History of English Midterm 2
Middle English Spelling
"th" for [θ] and [ð], "gh" for [x], "ch" for [tʃ], "sh" for [ʃ], "qu" for [qw], "y" for [i] or [j] or to replace thorn. long vowels indicated by doubling the vowel or by adding an e after a following consonant; not conventionalized, but a creative craft.
New conventions brought in by Norman Scribes
"th" for [θ] and [ð], "gh" for [x], "ch" for [tʃ], "sh" for [ʃ], "qu" for [qw], "y" for [i] or [j] or to replace thorn. long vowels indicated by doubling the vowel or by adding an e after a following consonant; not conventionalized, but a creative craft.
History of conventionalization of spelling and figures
*mostly covered in conventionalization of spelling*
Different periods of vocab borrowing from French
1066-1250: French words that English subjects borrowed form their Norman French masters; mostly limited to cultural domains dominated by Normans (religion, military, nobility); assembly, authority, council, court, frown, attorney, bail, bar, bill, etc. 1250-1450: French words that French-speaking masters brought with them when speaking "English"; especially, but not exclusively, words for things, events, relations, properties common in Anglo-Norman nobility's "universe of discourse"; fashion, dress, coat, gown, dinner, supper, feast, etc.
Swift's Proposal
1717, Johnathan Swift published open letter to prime minister (Earl of Oxford) formally proposing the issuing of a royal character for the creation of an English Language Academy. "A proposal for correcting, improving, and ascertaining the English tongue." Believed that the decision should be made by those "best qualified" regardless of job, etc. and that these people could gather together and determine the rules, effectively forming an Academy. Closest they came to an Academy, but the Queen died so RIP that.
"Oxford English Dictionary"
1857, a committee was appointed to collect words not in dictionaries, with a view to publishing a supplement to them. Consisted of Herbert Coleridge, Dean Trench, and FJ Furnivall. Passed resolutions in 1858 for a completely new dictionary because supplementaries would be insufficient. Two goals were to record every word that could be found in the English language since 100 and to exhibit the history of each - forms, varying definitions, etc. It would include full quotations to support definitions. They called for tons of volunteers to help out and used over six million little slips with quotes to consolidate the first edition. Though it's based on usage, it wound up having a strong prescriptive influence because people took it as the end all be all to the English language, that words could mean nothing else unless the dictionary said so.
Synecdochic relation in standardization
A Synecdochic Process is when a part is used to describe a whole; you take one variety of something (i.e., a language) and treat it as the absolute whole. In the Renaissance, this was English spelling and vocabulary, and in the Enlightenment, grammar and semantics.
Creole language
A language that develops when children of Pidgin speakers adopt the language as their mother tongue and pass it down through generations.
Inkhorn Controversy
A product that arose due to the printing revolution. Creativity in borrowing and word-formation led to great diversity in vocabulary. Different individuals could not use or understand the same vocabulary. vs. Writing professionals wanted books to be acceptable to the largest market possible, requiring that potential consumers should be able to understand what was published
Port-Royal Grammar, rationalism, and its effect on standardization movement
Arnault and Lancelot (1660) "Grammaire generale et raisonee. 1. Language is a picture of thought. 2. Thought is regulated by the rules of logic, i.e., what human reason consists in. 3. Logic is the same in everyone (how God made human minds). 4. Language is regulated by grammar, which represents the mental rules of logic. 5. Therefore, every language most contain an underlying logical/rational grammar. Logic is to the mind as grammar is to language. 6. However: apparent that different languages have different grammars. 7. Therefore, every language must have two grammars: the underlying rational grammar shared by every language and the superficial culture-specific grammar that varies from language to language. 8. To be an effective vehicle of thought, the superficial grammar of a particular language should mirror as closely as possible the underlying rational grammar. This makes it so that grammarians start evaluating languages on how "well-made" they are, making them later seek to "correct, improve, and refine" the language. People sought to reduce the language to rule, refine it to remove defects, and fix it permanently.
