first strategy employed to deal with the perceived Indian threat was to negotiate settlements to move tribes out of the path of white settlers. Most settlements in the west were based on extractive industries: mining, timber, & (along the coasts) fishing.

Normandy Invasion

Allied forces broke out of this beachhead in July. By late 1944 had swept across northern France. The Soviets were also pushing the German Army steadily back across eastern Europe. December 1944— a weakened but still dangerous Germany struck back. Once free of the _________ hedgerows, Allied forces pushed east to the German border by Dec. 1944. A direct assault on Nazi Germany's "Fortress Europe" was still necessary for final victory. On June 6, 1944, the second front became a reality when Allied forces stormed the beaches of northern France on D-day. Beginning at 6:30 a.m., some twenty-four thousand British, Canadian, and American troops waded ashore along a fifty-mile piece of the coast. Well over a million troops would follow their lead. German forces on the hills and cliffs above shot at them, and once they reached the beach, they encountered barbed wire and land mines. More than ten thousand Allied soldiers were wounded or killed during the assault. Following the establishment of beachheads here, it took months of difficult fighting before Paris was liberated on August 20, 1944.

16th Amendment

Allowed congress to tax incomes in all forms. Gradually eased reliance on tariffs for national revenue. Being progressive, the income tax helped prevent concentration of wealth in the hands of a few. Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes on incomes, from whatever source derived, without apportionment along the several states, and without regard to any census or enumeration.

Initiative, Referendum, Recall

Allowed some percent of voters to "initiate" laws directly onto the ballot or in state legislatures. The percent necessary and the method vary among the states that allow them. Reaction to Progressivism set in as initiatives failed and courts struck down legislation. Another series of reforms pushed forward by progressives that sought to side step the power of special interests in state legislatures and restore the democratic political process were three election innovations- these. The first permitted voters to enact legislation by petitioning to place an idea on a ballot. In 1898, South Dakota became the first state to allow these to appear on a ballot. By 1920, twenty states had adopted the procedure. The second innovation allowed voters to counteract legislation by holding this - that is, putting an existing law on the ballot for voters to either affirm or reject. Currently 24 states allow some form of initiative or referendum. The third element of this direct democracy agenda was the recall. The third permitted citizens to remove a public official from office through a process of petition and vote. In some states votes can pass initiatives directly into law. In others, this meant some laws passed by the legislative would then need final approval by voters. By petition, voters could force an official to stand for re-election at any time.

history

An interpretation of incomplete and/or conflicting records.

Homestead Strike

Andrew Carnegie and Henry Clay Frick tried to break the Union at the __________ steel mills in Pennsylvania. After three months of negotiations over a new wage contract, Frick locked out the workers. The governor of Pennsylvania sent 8000 troops to crush the strike and the Union. After many violent encounters, the strike-breakers prevailed. Carnegie lowered wages and replaced any workers unwilling to take a pay cut. Crushed the labor movement for the next forty years, leaving public opinion of labor strikes lower than ever and workers unprotected. Occurred at this location of the Carnegie Steel Company. Workers represented by the Amalgamated Association of Iron and steel workers enjoyed relatively good managment until Henry C. Frick became factory manager in 1889. When the Union contact was up for renewal, Carnegie - long a champion of living wages for his employees - had left for Scotland and trusted Frick - noted for his strong anti-union stance - to manage the negotiations. When no settlement was reached, Frick ordered a lockout of the workers and hired Pinkerton detectives to protect company property. The Pinkertons arrived on barges on the river, Union workers along the shore engaged them in a gunfight that resulted in the deaths of three Pinkerton's and six workers. One week later, the Pennsylvania militia arrived to escort strike - breakers into the factory to resume production. Ended in Union defeat and individual workers asking for their jobs back. A subsequent failed assassination attempt by anarchist Alexander Berkman on Frick further strengthened public animosity towards the Union.

17th Amendment

Another progressive goal was to make the US Senate more accountable to the people. State legislatures were seen as too easily corrupted. Senate seats could be bought for relatively little. Ratification meant direct, popular election of Senators for the first time. In an effort to achieve a fairer representation of state constituencies in US Congress, they lobbied for approval of this to the US Constitution, which mandated the direct election of US Senators. This replaced the previous system of having state legislatures choose Senators. William Jennings Bryan, the 1896 Democratic presidential candidate who received significant support from the populist party, was among the leading progressives who championed this cause. Gives voters the power to directly elect their senators.

Charles M Sheldon

Author of In His Steps. American Congregationalist minister and leader of the Social Gospel movement. His novel, In His Steps, introduced the principle of "What Would Jesus Do?" which articulated an approach to Christian theology that became popular at the turn of the 20th century and had a revival almost one hundred years later.

Meusse-Argonne

Battle, the biggest operation for the AEF. Killed many Americans, most Americans ever killed in a single battle. By the end of September 1918, over one million U.S. soldiers staged a full offensive into the Argonne Forest. By November—after nearly forty days of intense fighting—the German lines were broken, and their military command reported to German Emperor Kaiser Wilhelm II of the desperate need to end the war and enter into peace negotiations.

Okies

Began heading West in the 1920s and 1930s mostly because they couldn't afford to live on or keep their farms any longer.

Appeasement

British and French leaders in the 1930s adopted this policy because World War I had been so destructive that avoiding another war was top priority, regrets over the harshness of the versailles treaty, and they hoped Hitler, for all his faults, would keep Bolshevism out of Western Europe.

Spanish-American War

By 1898, on the eve of this War, American exports had reached a height of $1.3 billion annually. Imports over the same period also increased substantially, from $238 million in 1865 to $616 million in 1898. Such an increased investment in overseas markets in turn strengthened Americans' interest in foreign affairs. Following five more years of political wrangling, the United States annexed Hawaii in 1898, during this war. This War was the first significant international military conflict for the United States since its war against Mexico in 1846; it came to represent a critical milestone in the country's development as an empire. Ostensibly about the rights of Cuban rebels to fight for freedom from Spain, the war had, for the United States at least, a far greater importance in the country's desire to expand its global reach. This War was notable not only because the United States succeeded in seizing territory from another empire, but also because it caused the global community to recognize that the United States was a formidable military power. In what Secretary of State John Hay called "a splendid little war," the United States significantly altered the balance of world power, just as the twentieth century began to unfold. Despite its name, this War had less to do with the foreign affairs between the United States and ________ than ______ control over Cuba and its possessions in the Far East. Spain had dominated Central and South America since the late fifteenth century. But, by 1890, the only Spanish colonies that had not yet acquired their independence were Cuba and Puerto Rico. On several occasions prior to the war, Cuban independence fighters in the Cuba Libre movement had attempted unsuccessfully to end Spanish control of their lands. In 1895, a similar revolt for independence erupted in Cuba; again, Spanish forces under the command of General Valeriano Weyler repressed the insurrection. Particularly notorious was their policy of re-concentration in which Spanish troops forced rebels from the countryside into military- controlled camps in the cities, where many died from harsh conditions. As with previous uprisings, Americans were largely sympathetic to the Cuban rebels' cause, especially as the Spanish response was notably brutal. Evoking the same rhetoric of independence with which they fought the British during the American Revolution, several people quickly rallied to the Cuban fight for freedom. However, even as sensationalist news stories fanned the public's desire to try out their new navy while supporting freedom, one key figure remained unmoved. President William McKinley, despite commanding a new, powerful navy, also recognized that the new fleet—and soldiers—were untested. Preparing for a reelection bid in 1900, McKinley did not see a potential war with Spain, acknowledged to be the most powerful naval force in the world, as a good bet. McKinley did publicly admonish Spain for its actions against the rebels, and urged Spain to find a peaceful solution in Cuba, but he remained resistant to public pressure for American military intervention. McKinley's reticence to involve the United States changed in February 1898. He had ordered one of the newest navy battleships, the USS Maine, to drop anchor off the coast of Cuba in order to observe the situation, and to prepare to evacuate American citizens from Cuba if necessary. Just days after it arrived, on February 15, an explosion destroyed the Maine, killing over 250 American sailors. Immediately, yellow journalists jumped on the headline that the explosion was the result of a Spanish attack, and that all Americans should rally to war. The newspaper battle cry quickly emerged, "Remember the Maine!" Recent examinations of the evidence of that time have led many historians to conclude that the explosion was likely an accident due to the storage of gun powder close to the very hot boilers. But in 1898, without ready evidence, the newspapers called for a war that would sell papers, and the American public rallied behind the cry. This War lasted approximately ten weeks, and the outcome was clear: The United States triumphed in its goal of helping liberate Cuba from Spanish control. Despite the positive result, the conflict did present significant challenges to the United States military. Although the new navy was powerful, the ships were, as McKinley feared, largely untested. Similarly untested were the American soldiers. The country had fewer than thirty thousand soldiers and sailors, many of whom were unprepared to do battle with a formidable opponent. But volunteers sought to make up the difference. Over one million American men—many lacking a uniform and coming equipped with their own guns—quickly answered McKinley's call for able-bodied men. Nearly ten thousand African American men also volunteered for service, despite the segregated conditions and additional hardships they faced, including violent uprisings at a few American bases before they departed for Cuba. The government, although grateful for the volunteer effort, was still unprepared to feed and supply such a force, and many suffered malnutrition and malaria for their sacrifice. To the surprise of the Spanish forces who saw the conflict as a clear war over Cuba, American military strategists prepared for it as a war for empire. More so than simply the liberation of Cuba and the protection of American interests in the Caribbean, military strategists sought to further Mahan's vision of additional naval bases in the Pacific Ocean, reaching as far as mainland Asia. Such a strategy would also benefit American industrialists who sought to expand their markets into China. Just before leaving his post for volunteer service as a lieutenant colonel in the U.S. cavalry, Assistant Secretary of the Navy Theodore Roosevelt ordered navy ships to attack the Spanish fleet in the Philippines, another island chain under Spanish control. As a result, the first significant military confrontation took place not in Cuba but halfway around the world in the Philippines. Commodore George Dewey led the U.S. Navy in a decisive victory, sinking all of the Spanish ships while taking almost no American losses. Within a month, the U.S. Army landed a force to take the islands from Spain, which it succeeded in doing by mid-August 1899. The victory in Cuba took a little longer. In June, seventeen thousand American troops landed in Cuba. Although they initially met with little Spanish resistance, by early July, fierce battles ensued near the Spanish stronghold in Santiago. Most famously, Theodore Roosevelt led his Rough Riders, an all- volunteer cavalry unit made up of adventure-seeking college graduates, and veterans and cowboys from the Southwest, in a charge up Kettle Hill, next to San Juan Hill, which resulted in American forces surrounding Santiago. The victories of the Rough Riders are the best known part of the battles, but in fact, several African American regiments, made up of veteran soldiers, were instrumental to their success. The Spanish fleet made a last-ditch effort to escape to the sea but ran into an American naval blockade that resulted in total destruction, with every Spanish vessel sunk. Lacking any naval support, Spain quickly lost control of Puerto Rico as well, offering virtually no resistance to advancing American forces. By the end of July, the fighting had ended and the war was over. Despite its short duration and limited number of casualties—fewer than 350 soldiers died in combat, about 1,600 were wounded, while almost 3,000 men died from disease—the war carried enormous significance for Americans who celebrated the victory as a reconciliation between North and South.

sweatshops

Most working class Americans labored long hours on dangerous factory floors, in this or steamy basement kitchens for meager wages. Workers here were payed by the piece and encouraged to compete with each other. Workdays were usually 10-12 hours a day, 5 days a week. Workers were separated into small groups often by ethnicity to prevent solidarity and labor organizing.

boom towns

California Gold Rush was the period between 1848 and 1849 when prospectors found large strikes of gold in California, leading others to rush in and follow suit; this period led to a cycle of this through the area, as gold was discovered, mined, and stripped. Most gold & silver rushes led to these settlements that disappeared as quickly as the strike played out. The western U.S. is dotted with ghost towns that were once considered up- and-coming communities.

Social Darwinism

Carnegie's famous essay, The Gospel of Wealth, featured below, expounded on his beliefs. In it, he borrowed from Herbert Spencer's theory of this, which held that society developed much like plant or animal life through a process of evolution in which the most fit and capable enjoyed the greatest material and social success. Social Darwinism added a layer of pseudoscience to the idea of the self-made man, a desirable thought for all who sought to follow Carnegie's example. The myth of the rags-to-riches businessman was a potent one. Herbert Spencer's theory, based upon Charles Darwin's scientific theory, which held that society developed much like plant or animal life through a process of evolution in which the most fit and capable enjoyed the greatest material and social success. Political philosopher Herbert Spencer took Darwin's theory of evolution further, coining the actual phrase "survival of the fittest," and later helping to popularize the phrase __________ to posit that society evolved much like a natural organism, wherein some individuals will succeed due to racially and ethnically inherent traits, and their ability to adapt. This model allowed that a collection of traits and skills, which could include intelligence, inherited wealth, and so on, mixed with the ability to adapt, would let all Americans rise or fall of their own accord, so long as the road to success was accessible to all. William Graham Sumner, a sociologist at Yale, became the most vocal proponent of this. Not surprisingly, this ideology, which Darwin himself would have rejected as a gross misreading of his scientific discoveries, drew great praise from those who made their wealth at this time. They saw their success as proof of biological fitness, although critics of this theory were quick to point out that those who did not succeed often did not have the same opportunities or equal playing field that the ideology of this purported. Eventually, the concept fell into disrepute in the 1930s and 1940s, as eugenicists began to utilize it in conjunction with their racial theories of genetic superiority.

19th Amendment

Charlotte Perkins Gilman called domesticity an obsolete value for American women. Margaret Sanger led the movement to provide birth control to the poor. Suffragists urged that women be given the right to vote, which came nationally with this. By 1900, some Western frontier states had already responded to women's movements with the right to vote in state and local elections, regardless of gender. They conceded to the suffragists demands, partly in order to attract more women to these male-dominated regions. But women's lives in the West also rarely fit with the nineteenth-century ideology of "separate spheres" that had legitimized the exclusion of women from the rough and tumble party competitions of public politics. In 1890, the National American Women's Suffrage Association organized several hundred state and local chapters to urge the passage of a federal amendment to guarantee a woman's right to vote. Catt and Paul's combined efforts brought enough pressure to bear for Congress to pass this, which prohibited voter discrimination on the bases of sex, during a special session in the summer of 1919. Subsequently., the required thirty-six states approved it's adoption, with Tennessee doing so in August of 1920, in time for that years presidential election. The right of citizens to vote shall not be denied on account of sex.

Allied strategy in WWII

China, France, US, Britain, and Soviet Union. Although the League of Nations formally protested Japan's seizure of Chinese territory in 1931 and 1932, it did nothing else. In 1937, a clash between Japanese and Chinese troops, known as the Marco Polo Bridge Incident, led to a full-scale invasion of China by the Japanese. By the end of the year, the Chinese had suffered some serious defeats. In Nanjing, then called Nanking by Westerners, Japanese soldiers systematically raped Chinese women and massacred hundreds of thousands of civilians, leading to international outcry. African American singer and dancer Josephine Baker entertained Allied troops in North Africa and also carried secret messages for the French Resistance. Although the Allied campaign secured control of the southern Mediterranean and preserved Egypt and the Suez Canal for the British, Stalin and the Soviets were still engaging hundreds of German divisions in bitter struggles at Stalingrad and Leningrad. The invasion of North Africa did nothing to draw German troops away from the Soviet Union. An invasion of Europe by way of Italy, which is what the British and American campaign in North Africa laid the ground for, pulled a few German divisions away from their Russian targets. But while Stalin urged his allies to invade France, British and American troops pursued the defeat of Mussolini's Italy. This choice greatly frustrated Stalin, who felt that British interests were taking precedence over the agony that the Soviet Union was enduring at the hands of the invading German army. However, Churchill saw Italy as the vulnerable underbelly of Europe and believed that Italian support for Mussolini was waning, suggesting that victory there might be relatively easy. Moreover, Churchill pointed out that if Italy were taken out of the war, then the Allies would control the Mediterranean, offering the Allies easier shipping access to both the Soviet Union and the British Far Eastern colonies. A direct assault on Nazi Germany's "Fortress Europe" was still necessary for final victory. On June 6, 1944, the second front became a reality when Allied forces stormed the beaches of northern France on D-day. Beginning at 6:30 a.m., some twenty-four thousand British, Canadian, and American troops waded ashore along a fifty-mile piece of the Normandy coast. Well over a million troops would follow their lead. German forces on the hills and cliffs above shot at them, and once they reached the beach, they encountered barbed wire and land mines. More than ten thousand Allied soldiers were wounded or killed during the assault. Following the establishment of beachheads at Normandy, it took months of difficult fighting before Paris was liberated on August 20, 1944. The invasion did succeed in diverting German forces from the eastern front to the western front, relieving some of the pressure on Stalin's troops. Japanese forces won a series of early victories against Allied forces from December 1941 to May 1942. They seized Guam and Wake Island from the United States, and streamed through Malaysia and Thailand into the Philippines and through the Dutch East Indies. By February 1942, they were threatening Australia. The Allies turned the tide in May and June 1942, at the Battle of Coral Sea and the Battle of Midway. The Battle of Midway witnessed the first Japanese naval defeat since the nineteenth century. Shortly after the American victory, U.S. forces invaded Guadalcanal and New Guinea. Slowly, throughout 1943, the United States engaged in a campaign of "island hopping," gradually moving across the Pacific to Japan. In 1944, the United States, seized Saipan and won the Battle of the Philippine Sea. Progressively, American forces drew closer to the strategically important targets of Iwo Jima and Okinawa. Despite the Allies' Europe First strategy, American forces took the resources that they could assemble and swung into action as quickly as they could to blunt the Japanese advance. Infuriated by stories of defeat at the hands of the allegedly racially inferior Japanese, many high-ranking American military leaders demanded that greater attention be paid to the Pacific campaign. Rather than simply wait for the invasion of France to begin, naval and army officers such as General Douglas MacArthur argued that American resources should be deployed in the Pacific to reclaim territory seized by Japan. In the Pacific, MacArthur and the Allied forces pursued an island hopping strategy that bypassed certain island strongholds held by the Japanese that were of little or no strategic value. By seizing locations from which Japanese communications and transportation routes could be disrupted or destroyed, the Allies advanced towards Japan without engaging the thousands of Japanese stationed on garrisoned islands. The goal was to advance American air strength close enough to Japan proper to achieve air superiority over the home islands; the nation could then be bombed into submission or at least weakened in preparation for an amphibious assault. After Pearl Harbor, as American military strategists began to plan counterattacks and campaigns against the Axis powers, California became a training ground. Troops trained there for tank warfare and amphibious assaults as well as desert campaigns—since the first assault against the Axis powers was planned for North Africa. Despite the fact that a Japanese attack in the Pacific was the tripwire for America's entrance into the war, Roosevelt had been concerned about Great Britain since the beginning of the Battle of Britain. Roosevelt viewed Germany as the greater threat to freedom. Hence, he leaned towards a "Europe First" strategy, even before the United States became an active belligerent. That meant that the United States would concentrate the majority of its resources and energies in achieving a victory over Germany first and then focus on defeating Japan. Through a series of wartime conferences, Roosevelt and the other global leaders sought to come up with a strategy to both defeat the Germans and bolster relationships among allies. In January 1943, at Casablanca, Morocco, Churchill convinced Roosevelt to delay an invasion of France in favor of an invasion of Sicily.

Central Powers

Consisted of Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy (for a bit), Ottoman Empire, Bulgaria. Called the Triple Alliance before the war. Started crumbling in 1918. Morale among soldiers was low and dropping fast. Rumors of planned suicide attack on the British High Seas fleet led German sailors to mutiny. Austria-Hungary later surrendered.

vertical integration

Controlling raw materials, transport, manufacturing, and sales. Carnegie was known for this. The oil industry grew this way by acquiring oil leases, oil wells, pipelines, advantageous contracts with railroads and eventually even retail stores. Seeking still more control, Rockefeller recognized the advantages of controlling the transportation of his product. He next began to grow his company through this, wherein a company handles all aspects of a product's lifecycle, from the creation of raw materials through the production process to the delivery of the final product. In Rockefeller's case, this model required investment and acquisition of companies involved in everything from barrel-making to pipelines, tanker cars to railroads. He came to own almost every type of business and used his vast power to drive competitors from the market through intense price wars. Although vilified by competitors who suffered from his takeovers and considered him to be no better than a robber baron, several observers lauded Rockefeller for his ingenuity in integrating the oil refining industry and, as a result, lowering kerosene prices by as much as 80 percent by the end of the century. Other industrialists quickly followed suit, including Gustavus Swift, who used this to dominate the U.S. meatpacking industry in the late nineteenth century. A method of growth where a company acquires other companies that include all aspects of a product's lifecycle from the creation of the raw materials through the production process to the delivery of the final product.

carpetbaggers

Despite the great variety in Klan membership, on the whole, the group tended to direct its attention toward persecuting freed people and people they considered this, a term of abuse applied to northerners accused of having come to the South to acquire wealth through political power at the expense of southerners. The colorful term captured the disdain of southerners for these people, reflecting the common assumption that these men, sensing great opportunity, packed up all their worldly possessions in carpetbags, a then-popular type of luggage, and made their way to the South. Implied in this definition is the notion that these men came from little and were thus shiftless wanderers motivated only by the desire for quick money. In reality, these northerners tended to be young, idealistic, often well-educated men who responded to northern campaigns urging them to lead the modernization of the South. But the image of them as swindlers taking advantage of the South at its time of need resonated with a white southern population aggrieved by loss and economic decline. The Klan seized on the pervasive but largely fictional narrative of the northern of these as a powerful tool for restoring white supremacy and overturning Republican state governments in the South. Northerners who came south for profit or piety. Inexpensive luggage was often made of carpet remnants. Southerners called northerners who came south this implying they were cheap opportunists.

Henry Ford

Much of the growth in the suburbs was thanks to an emerging automobile society. He was a deeply weird man. Anti-semitic but unusually race-blind for the time. He adapted the assembly line and inter-changeable parts to auto production. He thought his employees should be able to afford to buy the cars they produced. He offered minimum wage of $5 per day- for workers of any race. This was almost twice the national average for factory workers and helped ensure a dependable workforce, since the work was repetitious and numbing. His model T set the standard when it was first made and sold by the millions. But he ruthlessly pressured dealers and used them to solve his financial difficulties. Used spies one the assembly like and fired workers and executives at the least provocation. If a line shut down, workers were released without pay. By late 20s, his refusal to make major changes put the model T at a major disadvantage behind other sleeker, more modern cars. His wages dropped below the industry average. In 1927, he introduced the Model A and built the gigantic Rouge River plant to mass produce it. It helped, but more customers turned to General Motor's more stylish products. He did not invent the automobile - the Duryea brothers with Gotlieb W. Daimler and Karl Friedrich Benz did. Made car ownership a real possibility for a large share of the population. As prices dropped, more and more people could afford their own car. The assembly line helped him reduce labor costs within the production process by moving the product from one team of workers to the next, each of them completing a step so simple they had to be no smarter than an ox. His reliance on the moving assembly line, scientific managment, and time-motion studies added to his emphasis on efficiency over craftsmanship. Seeking his equal wages, many African Americans from the South moved to Detroit and other large northern cities to work in factories. Didn't allow his workers to unionize, and the boring, repetitive nature of the assembly line work generated a high turnover rate.

Implied Powers

Political powers granted to the US Government that aren't explicitly stated in the Constitution. The Government assumes the Constitution affords them these powers based on prior decisions related to them, which established precedent.

Free Exercise Clause

Prohibits Congress from making any law prohibiting the free exercise of religion.

14th Amendment

Ensured that all citizens of all states enjoyed not only rights on the federal level, but on the state level, too. It removed the three-fifths counting of slaves in the census. It ensured that the United States would not pay the debts of rebellious states. It also had several measures designed to ensure the loyalty of legislators who participated on the Confederate side of the Civil War. It gave citizens equal protection under both the state and federal law, overturning the Dred Scott decision. Put a definition of US citizenship in the constitution. Underscored the supremacy clause. Applied the Bill of Rights to states and ensured equal protection under the law. Section 2 reduced Congressional representation of any state denying black suffrage. Section 3 barred Confederate leaders from national or state offices. Sect. 4 affirmed the U.S. debt while denying any claims by former slave holders or debts incurred by the Confederate "insurrection". It eliminated the three-fifths compromise of the 1787 Constitution, whereby slaves had been counted as three-fifths of a free white person, and it reduced the number of House representatives and Electoral College electors for any state that denied suffrage to any adult male inhabitant, black or white. This also answered the question of debts arising from the Civil War by specifying that all debts incurred by fighting to defeat the Confederacy would be honored. Any state that ratified this would automatically be readmitted. Yet, all former Confederate states refused to ratify the amendment in 1866. President Johnson called openly for the rejection of this, a move that drove a further wedge between him and congressional Republicans. Only after new state constitutions had been written and states had ratified this could these states rejoin the Union. When Republicans had passed this, which addressed citizenship rights and equal protections, they were unable to explicitly ban states from withholding the franchise based on race. The Supreme Court had also undercut the letter and the spirit of this by interpreting it as affording freed people only limited federal protection from the Klan and other terror groups. Fed up with southern intransigence & fearful of the south's potential political resurgence, Radical Republicans took charge in early 1866 and proposed this. President Johnson urged states to reject this; all southern states except Tennessee did; Ohio & New Jersey ratified, then tried to rescind their ratification

15th Amendment

Ensures that race cannot be used as a factor in who gets to vote. Despite progress in the south, few northern states were interested in allowing Blacks to vote. Congress also concerned about southern terrorists. To guarantee Black political gains, Congress proposed this guaranteeing universal male suffrage.

Federal Reserve Act of 1913

Established the _________ ___________ System as the central bank of the United States to provide the nation with a safer, more flexible, and more stable monetary and financial system. The _______ ________ followed a brief postwar recession in 1920-1921 with a policy of setting interest rates artificially low, as well as easing the reserve requirements on the nation's biggest banks. Many banks failed due to their dwindling cash reserves. This was part due to this lowering the limits of cash reserves that banks were traditionally required to hold in their vaults, as well as the fact that many banks invested in the stock market themselves. A partial reason for the collapse of the stock market was the _________ _________ questionable policies and misguided banking practices. Encouraged by Hoover to raise the discount rate to make it more costly for local banks to lend money to potential speculators. Banking Act of 1935 was the most far-reaching revision of banking laws since the creation of the _________ __________ System in 1914. Previously, regional reserve banks had dominated policy-making at the ________ _________. Historians continue to debate the causes of this recession within a depression. Some believe the fear of increased taxes forced factory owners to curtail planned expansion; others blame the _______ ________ for tightening the nation's money supply.

Marshall Plan

European Recovery Program(1947)—known as this. Western European nations were given ~$13 billion to rebuild their economies & encourage them to stay in the western capitalist fold. Aid was offered to the Soviet Union, which declined. By 1946, the American economy was growing significantly. At the same time, the economic situation in Europe was disastrous. The war had turned much of Western Europe into a battlefield, and the rebuilding of factories, public transportation systems, and power stations progressed exceedingly slowly. Starvation loomed as a real possibility for many. As a result of these conditions, Communism was making significant inroads in both Italy and France. These concerns led Truman, along with Secretary of State George C. Marshall, to propose to Congress the European Recovery Program, popularly known as this. Between its implantation in April 1948 and its termination in 1951, this program gave $13 billion in economic aid to European nations. Truman's motivation was economic and political, as well as humanitarian. The plan stipulated that the European nations had to work together in order to receive aid, thus enforcing unity through enticement, while seeking to undercut the political popularity of French and Italian Communists and dissuading moderates from forming coalition governments with them. Likewise, much of the money had to be spent on American goods, boosting the postwar economy of the United States as well as the American cultural presence in Europe. Stalin regarded the program as a form of bribery. The Soviet Union refused to accept aid from this, even though it could have done so, and forbade the Communist states of Eastern Europe to accept U.S. funds as well. Those states that did accept aid began to experience an economic recovery.

Roosevelt Corollary

Extended the Monroe Doctrine. Claimed US could prevent European meddling in Western hemisphere- but US could meddle if it wanted to. Formalized policy already deployed against Cuba and Puerto Rico. Also led to a US intervention in Venezuela and Dominican Republic.

Battle of the Coral Sea

First air-sea battle in history with carrier based planes in lead role. Opposing ships never saw each other. Japan was threatening Australia. The Allies turned the tide in May and June 1942, at this battle and the Battle of Midway.

Freedmen's Bureau

Freed people everywhere celebrated the end of slavery and immediately began to take steps to improve their own condition by seeking what had long been denied to them: land, financial security, education, and the ability to participate in the political process. They wanted to be reunited with family members, grasp the opportunity to make their own independent living, and exercise their right to have a say in their own government. Recognizing the widespread devastation in the South and the dire situation of freed people, Congress created this. Lincoln had approved of the bureau, giving it a charter for one year. This engaged in many initiatives to ease the transition from slavery to freedom. It delivered food to blacks and whites alike in the South. It helped freed people gain labor contracts, a significant step in the creation of wage labor in place of slavery. It helped reunite families of freedmen, and it also devoted much energy to education, establishing scores of public schools where freed people and poor whites could receive both elementary and higher education. Respected institutions such as Fisk University, Hampton University, and Dillard University are part of the legacy of this. The schools that this established inspired great dismay and resentment among the white populations in the South and were sometimes targets of violence. Indeed, its' programs and its very existence were sources of controversy. Racists and others who resisted this type of federal government activism denounced it as both a waste of federal money and a foolish effort that encouraged laziness among blacks. Congress renewed it's charter in 1866, but President Johnson, who steadfastly believed that the work of restoring the Union had been completed, vetoed the re- chartering. Radical Republicans continued to support it, igniting a contest between Congress and the president that intensified during the next several years. Congress extended the life of this to combat the black codes and in April 1866 passed the first Civil Rights Act, which established the citizenship of African Americans. This provided additional cause for such hopes by directing that leases and titles to lands in the South be made available to former slaves. It wasn't uncommon for Klan members to intimidate Union League members and these workers. Created due to 4,000,000 homeless, under- or unemployed and mostly illiterate former slaves. 1865. Intended to help former slaves establish themselves. Most agents were Union army officers, more interested in maintaining social order than social transformation. Was bitterly resented and hated by the latter. Controlled less than 1% of Southern land. Issued emergency food, clothing, shelter, established medical and hospital facilities. Provided funds to relocate free people. Helped blacks search for relatives and get married. Represented blacks in local civil courts. Helped African Americans find work. Established schools, 1870. Freedmen's schools reached about 12% of school-aged black children. Within two years the agency had 20 million rations, reunited and resettled 30,000 people, treated 45,000 for illness and injury. Built 40 hospitals and more than 40,000 schools.