Strong to weak verbs
Around 50% of the 312 OE strong verbs entirely disappeared, and another 30% shifted to weak conjugations: creep/crept, sneak/sneaked, shear/sheared, fly/flied (gained 'd' or 't' or 'ed' ending)
Latimer
Basically put, translators for OE/ME and French
"Ideology of Correctness/The Standard"
Before the printing revolution, language wasn't standardized, and there was no record of anyone seeing a need for change in this regard. There were no dictionaries and grammar books to dictate what was conventional spelling and what were English words, so correctness was basically just however you spoke; however, language acted as a social index too soooooo..
Meaning of "fix and ascertain" the language
Belief that arose around the printing revolution that language needed to be grounded and consistent; people believed they could "determine" what made up "English" in order to institute a formal/standard set grammar, spelling, pronunciation, etc. that could be used when printing books to make a quicker buck.
Great Vowel Shift
Change in pronunciation of vowel sounds into early Modern English
Loss of inflections (examples?)
Conversion from OE to ME dropped some inflections, including all dual endings, most plural nominative endings (converted to mostly just 's'), nearly all adjective endings (except for 'no ending' and 'e'), etc.
Project for a New English Dictionary
DICTIONARY TO REFERENCE LANGUAGE AS ITS DEVELOPED AND BEEN DOCUMENTED. That would be the OED. I've talked about that enough now.
Early dictionaries
Earliest dictionaries came about in the early 18th century, inspired by Mulcaster. They were hard dictionaries that often explained the English words in Latin, and the first published was by Robert Cawdrey (A Table Alphabeticall of Hard Words, 1604). These eventually would lead to Johnson's.
Conventionalization of spelling
English spelling was inconsistent which was bad for printers because they wanted to be able to print one version of a text for quicker and better business. Thomas Smith wrote a Dialogue Concerning the Correct and Emended Writing of the English Language in 1568 that had like 34 letters with marking for long vowels that didn't go over well. John Hart wrote An Orthographie in 1569 where we made use of special characters for "ch" "sh" and "th" but didn't win over favor. Richard Mulcaster wrote Elementarie in 1582 and decided you couldn't spell everything phonetically, so he went with what the "prestigious" used as their spellings. Tried to use "common sense" to remove defects of the writing system, which he believed should be based on popular approval. Attitude of reform really consolidated with Samuel Johnson's dictionary in 1755.
New language ideology resulting from printing revolution
Evolution of standardized spelling and vocabulary throughout the printing revolution. English formally became standardized in the books in the mid 18th century, which caused a change in attitude towards speaker of "non-standard" English (creates prejudice). Language as a social index increased class mobility and community/solidarity/identity. However, the original motivation for this was profit due to the printing revolution (standardization would make it easier to print books in large numbers as opposed to printing in multiple dialects).
The Doctrine of Usage
For language to be an effective vehicle of communication, it is simply necessary for its use to be agreed on. The grammar of a language is independent of the logic of the mind. It is an expression of the spirit of the people ("le genie du peuple). Languages always change. There will always be variation, uncertainties, and irregularities. As people change, so will their language. No language is logically better than any other. In grammar and dictionaries, the usage that should be codified is that of the "best authors." Joseph Priestly: Rudiments of English Grammar, 1761 George Campbell: Philosophy of Rhetoric, 1776 Adam Smith: Essay on the First Formation of Languages, 1769
Johnson's dictionary
I've talked about this.
Other factors influencing standardization
Increase in literacy and education that printing made possible, problems that language diversity posed to technology and business of printing, prestige of languages such as Latin (conventionalized), education led to belief that there was a "literate" way to speak, language as a social index, etc.
History and consequences of Printing Revolution
Invented in Germany in the middle of the fifteenth century, introduced into England by Caxton in 1476; rapid progress printed over 35000 books by the year 1500. Majority was in Latin because Modern English wasn't standardized. Over 20000 English titles appeared by 1640. Spread of literary, education, and eventually standardization of the language.