First Battle of the Marne

French general Joseph Joffre, known as "Papa Joffre" led the Germans into a trap by initially retreating. British and French forces launched counter offensives along the river. Germany's momentum stalled and the Schliemann plan failed. Most important battle of the war. Planned as a war of speed and mobility, the western front bagged down into four year of near total stagnation. Changed expectations of the wars length. After, both sides sought to outflank each other in the race to the sea. American forces alongside the British and French armies succeeded in repelling the German offensive.

impeachment and conviction

In these proceedings, the House of Representatives serves as the prosecution and the Senate acts as judge, deciding whether the president should be removed from office. The House brought eleven counts against Johnson, all alleging his encroachment on the powers of Congress. In the Senate, Johnson barely survived. Seven Republicans joined the Democrats and independents to support acquittal; the final vote was 35 to 19, one vote short of the required two-thirds majority. The Radicals then dropped this effort, but the events had effectively silenced President Johnson, and Radical Republicans continued with their plan to reconstruct the South. Congress passed the Tenure of Office Act. When Johnson "violated" it by trying to remove Sec. of War Stanton, the Radicals did this to him. Impeachment hurt the Radicals, as they came across as mostly interested in political posturing. Section 4 of Article 2 briefly talks of this.

Pullman Strike

George _________ name meant luxury for those who could afford it. These tain cars were the first class of the day. Built a whole town to house workers. The company cut wages by 35%. He refused to arbitrate in June, Debs led the ARU in a sympathy strike. Orders to use no violence and stop no trains. ARU members simply refused to connect his cars to any train. This effectively stopped most lines since they all used his cars. The strike spread and the General Management Association came to his support. Hired strikebreakers, appealed to state and federal governments for military and judicial support. US attorney general obtained a court injunction declaring the strike to be a conspiracy in restraint of trade. President Cleveland ordered federal troops to crush the strikes. Violence escalated, the strike collapsed. Debs became a socialist and the ARU was dead. The Supreme Court decision in re: Debs upheld the legality of using an injunction to stop a strike. Crushed the labor movement for the next forty years leaving public opinion of labor strikes lower than ever and workers unprotected. Began in the company town in Illinois, where ________ "sleeper" cars were manufactured for America's railroads. When the depression of 1893 unfolded in the wake of the failure of several northeastern railroad companies, mostly due to over construction and poor financing, company owner George Pullman fired three thousand of the factory's six thousand employees, cut the remaining wages by an average of 25 percent and then continued to charge the same high rents and prices in the company homes and store where workers were required to live and shop. Workers began the strike on May 11, when Eugene V Debs, the president of the American Railway Union, ordered rail workers throughout the country in this category to strike. The strike created a nationwide train stoppage, right on the heels of the depression in 1893. Seeking justification for sending federal troops, President Grover Cleveland turned to his attorney general, who came up with a solution: attach a mail car to every train and then send in troops to ensure the delivery of the mail. The government also ordered the strike to end; when Debs refused, he was arrested and imprisoned for his interference with the delivery of US mail. The troops protected the hiring of new workers, thus rendering the strike tactic largely ineffective. The strike ended abruptly on July 13, with no labor gains and much lost in the way of public opinion.

Delegated Powers

Government powers specifically outlined in the US Constitution. These powers limit what Congress can do, and also define what congress is in charge of regulating. They are those authorities that the constitutional framers deemed worthy of congressional effort and which the framers believed would not limit seasonal freedoms and individuals.

John T. Scopes

High school teacher that was accused of violating a state law which barred teaching, at any state-funded establishment. Trial quickly became a circus, a cause to celebrate which pitted modernists who accepted the views of Charles Darwin and most scientists vs evangelical Christian fundamentalists who believed in the literal reading of the bible. Clarence Darrow: hired by the American Civil Liberties Union as attorney for the defense. Despite Darrow's humiliation of Bryan on the witness stand, the jury found this guy guilty. Darrow's questioning of Bryan took place with the jury out of the room and the judge ruled it irrelevant. In the 1950s a popular play called Inherit the Wind was based on this trial. The ACLU enlisted this teacher and coach who suggested that he may have taught evolution while substituting for an ill biology teacher. Town leaders in Dayton, Tennessee, sensed an opportunity to promote their town, which had lost more than one-third of its population, and welcomed the ACLU to a state case against the Butler Act. The ACLU and the town got their wish as the ________ Monkey Trial. The outcome of the trial, in which he was found guilty and fined $100, was never really in question, as the man himself had confessed to violating the law.

Battle of the Bulge

Hitler noticed a weak spot in the advancing allied lines in France. Throwing the dice, Hitler decided to direct several dozen divisions, supported by Panzer tanks, on this area. The German buildup was hidden in the snow- covered this forest near the small village of Bastogne. In the Ardennes Forest.

Bonus Army

Hoover sent cavalry and tanks to eject them from Washington. Mistreatment of veterans shocked the nation and contributed to Hoovers defeat in 1932. One of the most notable protest movements and occurred toward the end of Hoover's presidency. In this protest, approximately fifteen thousand World War 1 veterans marched on Washington to demand early payment of their veteran bonuses, which were not due to be paid until 1945. The group camped out in vacant federal buildings and set up camps in Anacostia Flats near the Capitol building.

new immigrants

Immigrants who came to the United States during and after the 1880s; most were from southern and eastern Europe. Beginning at the end of the nineteenth century, immigration into the United States rocketed to never- before-seen heights. Many of these were coming from eastern and southern Europe and, for many English-speaking, native-born Americans of northern European descent, the growing diversity of new languages, customs, and religions triggered anxiety and racial animosity. Mostly from Eastern and Southern Europe: darker complexions, Catholic or Jewish. 40 million immigrants came to the US. 75% coming in the last quarter of the century stayed in the northeast. Many of the rest settled in cities across the country and soon outnumbered native-born whites. Italian Catholics were most numerous, followed y Eastern European Jews and then Slavs. Influx of immigrants the result of many factors: economic opportunity was the biggest draw, dissatisfaction with life at home, government policies pushed some to leave, efforts to modernize European economies, religious or ethnic intolerance. Cheaper, faster, and better transportation enabled migration. As the first immigrants settled in, found jobs and started businesses, they encouraged family back home to make the journey. Wanted to Americanize these types of immigrants.

old immigrants

Immigrants who had come to the US before the 1880s from Britain, Germany, Ireland, and Scandenavia, or Northern Europe. 75% came from the British Isles, Germany and Scandinavia. The people who used to immigrate to the US more than others.

Acquisition of the Philippines

Imperialist sentiment in Congress & across nation fueled by "jingoism". War began in April, ended in August. U.S. victory complete, not just in Cuba, but in Puerto Rico and here. Won due to U.S. naval supremacy. Racism prevented U.S. forces from working well with Cuban rebels. In the Pacific, the U.S. fleet under Admiral Dewey destroyed the Spanish fleet in a couple of hours. Dewey cabled asking for troops to aid rebels under Emilio. Aguinaldo. 11,000 troops sent, & U.S./______ forces took Manila— one day after Spain surrendered. Aguinaldo insisted on freedom for the them & the US stalled. Spain demanded return of the islands. In final treaty, Spain surrendered the islands in exchange for $20 million. The Treaty of Paris proposed acquisition of the islands and it aroused opposition in Spain and there. Acquisition of the islands embroiled U.S. in a long, brutal war to subdue the Filipino rebels. The U.S. used many of the same tactics it had criticized Spain for using in Cuba. The rebellion crushed by 1902. The islands finally gained independence in 1946. William Howard Taft became first governor‐ general of the islands & was instructed to "prepare" Filipinos for independence. Subjugation of Cuba & annexation of Puerto Rico troubled Americans far less than U.S. takeover of them. US agreed to Japanese control of Korea, Japan promised not to attack them. Just before leaving his post for volunteer service as a lieutenant colonel in the U.S. cavalry, Assistant Secretary of the Navy Theodore Roosevelt ordered navy ships to attack the Spanish fleet in here, another island chain under Spanish control. As a result, the first significant military confrontation took place not in Cuba but halfway around the world in here. Commodore George Dewey led the U.S. Navy in a decisive victory, sinking all of the Spanish ships while taking almost no American losses. Within a month, the U.S. Army landed a force to take the islands from Spain, which it succeeded in doing by mid-August 1899. As the war closed, Spanish and American diplomats made arrangements for a peace conference in Paris. They met in October 1898, with the Spanish government committed to regaining control of the islands, which they felt were unjustly taken in a war that was solely about Cuban independence. While the Teller Amendment ensured freedom for Cuba, President McKinley was reluctant to relinquish the strategically useful prize of the islands. He certainly did not want to give the islands back to Spain, nor did he want another European power to step in to seize them. Neither the Spanish nor the Americans considered giving the islands their independence, since, with the pervasive racism and cultural stereotyping of the day, they believed the island people were not capable of governing themselves. William Howard Taft, the first American governor-general to oversee the administration of the new U.S. possession, accurately captured American sentiments with his frequent reference to them as "our little brown brothers." McKinley insisted that the United States maintain control over the islands as an annexation, in return for a $20 million payment to Spain. Although Spain was reluctant, they were in no position militarily to deny the American demand. Finally, in 1901, President McKinley appointed William Howard Taft as the civil governor of the islands in an effort to disengage the American military from direct confrontations with the island people. Under Taft's leadership, Americans built a new transportation infrastructure, hospitals, and schools, hoping to win over the local population. The rebels quickly lost influence, and Aguinaldo was captured by American forces and forced to swear allegiance to the United States. The Taft Commission, as it became known, continued to introduce reforms to modernize and improve daily life for the country despite pockets of resistance that continued to fight through the spring of 1902. The islands continued under American rule until they became self-governing in 1946. The annexation of the former Spanish colonies of Guam, Puerto Rico, and the islands, combined with the acquisition of Hawaii, Samoa, and Wake Island, positioned the United States as the predominant world power in the South Pacific and the Caribbean.

Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC)

In June 1933, Roosevelt replaced the Emergency Banking Act with the more permanent Glass-Steagall Banking Act. This law prohibited commercial banks from engaging in investment banking, therefore stopping the practice of banks speculating in the stock market with deposits. This law also created this corporation, which insured personal bank deposits up to $2,500. Insures bank deposits.

reliable electric power

In retrospect, harnessing the power of steam and then ________ in the nineteenth century vastly increased the power of man and machine, thus making other advances possible as the century progressed. However, the development of commercial ________ by the close of the century, to complement the steam engines that already existed in many larger factories, permitted more industries to concentrate in cities, away from the previously essential water power. In turn, newly arrived immigrants sought employment in new urban factories. The next stage of invention in electric power came about with the contribution of George Westinghouse. Westinghouse was responsible for making electric lighting possible on a national scale. While Edison used "direct current" or DC power, which could only extend two miles from the power source, in 1886, Westinghouse invented "alternating current" or AC power, which allowed for delivery over greater distances due to its wavelike patterns. The Westinghouse Electric Company delivered AC power, which meant that factories, homes, and farms—in short, anything that needed power—could be served, regardless of their proximity to the power source. A public relations battle ensued between the Westinghouse and Edison camps, coinciding with the invention of the electric chair as a form of prisoner execution. Edison publicly proclaimed AC power to be best adapted for use in the chair, in the hope that such a smear campaign would result in homeowners becoming reluctant to use AC power in their houses. Although Edison originally fought the use of AC power in other devices, he reluctantly adapted to it as its popularity increased. As discussed previously, new processes in steel refining, along with inventions in the fields of communications and electricity, transformed the business landscape of the nineteenth century. The exploitation of these new technologies provided opportunities for tremendous growth, and business entrepreneurs with financial backing and the right mix of business acumen and ambition could make their fortunes. Communication technologies, electric power production, and steel production were perhaps the three most significant developments of the time. While the first two affected both personal lives and business development, the latter influenced business growth first and foremost, as the ability to produce large steel elements efficiently and cost-effectively led to permanently changes in the direction of industrial growth. New electric lights and powerful machinery allowed factories to run twenty- four hours a day, seven days a week. Workers were forced into grueling twelve-hour shifts, requiring them to live close to the factories. he following four innovations proved critical in shaping urbanization at the turn of the century: electric lighting, communication improvements, intracity transportation, and the rise of skyscrapers. Thomas Edison patented the incandescent light bulb in 1879. This development quickly became common in homes as well as factories, transforming how even lower- and middle-class Americans lived. Although slow to arrive in rural areas of the country, electric power became readily available in cities when the first commercial power plants began to open in 1882. When Nikola Tesla subsequently developed the AC (alternating current) system for the Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturing Company, power supplies for lights and other factory equipment could extend for miles from the power source. AC power transformed the use of electricity, allowing urban centers to physically cover greater areas. In the factories, electric lights permitted operations to run twenty-four hours a day, seven days a week. This increase in production required additional workers, and this demand brought more people to cities. Gradually, cities began to illuminate the streets with electric lamps to allow the city to remain alight throughout the night. No longer did the pace of life and economic activity slow substantially at sunset, the way it had in smaller towns. The cities, following the factories that drew people there, stayed open all the time. In 1887, Frank Sprague invented the electric trolley, which worked along the same concept as the omnibus, with a large wagon on tracks, but was powered by electricity rather than horses. The electric trolley could run throughout the day and night, like the factories and the workers who fueled them. But it also modernized less important industrial centers, such as the southern city of Richmond, Virginia. In 1889, the Otis Elevator Company, led by inventor James Otis, installed the first electric elevator. This began the skyscraper craze, allowing developers in eastern cities to build and market prestigious real estate in the hearts of crowded eastern metropoles. Although a few suburbs existed in the United States prior to the 1880s (such as Llewellyn Park, New Jersey), the introduction of the electric railway generated greater interest and growth during the last decade of the century. The ability to travel from home to work on a relatively quick and cheap mode of transportation encouraged more Americans of modest means to consider living away from the chaos of the city. Thomas Edison helped electricity to replace steam. Steady reliable power led to improvements in electric motors.

Woodrow Wilson

Insisted on the rights of neutral trade. His neutrality began to crack. He accepted the British blockade, but rejected German submarine warfare- and warned Germany it would be held to "strict accountability" for destruction of American ships or likes. He hoped that by keeping the US out of the war he might control the peace. He discouraged loans by Americans to Central Powers. He eased reconstructions on private loans to the allies. He asked for and received an enlargement of the army in June 1916, and an integration of the National Guard into the defensive structure. His reelection in 1916 seemed to be a mandate for continued American neutrality. He outlined a plan for "peace without victory" through a negotiated settlement in January 1917. He asked Congress for a declaration of war. He was initially opposed to the draft, he decided it was the most efficient way to organize military personnel. On the eve of World War I, the U.S. government under President opposed any entanglement in international military conflicts. Unlike his immediate predecessors, President had planned to shrink the role of the United States in foreign affairs. He believed that the nation needed to intervene in international events only when there was a moral imperative to do so. But as Europe's political situation grew dire, it became increasingly difficult for him to insist that the conflict growing overseas was not America's responsibility. Germany's war tactics struck most observers as morally reprehensible, while also putting American free trade with the Entente at risk. Despite campaign promises and diplomatic efforts, he could only postpone American involvement in the war. When he took over the White House in March 1913, he promised a less expansionist approach to American foreign policy than Theodore Roosevelt and William Howard Taft had pursued. He did share the commonly held view that American values were superior to those of the rest of the world, that democracy was the best system to promote peace and stability, and that the United States should continue to actively pursue economic markets abroad. But he proposed an idealistic foreign policy based on morality, rather than American self-interest, and felt that American interference in another nation's affairs should occur only when the circumstances rose to the level of a moral imperative. His greatest break from his predecessors occurred in Asia, where he abandoned Taft's "dollar diplomacy," a foreign policy that essentially used the power of U.S. economic dominance as a threat to gain favorable terms. Instead, he revived diplomatic efforts to keep Japanese interference there at a minimum. Once president, however, he again found that it was more difficult to avoid American interventionism in practice than in rhetoric. Indeed, he intervened more in Western Hemisphere affairs than either Taft or Roosevelt. In 1915, when a revolution in Haiti resulted in the murder of the Haitian president and threatened the safety of New York banking interests in the country, he sent over three hundred U.S. Marines to establish order. Despite the loss of American lives on the Lusitania, President stuck to his path of neutrality in Europe's escalating war: in part out of moral principle, in part as a matter of practical necessity, and in part for political reasons. Few Americans wished to participate in the devastating battles that ravaged Europe, and he did not want to risk losing his reelection by ordering an unpopular military intervention. His "neutrality" did not mean isolation from all warring factions, but rather open markets for the United States and continued commercial ties with all belligerents. For him, the conflict did not reach the threshold of a moral imperative for U.S. involvement; it was largely a European affair involving numerous countries with whom the United States wished to maintain working relations. He understood that he was already looking at a difficult reelection bid. He had only won the 1912 election with 42 percent of the popular vote, and likely would not have been elected at all had Roosevelt not come back as a third-party candidate to run against his former protégée Taft. Wilson felt pressure from all different political constituents to take a position on the war, yet he knew that elections were seldom won with a campaign promise of "If elected, I will send your sons to war!" Facing pressure from some businessmen and other government officials who felt that the protection of America's best interests required a stronger position in defense of the Allied forces, he agreed to a "preparedness campaign" in the year prior to the election. This campaign included the passage of the National Defense Act of 1916, which more than doubled the size of the army to nearly 225,000, and the Naval Appropriations Act of 1916, which called for the expansion of the U.S. fleet, including battleships, destroyers, submarines, and other ships. Him and the Democrats capitalized on neutrality and campaigned under the slogan "_________—he kept us out of war." The election itself remained too close to call on election night. Only when a tight race in California was decided two days later could he claim victory in his reelection bid, again with less than 50 percent of the popular vote. Despite his victory based upon a policy of neutrality, he would find true neutrality a difficult challenge. Several different factors pushed Wilson, however reluctantly, toward the inevitability of American involvement. On April 2, 1917, he asked Congress to declare war on Germany. Congress debated for four days, and several senators and congressmen expressed their concerns that the war was being fought over U.S. economic interests more than strategic need or democratic ideals. He knew that the key to America's success in war lay largely in its preparation. With both the Allied and enemy forces entrenched in battles of attrition, and supplies running low on both sides, the United States needed, first and foremost, to secure enough men, money, food, and supplies to be successful. Concerns over shortages led to the passage of the Lever Food and Fuel Control Act, which empowered the president to control the production, distribution, and price of all food products during the war effort. Using this law, he created both a Fuel Administration and a Food Administration. The Fuel Administration, run by Harry Garfield, created the concept of "fuel holidays," encouraging civilian Americans to do their part for the war effort by rationing fuel on certain days. He also created the War Industries Board, run by Bernard Baruch, to ensure adequate military supplies. The War Industries Board had the power to direct shipments of raw materials, as well as to control government contracts with private producers. He needed to ensure that a nation of diverse immigrants, with ties to both sides of the conflict, thought of themselves as American first, and their home country's nationality second. To do this, he initiated a propaganda campaign, pushing the "America First" message, which sought to convince Americans that they should do everything in their power to ensure an American victory, even if that meant silencing their own criticisms. The _______ administration created the Committee of Public Information under director George Creel, a former journalist, just days after the United States declared war on Germany. He only briefly investigated the longstanding animosity between labor and management before ordering the creation of the National Labor War Board in April 1918. Quick negotiations with Gompers and the AFL resulted in a promise: Organized labor would make a "no-strike pledge" for the duration of the war, in exchange for the U.S. government's protection of workers' rights to organize and bargain collectively. Germany quickly moved upon the Allied lines, causing both the French and British to ask him to forestall extensive training to U.S. troops and instead commit them to the front immediately. Although wary of the move, he complied, ordering the commander of the American Expeditionary Force, General John "Blackjack" Pershing, to offer U.S. troops as replacements for the Allied units in need of relief. By May 1918, Americans were fully engaged in the war. While he had been loath to involve the United States in the war, he saw the country's eventual participation as justification for America's involvement in developing a moral foreign policy for the entire world. The "new world order" he wished to create from the outset of his presidency was now within his grasp. The United States emerged from the war as the predominant world power. He sought to capitalize on that influence and impose his moral foreign policy on all the nations of the world. As early as January 1918—a full five months before U.S. military forces fired their first shot in the war, and eleven months before the actual armistice—he announced his postwar peace plan before a joint session of Congress. Referring to what became known as the Fourteen Points, he called for openness in all matters of diplomacy and trade, specifically, free trade, freedom of the seas, an end to secret treaties and negotiations, promotion of self-determination of all nations, and more. In addition, he called for the creation of a League of Nations to promote the new world order and preserve territorial integrity through open discussions in place of intimidation and war. As the war concluded, he announced, to the surprise of many, that he would attend the Paris Peace Conference himself, rather than ceding to the tradition of sending professional diplomats to represent the country. The sole piece of the original Fourteen Points that he successfully fought to keep intact was the creation of a League of Nations. He fainted following a public event on September 25, 1919, and immediately returned to Washington. There he suffered a debilitating stroke, leaving his second wife Edith Wilson in charge as de facto president for a period of about six months. Although he received the Nobel Peace Prize in October 1919 for his efforts to create a model of world peace, he remained personally embarrassed and angry at his country's refusal to be a part of that model. Racial tensions, a terrifying flu epidemic, anticommunist hysteria, and economic uncertainty all combined to leave many Americans wondering what, exactly, they had won in the war. Adding to these problems was the absence of President, who remained in Paris for six months, leaving the country leaderless.

Thomas Edison

Invented storage batteries, phonograph, practical electric light, motion picture camera, and projector, fluoroscope (early x-ray machine), improved stock ticker, improved telephone, "Edison effect" led to vacuum tubes. Called the Wizard of Menlo Park. Almost totally deaf due to childhood illness. Created first industrial research lab at Menlo Park, NJ. Awarded over 1,000 patents. Created the _______ Electric Light Company. Also started Pearl Street Generating Station in NYC. He was stubborn, egotistical, and not a theorist. Only interested in marketable work. Pure research was not his forte. Hired Nikola Tesla then fired him which he later regretted. Wasted enormous time, money and energy promoting inferior technologies. Was beat by Westinghouse in the "War of Currents", lost to AC, he made DC. Western Union, which had originally turned down Bell's machine, went on to commission this man to invent an improved version of the telephone. It is actually his version that is most like the modern telephone used today. However, Western Union, fearing a costly legal battle they were likely to lose due to Bell's patent, ultimately sold his idea to the Bell Company. Best known for his contributions to the electrical industry, his experimentation went far beyond the light bulb. He was quite possibly the greatest inventor of the turn of the century. He registered 1,093 patents over his lifetime and ran a world-famous laboratory, Menlo Park, which housed a rotating group of up to twenty-five scientists from around the globe. He became interested in the telegraph industry as a boy, when he worked aboard trains selling candy and newspapers. He soon began tinkering with telegraph technology and, by 1876, had devoted himself full time to lab work as an inventor. He then proceeded to invent a string of items that are still used today: the phonograph, the mimeograph machine, the motion picture projector, the dictaphone, and the storage battery, all using a factory-oriented assembly line process that made the rapid production of inventions possible. He invented the item that has led to his greatest fame: the incandescent light bulb. He allegedly explored over six thousand different materials for the filament, before stumbling upon tungsten as the ideal substance. By 1882, with financial backing largely from financier J. P. Morgan, he had created the ______ Electric Illuminating Company, which began supplying electrical current to a small number of customers in New York City. Morgan guided subsequent mergers of his other enterprises, including a machine works firm and a lamp company, resulting in the creation of the _______ General Electric Company in 1889. While he used "direct current" or DC power, which could only extend two miles from the power source, in 1886, Westinghouse invented "alternating current" or AC power, which allowed for delivery over greater distances due to its wavelike patterns. A public relations battle ensued between the Westinghouse and _______ camps, coinciding with the invention of the electric chair as a form of prisoner execution. He publicly proclaimed AC power to be best adapted for use in the chair, in the hope that such a smear campaign would result in homeowners becoming reluctant to use AC power in their houses. Although he originally fought the use of AC power in other devices, he reluctantly adapted to it as its popularity increased. He patented the incandescent light bulb in 1879. This development quickly became common in homes as well as factories, transforming how even lower- and middle-class Americans lived. Although slow to arrive in rural areas of the country, electric power became readily available in cities when the first commercial power plants began to open in 1882.

Establishment Clause

Prohibits the federal government from making any law regarding the establishment of, or freedom practice religion. Prohibits US government from establishing an official religion, as well as from taking any actions that favor one religion over another.

1st Amendment

Protecting peoples right to any religion, free speech, freedom of the press, and freedom to peacefully assemble, and to petition the government.

New Deal farm policy

Raised their prices. Agricultural Adjustment Administration: a program designed to raise process by curtailing production. While much of the legislation of the first hundred days focused on immediate relief and job creation through federal programs, Roosevelt was committed to addressing the underlying problems inherent in the American economy. In his efforts to do so, he created two of the most significant pieces of New Deal legislation: the Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA). These around the country were suffering, but from different causes. In the Great Plains, drought conditions meant that little was growing at all, while in the South, bumper crops and low prices meant that they could not sell their goods at prices that could sustain them. The AAA offered some direct relief: they received $4.5 million through relief payments. But the larger part of the program paid southern farmers to reduce their production: Wheat, cotton, corn, hogs, tobacco, rice, and milk workers were all eligible. Passed into law on May 12, 1933, it was designed to boost prices to a level that would alleviate rural poverty and restore profitability to American agriculture. These price increases would be achieved by encouraging them to limit production in order to increase demand while receiving cash payments in return. Corn producers would receive thirty cents per bushel for corn they did not grow. Hog workers would get five dollars per head for hogs not raised. The program would be financed by a tax on processing plants, passed on to consumers in the form of higher prices. This was a bold attempt to help workers address the systemic problems of overproduction and lower commodity prices. Despite previous efforts to regulate this through subsidies, never before had the federal government intervened on this scale; the notion of paying workers not to produce crops was unheard of. One significant problem, however, was that, in some cases, there was already an excess of crops, in particular, cotton and hogs, which clogged the marketplace. A bumper crop in 1933, combined with the slow implementation of the AAA, led the government to order the plowing under of ten million acres of cotton, and the butchering of six million baby pigs and 200,000 sows. Although it worked to some degree—the price of cotton increased from six to twelve cents per pound—this move was deeply problematic. Critics saw it as the ultimate example of corrupt capitalism: a government destroying food, while its citizens were starving, in order to drive up prices. Another problem plaguing this relief effort was the disparity between large commercial _______, which received the largest payments and set the quotas, and the small family _______ that felt no relief. Large farms often cut production by laying off sharecroppers or evicting tenant workers, making the program even worse for them than for small _____ owners. Their frustration led to the creation of the Southern Tenant _______ Union (STFU), an interracial organization that sought to gain government relief for these most disenfranchised of workers. The STFU organized, protested, and won its members some wage increases through the mid-1930s, but the overall plight of these workers remained dismal. As a result, many of them followed the thousands of Dust Bowl refugees to California. The AAA did succeed on some fronts. By the spring of 1934, workers had formed over four thousand local committees, with more than three million farmers agreeing to participate. They signed individual contracts agreeing to take land out of production in return for government payments, and checks began to arrive by the end of 1934. For some workers, especially those with large _______, the program spelled relief.

New Deal Criticisms

It didn't end the Great Depression. By 1939, employment had increased but was still high. International trade was weak. Industrial output still depressed. People more optimistic, but still struggling. The advent of World War II in. 1939 finally ended the Great Depression. Established trend of "big government" & chronic deficit spending. Led Congress to hand over the regulatory process to agencies insulated from voters. Introduced some free market distortions that have proved politically difficult to get rid of (e.g. farm subsidies). Accused of decreasing individual initiative & undercutting the "work ethic". Seemed to lose steam by 1937-38. Employment programs may have put men back to work and provided much needed relief, but the fundamental flaws in the system required additional attention—attention that Roosevelt was unable to pay in the early days of the New Deal. Likewise, as with several other New Deal programs, women did not directly benefit from these employment opportunities, as they were explicitly excluded for the benefit of men who most Americans still considered the family's primary breadwinner. While many people supported Roosevelt, especially in the first few years of his presidency, the New Deal did receive significant criticism, both from conservatives who felt that it was a radical agenda to ruin the country's model of free enterprise, and from liberals who felt that it did not provide enough help to those who needed it most. Critics of the welfare state pointed to Roosevelt's presidency as the start of a slippery slope towards entitlement and the destruction of the individualist spirit upon which the United States had presumably developed in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. It further became clear that racial discrimination was rampant in the administration of virtually all New Deal job programs—especially in the southern states.

New Deal criticisms

It didn't end the Great Depression. By 1939, employment had increased but was still high. International trade was weak. Industrial output still depressed. People more optimistic, but still struggling. The advent of World War II in. 1939 finally ended the Great Depression. Established trend of "big government" & chronic deficit spending. Led Congress to hand over the regulatory process to agencies insulated from voters. Introduced some free market distortions that have proved politically difficult to get rid of (e.g. farm subsidies). Accused of decreasing individual initiative & undercutting the "work ethic". Seemed to lose steam by 1937-38. Employment programs may have put men back to work and provided much needed relief, but the fundamental flaws in the system required additional attention—attention that Roosevelt was unable to pay in the early days of the New Deal. Likewise, as with several other New Deal programs, women did not directly benefit from these employment opportunities, as they were explicitly excluded for the benefit of men who most Americans still considered the family's primary breadwinner. While many people supported Roosevelt, especially in the first few years of his presidency, the New Deal did receive significant criticism, both from conservatives who felt that it was a radical agenda to ruin the country's model of free enterprise, and from liberals who felt that it did not provide enough help to those who needed it most. Critics of the welfare state pointed to Roosevelt's presidency as the start of a slippery slope towards entitlement and the destruction of the individualist spirit upon which the United States had presumably developed in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. It further became clear that racial discrimination was rampant in the administration of virtually all New Deal job programs—especially in the southern states.

The New Deal and banking

It put new capital into ailing ______. Reeling after the Supreme Court struck down two key pieces of New Deal legislation, the AAA and NIRA, Roosevelt pushed Congress to pass a new wave of bills to provide jobs, ________ reforms, and a social safety net. The laws that emerged—the _______ Act, the Emergency Relief Appropriation Act, and the Social Security Act—still define our country today. At the outset of the First New Deal, specific goals included 1) _______ reform; 2) job creation; 3) economic regulation; and 4) regional planning. Within forty-eight hours of his inauguration, Roosevelt proclaimed an official _____ holiday and called Congress into a special session to address the crisis. The resulting Emergency ______ Act of 1933 was signed into law on March 9, 1933, a scant eight hours after Congress first saw it. The law officially took the country off the gold standard, a restrictive practice that, although conservative and traditionally viewed as safe, severely limited the circulation of paper money. Those who held gold were told to sell it to the U.S. Treasury for a discounted rate of a little over twenty dollars per ounce. Furthermore, dollar bills were no longer redeemable in gold. The law also gave the comptroller of currency the power to reorganize all national banks faced with insolvency, a level of federal oversight seldom seen prior to the Great Depression. Between March 11 and March 14, auditors from the Reconstruction Finance Corporation, the Treasury Department, and other federal agencies swept through the country, examining each _____. By March 15, 70 percent of the _____ were declared solvent and allowed to reopen. Roosevelt replaced the Emergency ______ Act with the more permanent Glass-Steagall ______ Act. This law prohibited commercial ______ from engaging in investment ______, therefore stopping the practice of _______ speculating in the stock market with deposits. This law also created the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation, or FDIC, which insured personal ____ deposits up to $2,500. Other measures designed to boost confidence in the overall economy beyond the ______ system included passage of the Economy Act, which fulfilled Roosevelt's campaign pledge to reduce government spending by reducing salaries, including his own and those of the Congress. He also signed into law the Securities Act, which required full disclosure to the federal government from all corporations and investment _____ that wanted to market stocks and bonds. The final element of Roosevelt's efforts to provide relief to those in desperate straits was the Home Owners' Refinancing Act. Created by the Home Owners' Loan Corporation (HOLC), the program rescued homeowners from foreclosure by refinancing their mortgages. Not only did this save the homes of countless homeowners, but it also saved many of the small ______ who owned the original mortgages by relieving them of that responsibility. But after taking office and analyzing the crisis, Roosevelt and his advisors did feel that they had a larger sense of what had caused the Great Depression and thus attempted a variety of solutions to fix it. They believed that it was caused by abuses on the part of a small group of ______ and businessmen, aided by Republican policies that built wealth for a few at the expense of many. The answer, they felt, was to root out these abuses through ______ reform, as well as adjust production and consumption of both farm and industrial goods. This adjustment would come about by increasing the purchasing power of everyday people, as well as through regulatory policies like the NRA and AAA. While it may seem counterintuitive to raise crop prices and set prices on industrial goods, Roosevelt's advisors sought to halt the deflationary spiral and economic uncertainty that had prevented businesses from committing to investments and consumers from parting with their money. The ______ Act of 1935 was the most far-reaching revision of _______ laws since the creation of the Federal Reserve System in 1914. Previously, regional reserve banks, particularly the New York Reserve ______—controlled by the powerful Morgan and Rockefeller families—had dominated policy-making at the Federal Reserve. Under the new system, there would be a seven-member board of governors to oversee regional ______. They would have control over reserve requirements, discount rates, board member selection, and more. Not surprisingly, this new board kept initial interest rates quite low, allowing the federal government to borrow billions of dollars of additional cash to fund major relief and recovery programs. But no sooner did Roosevelt cut spending when a recession hit. Two million Americans were newly out of work as unemployment quickly rose by 5 percent and industrial production declined by a third. Breadlines began to build again, while _____ prepared to close. ______ holiday & Emergency ______ Act. Glass-Steagall Act: created Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC), ensuring individuals' savings; separated investment ______ from savings _____. Securities Act (1933) & Exchange Act (1934): regulated marketing of stocks & bonds.

The Red Scare

It was influenced by the Russian Revolution, terrorist bombings, the continuation of WWI, and formation of the American Communist Party. Not influenced by labor strikes in the US.

Allied Powers

Italy joined after being promised additional territory after the war. Russia and France formed an alliance called the Entente Cordiale. + Britain, formed a Triple Entente. Included France, Russia, England, Italy, and USA.

Battle of Midway

Japan also attacked the Philippines, Guam, here, Hong Kong & Malaya. Thanks to ULTRA, Admiral Nimitz knew of Japan's plan to attack this place. Sent large carrier force to meet it. Japan's first major defeat, ended expansion. Japan lost 4 carriers, a heavy cruiser, 300+ planes, & over 5,000 sailors. After this, Japan on defensive for remainder of war. The Allies turned the tide in May and June 1942, at the Battle of Coral Sea and the Battle of here. This battle witnessed the first Japanese naval defeat since the nineteenth century.

Korean War

Just as the U.S. government feared the possibility of Communist infiltration of the United States, so too was it alert for signs that Communist forces were on the move elsewhere. The Soviet Union had been granted control of the northern half of this peninsula at the end of World War II, and the United States had control of the southern portion. The Soviets displayed little interest in extending its power into the southern part of here, and Stalin did not wish to risk confrontation with the United States over here. North _______ leaders, however, wished to reunify the peninsula under Communist rule. In April 1950, Stalin finally gave permission to North _______ leader Kim Il Sung to invade South _______ and provided the North _______ with weapons and military advisors. On June 25, 1950, troops of the North ______ People's Democratic Army crossed the thirty-eighth parallel, the border between North and South ________. The first major test of the U.S. policy of containment in Asia had begun, for the domino theory held that a victory by North ______ might lead to further Communist expansion in Asia, in the virtual backyard of the United States' chief new ally in East Asia—Japan. The United Nations (UN), which had been established in 1945, was quick to react. On June 27, the UN Security Council denounced North _______ actions and called upon UN members to help South ______ defeat the invading forces. As a permanent member of the Security Council, the Soviet Union could have vetoed the action, but it had boycotted UN meetings following the awarding of China's seat on the Security Council to Taiwan instead of to Mao Zedong's People's Republic of China. On June 27, Truman ordered U.S. military forces into South _______. They established a defensive line on the far southern part of the ______ peninsula near the town of Pusan. A U.S.-led invasion at Inchon on September 15 halted the North _______ advance and turned it into a retreat. As North _______ forces moved back across the thirty-eighth parallel, UN forces under the command of U.S. General Douglas MacArthur followed. MacArthur's goal was not only to drive the North _______ army out of South _______ but to destroy Communist North _______ as well. At this stage, he had the support of President Truman; however, as UN forces approached the Yalu River, the border between China and North ______, MacArthur's and Truman's objectives diverged. Chinese premier Zhou Enlai, who had provided supplies and military advisors for North ______ before the conflict began, sent troops into battle to support North _______ and caught U.S. troops by surprise. Following a costly retreat from North _________ Chosin Reservoir, a swift advance of Chinese and North ________ forces and another invasion of Seoul, MacArthur urged Truman to deploy nuclear weapons against China. Truman, however, did not wish to risk a broader war in Asia. MacArthur criticized Truman's decision and voiced his disagreement in a letter to a Republican congressman, who subsequently allowed the letter to become public. In April 1951, Truman accused MacArthur of insubordination and relieved him of his command. The Joint Chiefs of Staff agreed, calling the escalation MacArthur had called for "the wrong war, at the wrong place, at the wrong time, and with the wrong enemy." Nonetheless, the public gave MacArthur a hero's welcome in New York with the largest ticker tape parade in the nation's history. By July 1951, the UN forces had recovered from the setbacks earlier in the year and pushed North _______ and Chinese forces back across the thirty-eighth parallel, and peace talks began. However, combat raged on for more than two additional years. The primary source of contention was the fate of prisoners of war. The Chinese and North ________ insisted that their prisoners be returned to them, but many of these men did not wish to be repatriated. Finally, an armistice agreement was signed on July 27, 1953. A border between North and South ______, one quite close to the original thirty-eighth parallel line, was agreed upon. A demilitarized zone between the two nations was established, and both sides agreed that prisoners of war would be allowed to choose whether to be returned to their homelands. Five million people died in the three-year conflict. Of these, around 36,500 were U.S. soldiers; a majority were Korean civilians. 1945: the ______ peninsula was liberated from Japanese rule & divided at the 38th parallel between Soviet & U.S. occupying armies. 1948: the Soviets installed a communist "people's republic" in the north, partly in response to the U.S. propping up a more-or-less democratically elected government in the south. All agreed the ______ people should be reunited; the issue was, under what form of government? June 1950: communist (PRK) forces attacked across the 38th parallel & swept almost unimpeded southward. Historians still debate whether Stalin or Mao gave approval, but North ______ leaders believed — or pretended to believe — they had backing from their fellow communist patrons. The so-called "Pusan perimeter" marked the southernmost point ever reached by North _____ forces. UN forces from ~dozen countries would fight alongside South ______ troops. The Soviets sent aid & supplies to North _______, & the Chinese eventually sent ground troops. A push east could liberate the South ______ capital, Seoul, & trap many North ______ soldiers in the south. UN forces swept through North ______, almost to the Chinese border. Newly communist China repeatedly warned U.N. troops not to approach the Yalu River— its border with North ______. Bent on eliminating communism from the peninsula, MacArthur ignored the warnings & pushed onward. Said he wanted to stop North ______ forces from escaping across the Chinese border. Instead, he provoked a Chinese intervention. In late November, hundreds of thousands of Communist Chinese forces (CCF) poured across the Yalu River. Overwhelmed U.N. troops were forced back south of Seoul. By January 1951, much of the ______ peninsula was back in communist hands. July 1953: both sides agreed to a "demilitarized zone" along the 38th parallel & signed a truce. No treaty ending the war has ever been signed. Americans were left to wonder what, if anything, was gained by the loss of ~38,000 American & perhaps 2,000,000 ______ lives.

Development of US Railroads

Land developers, railroad magnates, and other investors capitalized on the notion to encourage westward settlement for their own financial benefit. The Pacific _______ Act was pivotal in helping settlers move west more quickly, as well as move their farm products, and later cattle and mining deposits, back east. The first of many ______ initiatives, this act commissioned the Union Pacific ________ to build new track west from Omaha, Nebraska, while the Central Pacific _______ moved east from Sacramento, California. The law provided each company with ownership of all public lands within two hundred feet on either side of the track laid, as well as additional land grants and payment through load bonds, prorated on the difficulty of the terrain it crossed. Because of these provisions, both companies made a significant profit, whether they were crossing hundreds of miles of open plains, or working their way through the Sierra Nevada Mountains of California. As a result, the nation's first transcontinental ________ was completed when the two companies connected their tracks at Promontory Point, Utah, in the spring of 1869. Other tracks, including lines radiating from this original one, subsequently created a network that linked all corners of the nation. But the passage of the Homestead Act and completion of the first transcontinental ______ meant that, by 1870, the possibility of western migration was opened to Americans of more modest means. What started as a trickle became a steady flow of migration that would last until the end of the century. _______ charged notoriously high rates for farm equipment and livestock, making it difficult to procure goods or make a profit on anything sent back east. Eventually, the arrival of a more extensive _______ network aided farmers, mostly by bringing much- needed supplies such as lumber for construction and new farm machinery. The completion of the first transcontinental ________ and subsequent ________ lines changed the game dramatically. Cattle ranchers and eastern businessmen realized that it was profitable to round up the wild steers and transport them by rail to be sold in the East for as much as thirty to fifty dollars per head. By 1852, over 25,000 Chinese immigrants had arrived, and by 1880, over 300,000 Chinese lived in the United States, most in California. While they had dreams of finding gold, many instead found employment building the first transcontinental ________. Reconstruction governments invested in infrastructure, paying special attention to the rehabilitation of the southern _________. The Union Pacific Railroad company, created by the federal government during the Civil War to construct a transcontinental ________, paid Crédit Mobilier to build the ________. However, Crédit Mobilier used the funds it received to buy Union Pacific ________ bonds and resell them at a huge profit. Construction of the ________ was a public/private investment. Construction of the lines depended heavily on immigrant labor, notably Chinese workers. Most lasting cities & towns in the west were along these lines. The ________ encouraged settlement to help recover their costs & to build future traffic along their lines. Pacific ________ Act (1862)- authorized transcontinental railroad. Planning to link the east to California began soon after the war with Mexico. A southern route was deemed easiest to construct, but dealmaking to use a northern route contributed to outbreak of the Civil War. Congress approved a transcontinental _________ in 1862 but construction didn't start until 1867. Despite the danger, difficulty, & expense of building _________, more soon followed. To subsidize the _________, the U.S. gave companies huge grants of land alongside the tracks, in alternating checker-board patterns. ________ sold these lands to settlers to raise money & to encourage settlement along their routes. Many ______ workers remained in or near the settlements that sprang up during construction. ______ industry collapsed, initiating five-year depression.

The Gilded Age

Mark Twain called this era this because the flashiness and bling of the times was a mask for the ugliness and crass materialism. A name for the late 1800s, coined by Mark Twain to describe the tremendous increase in wealth caused by the industrial age and the ostentatious lifestyles it allowed the very rich. The great industrial success of the U.S. and the fabulous lifestyles of the wealthy hid the many social problems of the time, including a high poverty rate, a high crime rate, and corruption in the government. Cities exploded in number and size. Natural resources and predominant businesses gave cities distinctive characteristics. New power sources enabled shift to mass production. Generating stations to provide electricity. Steady reliable power led to improvements in electric motors. Industry fueled urban expansion. The American population grew 2% per year. Pollution worried most Americans less than economic concerns- but still caused severe problems.

horizontal integration

Method of growth wherein a company grows through mergers and acquisitions of similar companies. Rockefeller was ruthless in his pursuit of total control of the oil refining business. As other entrepreneurs flooded the area seeking a quick fortune, Rockefeller developed a plan to crush his competitors and create a true monopoly in the refining industry. As he could now deliver his kerosene at lower prices, he drove his competition out of business, often offering to buy them out for pennies on the dollar. He hounded those who refused to sell out to him, until they were driven out of business. Through his method of growth via mergers and acquisitions of similar companies (this is that) Standard Oil grew to include almost all refineries in the area. Combining or controlling companies within specific industries to fix prices, limit production, divide market areas to limit competition. Most associated with John D. Rockefeller. German chemists found a cheap way to "crack" raw oil into useful kerosine. Rockefeller saw refineries as the critical bottleneck and sought to control all of them, directly or indirectly.

John D. Rockefeller

Most associated with horizontal integration. Born in 1839 in New York state, was a staunch republican and sometime baptist Sunday school teacher. Tithed 10% of his earnings all his life. Believed in philanthropy. Even his first job, making 50 cents per day, he gave 6% to charity and 10% to his church. Could afford to be generous, was the richest American of all time. Worth $340 billion in 2013 dollars. Saw refineries as the critical bottleneck and sought to control all of them, directly or indirectly. He centered the oil industry by investing in a refinery and first expanded horizontally by absorbing several other refineries. By 1900, his Standard Oil controlled over 90% of US oil refining. Also dabbled in railroads and other industries. Steel magnate Andrew Carnegie, this oil tycoon, and business financier J. P. Morgan were all businessmen who grew their respective businesses to a scale and scope that were unprecedented. Their companies changed how Americans lived and worked, and they themselves greatly influenced the growth of the country. When the family moved to a suburb of Cleveland in 1853, he had an opportunity to take accounting and bookkeeping courses while in high school and developed a career interest in business. While living in Cleveland in 1859, he learned of Colonel Edwin Drake who had struck "black gold," or oil, near Titusville, Pennsylvania, setting off a boom even greater than the California Gold Rush of the previous decade. Many sought to find a fortune through risky and chaotic "wildcatting," or drilling exploratory oil wells, hoping to strike it rich. But he chose a more certain investment: refining crude oil into kerosene, which could be used for both heating and lamps. As a more efficient source of energy, as well as less dangerous to produce, kerosene quickly replaced whale oil in many businesses and homes. he worked initially with family and friends in the refining business located in the Cleveland area, but by 1870, he ventured out on his own, consolidating his resources and creating the Standard Oil Company of Ohio, initially valued at $1 million. He was ruthless in his pursuit of total control of the oil refining business. As other entrepreneurs flooded the area seeking a quick fortune, he developed a plan to crush his competitors and create a true monopoly in the refining industry. Beginning in 1872, he forged agreements with several large railroad companies to obtain discounted freight rates for shipping his product. He also used the railroad companies to gather information on his competitors. As he could now deliver his kerosene at lower prices, he drove his competition out of business, often offering to buy them out for pennies on the dollar. He hounded those who refused to sell out to him, until they were driven out of business. Through his method of growth via mergers and acquisitions of similar companies—known as horizontal integration —Standard Oil grew to include almost all refineries in the area. By 1879, the Standard Oil Company controlled nearly 95 percent of all oil refining businesses in the country, as well as 90 percent of all the refining businesses in the world. Seeking still more control, he recognized the advantages of controlling the transportation of his product. He next began to grow his company through vertical integration, wherein a company handles all aspects of a product's lifecycle, from the creation of raw materials through the production process to the delivery of the final product. In his case, this model required investment and acquisition of companies involved in everything from barrel-making to pipelines, tanker cars to railroads. He came to own almost every type of business and used his vast power to drive competitors from the market through intense price wars. Although vilified by competitors who suffered from his takeovers and considered him to be no better than a robber baron, several observers lauded him for his ingenuity in integrating the oil refining industry and, as a result, lowering kerosene prices by as much as 80 percent by the end of the century.

barbed wire

Ranchers developed the land, limiting grazing opportunities along the trail, and in 1873, the new technology of this allowed ranchers to fence off their lands and cattle claims. With the end of the free range, the cattle industry, like the mining industry before it, grew increasingly dominated by eastern businessmen. With the invention of this, large cattle ranchers and their investors were able to cheaply and easily parcel off the land they wanted—whether or not it was legally theirs to contain. In the Texas cattle lands, owners of large ranches took advantage of their wealth and the new invention of this to claim the prime grazing lands and few significant watering holes for their herds. Eventually, frustration turned to violence, as several ranchers resorted to vandalizing the barbed wire fences to gain access to grass and water for their steers. Invented by Joseph Glidden, made him rich and began the inevitable enclosure of the range. Settlers and farmers would fight over water rights and prime grazing lands, this marked property lines.

Election of 1876

Reconstruction had come to an end in most southern states. In Congress, the political power of the Radical Republicans had waned, although some continued their efforts to realize the dream of equality between blacks and whites. The country remained bitterly divided, and this was reflected in this. While Grant wanted to run for a third term, scandals and Democratic successes in the South dashed those hopes. Republicans instead selected Rutherford B. Hayes, the three-time governor of Ohio. Democrats nominated Samuel Tilden, the reform governor of New York, who was instrumental in ending the Tweed Ring and Tammany Hall corruption in New York City. The November election produced an apparent Democratic victory, as Tilden carried the South and large northern states with a 300,000-vote advantage in the popular vote. However, disputed returns from Louisiana, South Carolina, Florida, and Oregon, whose electoral votes totaled twenty, threw the election into doubt. Hayes could still win if he gained those twenty electoral votes. As the Constitution did not provide a method to determine the validity of disputed votes, the decision fell to Congress, where Republicans controlled the Senate and Democrats controlled the House of Representatives. In late January 1877, Congress tried to break the deadlock by creating a special electoral commission composed of five senators, five representatives, and five justices of the Supreme Court. The congressional delegation represented both parties equally, with five Democrats and five Republicans. The court delegation had two Democrats, two Republicans, and one independent—David Davis, who resigned from the Supreme Court when the Illinois legislature elected him to the Senate. After Davis's resignation, President Grant selected a Republican to take his place, tipping the scales in favor of Hayes. The commission then awarded the disputed electoral votes and the presidency to Hayes, voting on party lines, 8 to 7. The Democrats called foul, threatening to hold up the commission's decision in the courts. Republican Senate leaders worked with the Democratic leadership so they would support Hayes and the commission's decision. The two sides agreed that one Southern Democrat would be appointed to Hayes's cabinet, Democrats would control federal patronage in their areas in the South, and there would be a commitment to generous internal improvements, including federal aid for the Texas and Pacific Railway. Perhaps most important, all remaining federal troops would be withdrawn from the South, a move that effectively ended Reconstruction. Most Americans, mindful of the Centennial, entered 1876 optimistically. Democrats, having "redeemed" most southern states, were anxious to retake the White House. Ulysses Grant, despite the many scandals of his administration, wanted to run again. There was little support for him, even among Republicans. George Washington had set a powerful precedent by limiting himself to two terms. Tilden won the popular vote by ~250,000 votes. He had 184 electoral votes to Hayes' 165. Republicans refused to let the House settle the election, & a special "bi-partisan" commission was appointed to examine disputed electoral returns. The commission, voting along party lines, accepted all the disputed returns in Hayes' favor, & thus put Hayes in the White House. Democrats, along with much of the nation, were outraged. Rioters in New York City & elsewhere threatened a resumption of civil war. To avert a new war, a deal was struck. In exchange for the White House, Republicans agreed to remove the last federal troops from the South, appoint a former Confederate general to the cabinet, provide federal aid for economic & railroad development in the South, & promised to let southerners handle race relations themselves.

Triangle Shirtwaist Fire

Regulation of working conditions for women became a national concern after a New York workplace incident. Fire broke out at this factory which occupied the top three floors of a ten story building. Company manufactured women's blouses. Around 600 workers, mostly young immigrant women. Some as young as twelve or thirteen. 14 hour shifts, a 60 to 72 hour week. Average weekly wage: six to seven dollars. Flammable textiles were everywhere. Fabric littered the floors, tissue paper patterns hung over tables. Illumination was open gas lighting. Only a few buckets of water in case of fire. One of two 9th floor exits had been locked. The single fire escape had collapsed. Dozens of young women leapt nine stories rather than waiting to be burned to death. The factory owners fled at the first sign of flames. They were later acquitted of criminal charges. Invigorated the International Ladies' Garment Worker's Union. Management had previously blockaded doors and fire escapes in an effort to control workers and keep out Union organizers; in the blaze, many died due to the crush of bodies trying to evacuate the building. Others died when they fell off the flimsy fire escape or jumped down to escape the flames.

Full Faith & Credit Clause

Requires each state to recognize the laws, judicial decisions, and public records of the other states. Helps ensure that court decisions made in one state will be recognized and honored in every other state. One purpose for this is that it prevents someone from moving to another state to avoid a court judgement, or to file a new lawsuit in an attempt to obtain a more favorable outcome on a matter that has already been decided.

Standard Oil

Rockefeller worked initially with family and friends in the refining business located in the Cleveland area, but by 1870, Rockefeller ventured out on his own, consolidating his resources and creating this, initially valued at $1 million. Through his method of growth via mergers and acquisitions of similar companies—known as horizontal integration —this grew to include almost all refineries in the area. By 1879, this controlled nearly 95 percent of all oil refining businesses in the country, as well as 90 percent of all the refining businesses in the world. In 1882, all thirty-seven stockholders in the various of these enterprises gave their stock to nine trustees who were to control and direct all of the company's business ventures. State and federal challenges arose, due to the obvious appearance of a monopoly, which implied sole ownership of all enterprises composing an entire industry. When the Ohio Supreme Court ruled that this Company must dissolve, as its monopoly control over all refining operations in the U.S. was in violation of state and federal statutes, Rockefeller shifted to yet another legal entity, called a holding company model. By 1900, Rockefeller's company controlled over 90% of US oil-refining. Rockefeller entered the industry by investing in a refinery, & first expanded horizontally by absorbing several other refineries . His Company then practiced vertical integration by acquiring oil leases, oil wells, pipelines, advantageous contracts with railroads, & eventually even retail stores. For a time, the company controlled nearly 90% of the industry.

Social Security

Roosevelt believed in this. With the implementation of the Second New Deal, Roosevelt created the country's present-day social safety net. This Act established programs intended to help the most vulnerable: the elderly, the unemployed, the disabled, and the young. It included a pension fund for all retired people—except domestic workers and farmers, which therefore left many women and African Americans beyond the scope of its benefits—over the age of sixty-five, to be paid through a payroll tax on both employee and employer. Related to this act, Congress also passed a law on unemployment insurance, to be funded by a tax on employers, and programs for unwed mothers, as well as for those who were blind, deaf, or disabled. Although he never received the support to make these changes, Roosevelt appeared to succeed in politically intimidating the current justices into supporting his newer programs, and this and the Wagner Act. Many would also agree that the postwar economic stability of the 1950s found its roots in the stabilizing influences introduced by this, the job stability that union contracts provided, and federal housing mortgage programs introduced in the New Deal. Even this originally excluded domestic workers, a primary source of employment for African American women. Perkins, one of only two original Cabinet members to stay with Roosevelt for his entire presidency, was directly involved in the administration of this. A series of programs designed to help the population's most vulnerable—the unemployed, those over age sixty-five, unwed mothers, and the disabled—through various pension, insurance, and aid programs.

Lend-Lease Program

Roosevelt devised this plan for sending aid to Britain without demanding payment. The Act ended all pretensions of U.S. neutrality; the U.S. was materially aiding Germany's enemy. June 1941: Germany suddenly attacked the Soviet Union (Operation Barbarossa). FDR extended this aid to the Soviets.

Yalta Conference

Roosevelt didn't concede anything to the Soviets that they already did not control. The nickname given to the leaders of the three major Allied nations: Winston Churchill, Franklin Roosevelt, and Joseph Stalin. These allied leaders, thrown together by the necessity to defeat common enemies, took steps towards working in concert despite their differences. The last time they met was in early February 1945 here in the Soviet Union. Roosevelt was sick, and Stalin's armies were pushing the German army back towards Berlin from the east. In particular, they agreed to allow the Communist government installed by the Soviet Union in Poland to remain in power until free elections took place. For his part, Stalin reaffirmed his commitment, first voiced at Tehran, to enter the war against Japan following the surrender of Germany. He also agreed that the Soviet Union would participate in the United Nations, a new peacekeeping body intended to replace the League of Nations. Roosevelt did not live to attend the next meeting.

Civilian Conservation Corp (CCC)

Roosevelt was aware of the need for immediate help, but he mostly wanted to create more jobs. A work program was this Relief Act. This provided government jobs for young men aged fourteen to twenty-four who came from relief families. They would earn thirty dollars per month planting trees, fighting forest fires, and refurbishing historic sites and parks, building an infrastructure that families would continue to enjoy for generations to come. Within the first two months, this corporation employed its first 250,000 men and eventually established about twenty-five hundred camps. African Americans were left out, with overt discrimination in hiring practices with the federal job programs such as this one and others. By the close of this organization, this program had employed over 300,000 African Americans, increasing the black percentage of its workforce at the outset to nearly 11 percent at its close.

"Buffalo Bill" Cody

Sitting Bull himself fled to Canada, although he later returned in 1881 and subsequently worked in this man's Wild West show. A former Indian fighter, scout, bison hunter, Pony Express rider— & Medal of Honor winner— realized sooner than most that serious money could be made by packaging & selling a version of "the West" as entertainment. In his Wild West Show, in various incarnations, was one of the world's most successful traveling shows in the 1880s & 1890s. Queen Victoria was entranced during its overseas tour, & attended twice. The show was immensely popular in Paris & elsewhere in Europe. Former canadian fighter, scout, bison hunter, Pony Express rider, Medal of Honor winner. Packaged and sold a version of "The West" as entertainment. Had a circus called "The Wild West Show". Circus was racist but this person was an advocate for Native Americans.

scalawags

Southern whites who supported Reconstruction, also generated great hostility as traitors to the South. They, too, became targets of the Klan and similar groups. A pejorative term used for southern whites who supported Reconstruction. Although harassment of Freedmen was a core mission, the Klan also terrorized white carpet-baggers & these deemed sympathetic to Blacks or the Union. Native southerners sympathetic to the GOP, mostly small farmers & tradesmen who had not been slave holders.

Island Hopping

Taking Guadalcanal was bloody & difficult, but gave valuable practice at amphibious landings (essential to this). The Pacific much larger than Atlantic. No planes then able to deliver bombs over vast distances & return safely. To counterattack, Allied forces had to get closer to Japan. Strategy known as this. The U.S. embarked on this strategy in the Solomon Islands. Slowly, throughout 1943, the United States engaged in a campaign of this, gradually moving across the Pacific to Japan. In the Pacific, MacArthur and the Allied forces pursued this strategy that bypassed certain island strongholds held by the Japanese that were of little or no strategic value. By seizing locations from which Japanese communications and transportation routes could be disrupted or destroyed, the Allies advanced towards Japan without engaging the thousands of Japanese stationed on garrisoned islands. The goal was to advance American air strength close enough to Japan proper to achieve air superiority over the home islands; the nation could then be bombed into submission or at least weakened in preparation for an amphibious assault. By February 1945, American forces had reached the island of Iwo Jima.

Cuban Missile Crisis

The 1962 confrontation bewteen US and the Soviet Union over Soviet missiles in Cuba. Then, on October 14, U.S. spy planes took aerial photographs that confirmed the presence of long-range ballistic missile sites in Cuba. The United States was now within easy reach of Soviet nuclear warheads. On October 22, Kennedy demanded that Soviet premier Nikita Khrushchev remove the missiles. He also ordered a naval quarantine placed around Cuba to prevent Soviet ships from approaching. Despite his use of the word "quarantine" instead of "blockade," for a blockade was considered an act of war, a potential war with the Soviet Union was nevertheless on the president's mind. As U.S. ships headed for Cuba, the army was told to prepare for war, and Kennedy appeared on national television to declare his intention to defend the Western Hemisphere from Soviet aggression. Behind the scenes, Robert Kennedy and Soviet ambassador Anatoly Dobrynin worked toward a compromise that would allow both superpowers to back down without either side's seeming intimidated by the other. On October 26, Khrushchev agreed to remove the Russian missiles in exchange for Kennedy's promise not to invade Cuba. On October 27, Kennedy's agreement was made public, and the crisis ended. Not made public, but nevertheless part of the agreement, was Kennedy's promise to remove U.S. warheads from Turkey, as close to Soviet targets as the Cuban missiles had been to American ones. The showdown between the United States and the Soviet Union over Cuba's missiles had put the world on the brink of a nuclear war. Both sides already had long-range bombers with nuclear weapons airborne or ready for launch, and were only hours away from the first strike. In the long run, this nearly catastrophic example of nuclear brinksmanship ended up making the world safer. Although his stance on civil rights had won him support in the African American community and his steely performance during the Cuban Missile Crisis had led his overall popularity to surge, Kennedy understood that he had to solidify his base in the South to secure his reelection.

U.S. entry to World War I

The beginning: the Serbians assassinated Franz Ferdinand making Austri-Hungarians mad. Germany had Austria-Hungary's back. The Russians started to mobilize troops to defend Serbia because they're both Slavic. Germany didn't like Russia mobilizing troops so Germany declared war on Russia and France. Then Germany started moving toward France through Belgium which made Britain declare war on Germany. When a Serbian nationalist murdered the Archduke Franz Ferdinand of the Austro-Hungarian Empire on June 29, 1914, the underlying forces that led to World War I had already long been in motion and seemed, at first, to have little to do with the United States. At the time, the events that pushed Europe from ongoing tensions into war seemed very far away from U.S. interests. For nearly a century, nations had negotiated a series of mutual defense alliance treaties to secure themselves against their imperialistic rivals. Among the largest European powers, the Triple Entente included an alliance of France, Great Britain, and Russia. Opposite them, the Central powers, also known as the Triple Alliance, included Germany, Austria- Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, and initially Italy. A series of "side treaties" likewise entangled the larger European powers to protect several smaller ones should war break out. By the end of August 1914, it seemed as if Europe had dragged the entire world into war. Of greatest historical note was the attack on the British passenger ship, RMS Lusitania, on its way from New York to Liverpool on May 7, 1915. The German Embassy in the United States had announced that this ship would be subject to attack for its cargo of ammunition: an allegation that later proved accurate. Nonetheless, almost 1,200 civilians died in the attack, including 128 Americans. The attack horrified the world, galvanizing support in England and beyond for the war. This attack, more than any other event, would test President Wilson's desire to stay out of what had been a largely European conflict. Few Americans wished to participate in the devastating battles that ravaged Europe, and Wilson did not want to risk losing his reelection by ordering an unpopular military intervention. Wilson's "neutrality" did not mean isolation from all warring factions, but rather open markets for the United States and continued commercial ties with all belligerents. For Wilson, the conflict did not reach the threshold of a moral imperative for U.S. involvement; it was largely a European affair involving numerous countries with whom the United States wished to maintain working relations. A key factor driving U.S. engagement was economics. Great Britain was the country's most important trading partner, and the Allies as a whole relied heavily on American imports from the earliest days of the war forward. Specifically, the value of all exports to the Allies quadrupled from $750 million to $3 billion in the first two years of the war. At the same time, the British naval blockade meant that exports to Germany all but ended, dropping from $350 million to $30 million. Likewise, numerous private banks in the United States made extensive loans—in excess of $500 million—to England. J. P. Morgan's banking interests were among the largest lenders, due to his family's connection to the country. Another key factor in the decision to go to war were the deep ethnic divisions between native-born Americans and more recent immigrants. For those of Anglo-Saxon descent, the nation's historic and ongoing relationship with Great Britain was paramount, but many Irish-Americans resented British rule over their place of birth and opposed support for the world's most expansive empire. Millions of Jewish immigrants had fled anti-Semitic pogroms in Tsarist Russia and would have supported any nation fighting that authoritarian state. German Americans saw their nation of origin as a victim of British and Russian aggression and a French desire to settle old scores, whereas emigrants from Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire were mixed in their sympathies for the old monarchies or ethnic communities that these empires suppressed. For interventionists, this lack of support for Great Britain and its allies among recent immigrants only strengthened their conviction. Germany's use of submarine warfare also played a role in challenging U.S. neutrality. After the sinking of the Lusitania, and the subsequent August 30 sinking of another British liner, the Arabic, Germany had promised to restrict their use of submarine warfare. Specifically, they promised to surface and visually identify any ship before they fired, as well as permit civilians to evacuate targeted ships. Instead, in February 1917, Germany intensified their use of submarines in an effort to end the war quickly before Great Britain's naval blockade starved them out of food and supplies. The final element that led to American involvement in World War I was the so-called Zimmermann telegram. British intelligence intercepted and decoded a top-secret telegram from German foreign minister Arthur Zimmermann to the German ambassador to Mexico, instructing the latter to invite Mexico to join the war effort on the German side, should the United States declare war on Germany. It further went on to encourage Mexico to invade the United States if such a declaration came to pass, as Mexico's invasion would create a diversion and permit Germany a clear path to victory. In exchange, Zimmermann offered to return to Mexico land that was previously lost to the United States in the Mexican-American War, including Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas. But combined with Germany's unrestricted use of submarine warfare and the sinking of American ships, the Zimmermann telegram made a powerful argument for a declaration of war. The outbreak of the Russian Revolution in February and abdication of Tsar Nicholas II in March raised the prospect of democracy in the Eurasian empire and removed an important moral objection to entering the war on the side of the Allies. On April 2, 1917, Wilson asked Congress to declare war on Germany. Congress debated for four days, and several senators and congressmen expressed their concerns that the war was being fought over U.S. economic interests more than strategic need or democratic ideals. When Congress voted on April 6, fifty-six voted against the resolution, including the first woman ever elected to Congress, Representative Jeannette Rankin. This was the largest "no" vote against a war resolution in American history. Wilson knew that the key to America's success in war lay largely in its preparation. With both the Allied and enemy forces entrenched in battles of attrition, and supplies running low on both sides, the United States needed, first and foremost, to secure enough men, money, food, and supplies to be successful. The country needed to first supply the basic requirements to fight a war, and then work to ensure military leadership, public support, and strategic planning.

Versailles Treaty

The compromise after WW1, settled land and freedom disputes. Germany had to take full blame for the war in order for the treaty to pass, among other things. The US Senate rejected it. Concluded to be a failure by Lloyd George and he predicted renewed war within twenty years. Clemenceau was also unsatisfied with the treaty. Rejected by the Senate by 7 votes. Blamed Germany for the war. Put restrictions on Germany's military such as limiting the size of their army, submarines and airplanes were banned, German troops were forbidden in Rhineland, union with Austria forbidden. Created the League of Nations to keep world peace. Wilson supported the treaty. In the end, it was this that officially concluded World War I resembled little of Wilson's original Fourteen Points. The Japanese, French, and British succeeded in carving up many of Germany's colonial holdings in Africa and Asia. The dissolution of the Ottoman Empire created new nations under the quasi-colonial rule of France and Great Britain, such as Iraq and Palestine. France gained much of the disputed territory along their border with Germany, as well as passage of a "war guilt clause" that demanded Germany take public responsibility for starting and prosecuting the war that led to so much death and destruction. Great Britain led the charge that resulted in Germany agreeing to pay reparations in excess of $33 billion to the Allies. As for Bolshevik Russia, Wilson had agreed to send American troops to their northern region to protect Allied supplies and holdings there, while also participating in an economic blockade designed to undermine Lenin's power. This move would ultimately have the opposite effect of galvanizing popular support for the Bolsheviks. The sole piece of the original Fourteen Points that Wilson successfully fought to keep intact was the creation of a League of Nations. At a covenant agreed to at the conference, all member nations in the League would agree to defend all other member nations against military threats. Known as Article X, this agreement would basically render each nation equal in terms of power, as no member nation would be able to use its military might against a weaker member nation. Ironically, this article would prove to be the undoing of Wilson's dream of a new world order. Although the other nations agreed to the final terms of this, Wilson's greatest battle lay in the ratification debate that awaited him upon his return. As with all treaties, this one would require two-thirds approval by the U.S. Senate for final ratification, something Wilson knew would be difficult to achieve. Even before Wilson's return to Washington, Senator Henry Cabot Lodge, chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee that oversaw ratification proceedings, issued a list of fourteen reservations he had regarding the treaty, most of which centered on the creation of a League of Nations. An isolationist in foreign policy issues, Cabot feared that Article X would require extensive American intervention, as more countries would seek her protection in all controversial affairs. But on the other side of the political spectrum, interventionists argued that Article X would impede the United States from using her rightfully attained military power to secure and protect America's international interests. Wilson's greatest fight was with the Senate, where most Republicans opposed the treaty due to the clauses surrounding the creation of the League of Nations. Some Republicans, known as Irreconcilables, opposed the treaty on all grounds, whereas others, called Reservationists, would support the treaty if sufficient amendments were introduced that could eliminate Article X. In an effort to turn public support into a weapon against those in opposition, Wilson embarked on a cross-country railway speaking tour. He began travelling in September 1919, and the grueling pace, after the stress of the six months in Paris, proved too much. Wilson fainted following a public event on September 25, 1919, and immediately returned to Washington. There he suffered a debilitating stroke, leaving his second wife Edith Wilson in charge as de facto president for a period of about six months. When the treaty was introduced with "reservations," or amendments, in March 1920, it again fell short of the necessary margin for ratification. As a result, the United States never became an official signatory of this. Nor did the country join the League of Nations, which shattered the international authority and significance of the organization. Although Wilson received the Nobel Peace Prize in October 1919 for his efforts to create a model of world peace, he remained personally embarrassed and angry at his country's refusal to be a part of that model. As a result of its rejection of the treaty, the United States technically remained at war with Germany until July 21, 1921, when it formally came to a close with Congress's quiet passage of the Knox- Porter Resolution.

Bill of Rights

The first ten Amendments of the Constitution. They were passed and added to the Constitution all at the same time. A formal statement of the fundamental rights of the people. Each Amendment guarantees some essential right that should be afforded to all people. Anti-Federalists argued that the Constitution did not contain this. 14th Amendment applied this to states.

Progressives

The following fueled _______ reform: industrialization with all its increase in productivity and the number of consumer goods created unemployment, waste of natural resources, abuses of corporate power. Growing cities, influx of immigrants, and rise of mid level managerial class upset traditional class alignments. Massive depression (1893-1897). These were mainly urban in residence and orientation. Mostly middle class, mostly white, often young professionals. Strong faith in progress and the ability of educated people to overcome problems. Wanted educated professionals to address social problems. Rejected the socialists as too extreme. ________ education - John Dewey advocated personal growth and "hands-on" learning vs vote memorization. Promoted free public schools. Pushed enrollments to record levels. Less successful in assessing how well schools were actually doing. These kinds of legal theories struggled at first. William Howard Taft proved to be less of this than Teddy Roosevelt in tarred reform and conservation. Taft kept the nomination but many of the more ________ Republicans walked out. Along with Teddy, they organized the National __________ "Bull Moose" Party. The platform included a long list of these kinds of demands. Many "Bull Moose" Republicans never went back to the Republican party. Most of these and reformers became part of Franklin Roosevelts New Deal coalition. Once major issues had been addressed, they began to come across as busy-bodies trying to legislate their version of morality. This Era was a time of wide-ranging causes and varied movements where activists and reformers were reacting to the challenges that faced the country at the end of the 19th century: rapid urban sprawl, immigration, corruption, industrial working conditions, the growth of large corporations, women rights, and surging anti-black violence and white supremacy in the South. What united them beyond their different backgrounds and causes was a set of uniting principles. Most strove for perfection of democracy, which required the expansion of suffrage to worthy citizens and the restriction of political participation for those considered "unfit" on account of health, education, or race. They also agreed that democracy had to be balanced with an emphasis on efficiency, a reliance on science and technology, and difference to the expertise of professionals. They repudiated party politics but looked to government to regulate the modern market economy. Saw themselves as the agents of social justice and reform, as well as the stewards and guides of workers and the urban poor. It was not until Theodore Roosevelt unexpectedly became president that the federal government would engage in their reforms. Before then, this belief was work done by people, for the people. What knit them together was the feeling that the country was moving at a dangerous pace in a dangerous direction and required the efforts of everyday Americans to help put it back on track. Considered the concept of perfected democracy vital to the growth of the country. Felt that Americans needed to exert more control over the government. This shift would ultimately lead to a system of government that was better able to address the needs of its citizens. Pushed forward their agenda of direct democracy through the passage of three state-level reforms. Another series of reforms pushed forward by them that sought to side step the lower of special interests in state legislatures and restore the democratic political process were three election innovations - initiative, referendum, and recall. Pushed for democratic reform that affected the federal government. Lobbied for approval of the 17th Amendment. William Jennings Bryan, the 1896 Democratic presidential candidate who received significant support from the Populist party, was among these who championed the cause. Fought to rid politics of inefficiency, waste, and corruption. Those in large cities were particularly frustrated with the corruption and favoritism of machine politics, which wasted enormous sums of taxpayer money and ultimately stalled the progress of cities for the sake of entranced politicians. Worked towards social justice by focusing on those who suffered due to pervasive inequality, such as African Americans, other ethnic groups, and women. Prohibition garnered support from a key group of these. The progressive era also witnessed a wave of radicalism, with leaders who believed that America was beyond reform and that only had a complete revolution of sorts would bring about the necessary changes. One reason why mainstream ________ felt the need to succeed on issues of social inequity was because radicals offered remedies that middle class Americans considered far more dangerous. These groups made tremendous strides on issues involving democracy, efficiency, and social justice. But they found that their grassroots approach was ill-equipped to push back against the most powerful beneficiaries of growing inequality, economic concentration, and corruption - big business. In their fight against the trusts, they needed the leadership of the federal government, and they found it in Teddy Roosevelt through an accident in history. Taft angered these in his party when he created the US Chamber of Commerce in 1912, viewed by many as an attempt to offset the growing influence of the labor union movement at the time. The riff between Taft and these in his party widened when the President supported conservative party candidates. They were not a homogenous group: The movement counted African Americans, both men and women, and urban as well as rural dwellers among its ranks. Some efforts pushed for federal legislation, most of these initiatives took place at the state and local levels, as they sought to harness public support to place pressure on politicians. While radicals generally shared the goals of their more mainstream counterparts, their strategies differed significantly.

Recall

The political reform that allows voters to remove elected officials from office.

Referendum

The political reform that allows voters to vote on legislation proposed by the legislature.

Stock Market Crash of 1929

The prosperity of the decade came to a screeching halt in 1929 with this. Even at the peak of the boom only about 1.5 million Americans owned stock. However, many investors had bought stocks on margin (with borrowed money). In order to attract more investors, banks and brokers had begun to loan investors up to 90 percent of stocks cost. When stock values began to fall, small investors faced a margin call and were asked to repay some or all of the money - which they didn't have. Banks faced massive losses on bad loans and this led many banks to fail. Since stock prices had been inflated beyond all reason, the crash represented a loss of over $26 billion on paper. The "roaring twenties" skidded to an abrupt halt. Ended a decade of Republican ascendancy.

House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC)

This held numerous public hearings & ruined the reputations of blacklisted individuals, including many from TV, radio, & the movies. Hollywood generally avoided political films, but released a few anti-communist potboilers to improve its public image after this's investigation of the movie industry. In addition to loyalty review boards, this, established in 1938 to investigate suspected Nazi sympathizers, after World War II also sought to root out suspected Communists in business, academia, and the media. It was particularly interested in Hollywood because it feared that Communist sympathizers might use motion pictures as pro-Soviet propaganda. Witnesses were subpoenaed and required to testify before the committee; refusal could result in imprisonment. Those who invoked Fifth Amendment protections, or were otherwise suspected of Communist sympathies, often lost their jobs or found themselves on a blacklist, which prevented them from securing employment. Notable artists who were blacklisted in the 1940s and 1950s include composer Leonard Bernstein, novelist Dashiell Hammett, playwright and screenwriter Lillian Hellman, actor and singer Paul Robeson, and musician Artie Shaw. The hearings also targeted Hollywood. When Senator McCarthy called eleven "unfriendly witnesses" to testify before Congress about Communism in the film industry in October 1947, only playwright Bertolt Brecht answered questions. The other ten, who refused to testify, were cited for contempt of Congress on November 24. The next day, film executives declared that the so-called "Hollywood Ten" would no longer be employed in the industry until they had sworn they were not Communists. Eventually, more than three hundred actors, screenwriters, directors, musicians, and other entertainment professionals were placed on the industry blacklist. Some never worked in Hollywood again; others directed films or wrote screenplays under assumed names.

refrigerated railroad cars

This invention allowed animals to be slaughtered before shipping. This helped cut transportation costs and helped cattle ranching become a big business. Gustavus Swift promoted the railway refrigerator car for shipping meat. Invented by Philip Armour. By 1880s, refrigerated rail cars enabled Chicago-based packers such as Gustavus Swift and this man to concentrate messy slaughterhouses in the West and ship only profitable fresh beef.

Dawes Act

This of 1887, named after a reformer and senator from Massachusetts, which struck a deadly blow to the Indian way of life. In what was essentially an Indian version of the original Homestead Act, this permitted the federal government to divide the lands of any tribe and grant 160 acres of farmland or 320 acres of grazing land to each head of family, with lesser amounts to others. In a nod towards the paternal relationship with which whites viewed Indians—similar to the justification of the previous treatment of African American slaves—this permitted the federal government to hold an individual Indian's newly acquired land in trust for twenty- five years. Only then would he obtain full title and be granted the citizenship rights that land ownership entailed. Under this, Indians were given the most arid, useless land. Further, inefficiencies and corruption in the government meant that much of the land due to be allotted to Indians was simply deemed "surplus" and claimed by settlers. Once all allotments were determined, the remaining tribal lands—as much as eighty million acres—were sold to white American settlers. Reservation lands were broken into 160 acre allotments, one per head of household; titles deferred for 25 years. Plains tribes had no experience & little interest in farming; many were swindled out of their land. Congress finally ended the allotment system & returned to tribal ownership in 1934.

The Gospel of Wealth

This was a book written by Carnegie that described the responsibility of the rich to be philanthropists. This softened the harshness of Social Darwinism as well as promoted the idea of philanthropy. Carnegie's famous essay expounded on his beliefs. In it, he borrowed from Herbert Spencer's theory of social Darwinism, which held that society developed much like plant or animal life through a process of evolution in which the most fit and capable enjoyed the greatest material and social success. Carnegie applauded American capitalism for creating a society where, through hard work, ingenuity, and a bit of luck, someone like himself could amass a fortune. In return for that opportunity, Carnegie wrote that the wealthy should find proper uses for their wealth by funding hospitals, libraries, colleges, the arts, and more. This spelled out that responsibility. As Carnegie said in this, "the poor enjoy what the rich could not before afford. What were the luxuries have become the necessaries of life. The laborer has now more comforts than the landlord had a few generations ago." In many ways, Carnegie was correct. The decline in prices and the cost of living meant that the industrial era offered many Americans relatively better lives in 1900 than they had only decades before. For some Americans, there were also increased opportunities for upward mobility. For the multitudes in the working class, however, conditions in the factories and at home remained deplorable. The difficulties they faced led many workers to question an industrial order in which a handful of wealthy Americans built their fortunes on the backs of workers.

New Deal Achievements

This was the peak of a long arc of progressive/liberal politics. Many measures promoted during the Progressive Era finally succeeded during this: unionization, end of child labor, nationalized social safety net, etc. Helped prevent armed revolution & gave US a renewed sense of hope. Contributed infrastructure (dams, highways, parks, etc.) at fairly low cost. Promoted development of areas that a fully free, unregulated market wouldn't have found profitable (TVA, rural electrification). Established that government intervention in the economy (i.e., a moderate social safety net) could help ordinary citizens lead better lives, & that regulated capitalism was more egalitarian/democratic and served to limit human greed and the worst excesses of "Social Darwinism". Saved the Banks. Glass-Steagall Act. Major measures of the Second New Deal addressed long-sought progressive goals. Provided old age pensions. Set hours and work conditions for most workers. Subsidized electric power in areas unprofitable to private enterprise. Public works jobs for all sorts of workers. Followed international course after initial flirtation with nationalism. Goal was to stimulate international trade and boost US exports. Roosevelt introduced many state-level reforms that later formed the basis of this as well as worked with several advisors who later formed the Brains Trust that advised his federal agenda. Together, these men, along with others, advised Roosevelt through the earliest days of this and helped to craft significant legislative programs for congressional review and approval. Later this legislation created the Federal Housing Authority, which eventually standardized the thirty-year mortgage and promoted the housing boom of the post- World War II era. Throughout his presidency, Roosevelt frequently pointed to the TVA as one of the glowing accomplishments of this and its ability to bring together the machinery of the federal government along with private interests to revitalize a regional economy. It put new capital into ailing banks. It rescued homeowners and farmers from foreclosure and helped people keep their homes. It offered some direct relief to the unemployed poor. It gave new incentives to farmers and industry alike, and put people back to work in an effort to both create jobs and boost consumer spending. The total number of working Americans rose from twenty-four to twenty-seven million between 1933 and 1935, in contrast to the seven- million-worker decline during the Hoover administration. Perhaps most importantly, the first of these changed the pervasive pessimism that had held the country in its grip since the end of 1929. While the First of these focused largely on stemming the immediate suffering of the American people, the Second of these put in place legislation that changed America's social safety net for good. Although he was still reeling from the Supreme Court's invalidation of key statutes, he decided to face his re-election bid in 1936 by unveiling another wave of legislation that he dubbed the Second of these. Whereas the policies of the first hundred days may have shored up public confidence and stopped the most drastic of the problems, the second hundred days changed the face of America for the next sixty years. With the implementation of the Second of these, Roosevelt also created the country's present-day social safety net. The Social Security Act established programs intended to help the most vulnerable: the elderly, the unemployed, the disabled, and the young. Related to this act, Congress also passed a law on unemployment insurance, to be funded by a tax on employers, and programs for unwed mothers, as well as for those who were blind, deaf, or disabled. The legacy of the this is in part seen in the vast increase in national power: The federal government accepted responsibility for the nation's economic stability and prosperity. In retrospect, the majority of historians and economists judge it to have been a tremendous success. This not only established minimum standards for wages, working conditions, and overall welfare, it also allowed millions of Americans to hold onto their homes, farms, and savings. This state that embraced its responsibility for the citizens' welfare and proved willing to use its power and resources to spread the nation's prosperity lasted. Many would also agree that the postwar economic stability of the 1950s found its roots in the stabilizing influences introduced by social security, the job stability that union contracts provided, and federal housing mortgage programs introduced in this. The environment of the American West in particular, benefited from it's projects such as the Soil Conservation program. Despite the obvious gender limitations, many women strongly supported this, as much for its direct relief handouts for women as for its employment opportunities for men.

The New Deal achievements

This was the peak of a long arc of progressive/liberal politics. Many measures promoted during the Progressive Era finally succeeded during this: unionization, end of child labor, nationalized social safety net, etc. Helped prevent armed revolution & gave US a renewed sense of hope. Contributed infrastructure (dams, highways, parks, etc.) at fairly low cost. Promoted development of areas that a fully free, unregulated market wouldn't have found profitable (TVA, rural electrification). Established that government intervention in the economy (i.e., a moderate social safety net) could help ordinary citizens lead better lives, & that regulated capitalism was more egalitarian/democratic and served to limit human greed and the worst excesses of "Social Darwinism". Saved the Banks. Glass-Steagall Act. Major measures of the Second New Deal addressed long-sought progressive goals. Provided old age pensions. Set hours and work conditions for most workers. Subsidized electric power in areas unprofitable to private enterprise. Public works jobs for all sorts of workers. Followed international course after initial flirtation with nationalism. Goal was to stimulate international trade and boost US exports. Roosevelt introduced many state-level reforms that later formed the basis of this as well as worked with several advisors who later formed the Brains Trust that advised his federal agenda. Together, these men, along with others, advised Roosevelt through the earliest days of this and helped to craft significant legislative programs for congressional review and approval. Later this legislation created the Federal Housing Authority, which eventually standardized the thirty-year mortgage and promoted the housing boom of the post- World War II era. Throughout his presidency, Roosevelt frequently pointed to the TVA as one of the glowing accomplishments of this and its ability to bring together the machinery of the federal government along with private interests to revitalize a regional economy. It put new capital into ailing banks. It rescued homeowners and farmers from foreclosure and helped people keep their homes. It offered some direct relief to the unemployed poor. It gave new incentives to farmers and industry alike, and put people back to work in an effort to both create jobs and boost consumer spending. The total number of working Americans rose from twenty-four to twenty-seven million between 1933 and 1935, in contrast to the seven- million-worker decline during the Hoover administration. Perhaps most importantly, the first of these changed the pervasive pessimism that had held the country in its grip since the end of 1929. While the First of these focused largely on stemming the immediate suffering of the American people, the Second of these put in place legislation that changed America's social safety net for good. Although he was still reeling from the Supreme Court's invalidation of key statutes, he decided to face his re-election bid in 1936 by unveiling another wave of legislation that he dubbed the Second of these. Whereas the policies of the first hundred days may have shored up public confidence and stopped the most drastic of the problems, the second hundred days changed the face of America for the next sixty years. With the implementation of the Second of these, Roosevelt also created the country's present-day social safety net. The Social Security Act established programs intended to help the most vulnerable: the elderly, the unemployed, the disabled, and the young. Related to this act, Congress also passed a law on unemployment insurance, to be funded by a tax on employers, and programs for unwed mothers, as well as for those who were blind, deaf, or disabled. The legacy of the this is in part seen in the vast increase in national power: The federal government accepted responsibility for the nation's economic stability and prosperity. In retrospect, the majority of historians and economists judge it to have been a tremendous success. This not only established minimum standards for wages, working conditions, and overall welfare, it also allowed millions of Americans to hold onto their homes, farms, and savings. This state that embraced its responsibility for the citizens' welfare and proved willing to use its power and resources to spread the nation's prosperity lasted. Many would also agree that the postwar economic stability of the 1950s found its roots in the stabilizing influences introduced by social security, the job stability that union contracts provided, and federal housing mortgage programs introduced in this. The environment of the American West in particular, benefited from it's projects such as the Soil Conservation program. Despite the obvious gender limitations, many women strongly supported this, as much for its direct relief handouts for women as for its employment opportunities for men.

reasons for atomic bomb in WWII

This weapon was used by the U.S. as it was considered invasion of Japan would be far too costly in casualties and that it would bring about a faster end to the war. All belligerents in World War II sought to develop powerful and devastating weaponry. As early as 1939, German scientists had discovered how to split uranium atoms, the technology that would ultimately allow for the creation of this type of bomb. Albert Einstein, who had emigrated to the United States in 1933 to escape the Nazis, urged President Roosevelt to launch an American research project, and Roosevelt agreed to do so, with reservations. In late 1941, the program received its code name: the Manhattan Project. Located at Los Alamos, New Mexico, the Manhattan Project ultimately employed 150,000 people and cost some $2 billion. In July 1945, the project's scientists successfully tested the first of these bombs. In the spring of 1945, the military began to prepare for the possible use of a bomb by choosing appropriate targets. Suspecting that the immediate bomb blast would extend over one mile and secondary effects would include fire damage, a compact city of significant military value with densely built frame buildings seemed to be the best target. Eventually, the city of Hiroshima, the headquarters of the Japanese Second Army, and the communications and supply hub for all of southern Japan, was chosen. The city of Kokura was chosen as the primary target of the second bomb, and Nagasaki, an industrial center producing war materiel and the largest seaport in southern Japan, was selected as a secondary target. The Enola Gay, a B-29 bomber named after its pilot's mother, dropped a bomb known as "Little Boy" on Hiroshima at 8:15 a.m. Monday morning, August 6, 1945. A huge mushroom cloud rose above the city. Survivors sitting down for breakfast or preparing to go to school recalled seeing a bright light and then being blown across the room. The immense heat of the blast melted stone and metal, and ignited fires throughout the city. When Japan refused to surrender, a second atomic bomb, named Fat Man, was dropped on Nagasaki on August 9, 1945. At least sixty thousand people were killed at Nagasaki. Kokura, the primary target, had been shrouded in clouds on that morning and thus had escaped destruction. It is impossible to say with certainty how many died in the two attacks; the heat of the bomb blasts incinerated or vaporized many of the victims. The decision to use nuclear weapons is widely debated. Why exactly did the United States deploy a bomb? The fierce resistance that the Japanese forces mounted during their early campaigns led American planners to believe that any invasion of the Japanese home islands would be exceedingly bloody. According to some estimates, as many as 250,000 Americans might die in securing a final victory. Such considerations undoubtedly influenced President Truman's decision. Truman, who had not known about the Manhattan Project until Roosevelt's death, also may not have realized how truly destructive it was. Indeed, some of the scientists who had built the bomb were surprised by its power. One question that has not been fully answered is why the United States dropped the second bomb on Nagasaki. As some scholars have noted, if Truman's intention was to eliminate the need for a home island invasion, he could have given Japan more time to respond after bombing Hiroshima. He did not, however. The second bombing may have been intended to send a message to Stalin, who was becoming intransigent regarding postwar Europe. If it is indeed true that Truman had political motivations for using the bombs, then the destruction of Nagasaki might have been the first salvo of the Cold War with the Soviet Union. And yet, other historians have pointed out that the war had unleashed such massive atrocities against civilians by all belligerents—the United States included—that by the summer of 1945, the president no longer needed any particular reason to use his entire nuclear arsenal. Whatever the true reasons for their use, the bombs had the desired effect of getting Japan to surrender. Even before the attacks, the conventional bombings of Japan, the defeat of its forces in the field, and the entry of the Soviet Union into the war had convinced the Imperial Council that they had to end the war. They had hoped to negotiate the terms of the peace, but Emperor Hirohito intervened after the destruction of Nagasaki and accepted unconditional surrender. Although many Japanese shuddered at the humiliation of defeat, most were relieved that the war was over. Japan's industries and cities had been thoroughly destroyed, and the immediate future looked bleak as they awaited their fate at the hands of the American occupation forces.

Homestead Act

To assist the settlers in their move westward and transform the migration from a trickle into a steady flow, Congress passed two significant pieces of legislation in 1862: this and the Pacific Railway Act. Born largely out of President Abraham Lincoln's growing concern that a potential Union defeat in the early stages of the Civil War might result in the expansion of slavery westward, Lincoln hoped that such laws would encourage the expansion of a "free soil" mentality across the West. This allowed any head of household, or individual over the age of twenty-one—including unmarried women—to receive a parcel of 160 acres for only a nominal filing fee. All that recipients were required to do in exchange was to "improve the land" within a period of five years of taking possession. The standards for improvement were minimal: Owners could clear a few acres, build small houses or barns, or maintain livestock. Under this act, the government transferred over 270 million acres of public domain land to private citizens. The passage of this and completion of the first transcontinental railroad meant that, by 1870, the possibility of western migration was opened to Americans of more modest means. What started as a trickle became a steady flow of migration that would last until the end of the century. As settlers and homesteaders moved westward to improve the land given to them through this, they faced a difficult and often insurmountable challenge. The land was difficult to farm, there were few building materials, and harsh weather, insects, and inexperience led to frequent setbacks. The prohibitive prices charged by the first railroad lines made it expensive to ship crops to market or have goods sent out. Although many farms failed, some survived and grew into large "bonanza" farms that hired additional labor and were able to benefit enough from economies of scale to grow profitable. While land was essentially free under this, all other farm necessities cost money and were initially difficult to obtain in the newly settled parts of the country where market economies did not yet fully reach. Horses, livestock, wagons, wells, fencing, seed, and fertilizer were all critical to survival, but often hard to come by as the population initially remained sparsely settled across vast tracts of land. 1862, offered 160 acre parcels to heads of household who agreed to occupy and improve them. Later acts increased the size of parcels. Several hundred thousand claims were later "proved up" by settlers. Free land was a powerful magnet for those living in crowded Eastern Cities.

Labor Laws

Until the 1930s, the Supreme Court struck down most legislation passed to protect workers arguing that such laws made American business less competitive.