Writing professionals in printing revolution
John Hart, An Orthographie (1570) William Bullokar, Booke at Large (1580) Alexander Gill, Logonomia Anglica (T Smith 1568) Sir John Cheke, The Gospel According to St Matthew (1550) Mulcaster, Elementarie (1582) Thomas Smith, Dialogue Concerning the Correct and Emended Writing of the English Language (1568) Samuel Johnson's Dictionary? (1755) John Cheke (1561) and Thomas Wilson (1553) against Inkhorn Terms John Dryden, In Favor of Enrichment Pettie, Civil Conversation (1586)
Problem of linguistic difference in the Renaissance
Linguistic inferiority complex: English compares poorly to the classical languages, which were the languages of great nations and cultures. Linguistic superiority complex: English is extremely diverse, with many dialects which are inferior and should be replaced by a better national standard form.
Reasons for East Midland dialect becoming the standard
Linguistics compromise between southern and northern dialects, most populous and richest area of England at that time, including the great learning centers, had become the preferred form among merchant and aristocratic classes in London due to migrations at the end of the medieval period, Royal Court was in London (prestige and power), London was a place people traveled to if they traveled at all, and London was where the first printing presses were set up towards the end of the 15th century.
Rise of the vernaculars
Literature had begun to be written in vernacular languages as opposed to classics (Chaucer's Canterbury Tales, 1392). More and more authors, etc began to use the vernacular, though it didn't have the same level of "prestige" as classics, in the eyes of some, so consolidation and convetionalization came with spelling and vocabulary in order to make printing more efficient and to give the language a greater sense of organization or prestige. Also enrichment was a thing.
Arguments and evidence for Pidginization Hypothesis
ME is a combination of OE and French. Evidence includes increased use and importance of French words, grammatical vs natural gender (shift from OE to ME), ME lost almost all synthetic elements, productivity of word formation decreases in ME (affixes), and latimers were necessary.
Old English to Middle English changes in grammar for each part of speech
Nouns: Elimination of dative case endings; nom sing 'no ending' stays same, gen sing 's' stays the same, acc sing 'no ending' stays same, and all plu endings became 's', aside from irregulars (foot/foots/foot/feet/feets/feet) Adjective: strong singular form is 'no ending' and strong plural, weak singular, and weak plural form is 'e' Definite article: everything condenses to 'the' Pronouns: no dual, I/me/my(n), thou/thee/thy(n), he/him/him, she/hir/hir, it/it/hit, we/us/our(es), ye/you/your(es), they/them/their
Wilkins' goal in writing "Essay on a Real Character"
Philosophically-oriented essay meant to point out the imperfect areas of language in need of correction and propose improvements; he proposes an entirely new universal language based on lines and shit that he'll think merchants, traders, diplomats, etc. will someday use as an auxiliary to existing natural languages. It's supposed to be a written representation of language without pronunciation for individual parts, wherein each character or combination of characters represents a certain word... he was basing it on Chinese jfc
Pidginization and features of a pidgin languge
Pidginization is the process of forming a language that acts as a bridge between two languages whose speakers must of necessity communicate with each other, but have very little time to learn each others languages. They've been known to arise from trade relations, colonial administrations, slave plantations, shipmates, etc. Characteristics include: only spoken as a second language, restricted universe of discourse, and reduced vocabulary, phonology,and grammar (word-formation and syntax). Over time, if Pidgin speakers teach their children the language and they adopt it through generations, it becomes a Creole.
Printing Revolution's role in motivating standardization of language
Printing needed a large market, and the technology of printing required writing in one way to make multiple books or changing out the letters for each copy in different dialects; books led to a vast increase in literate education and therefore literacy, and books were vastly more accessible. The East Midland Dialect became a sort of social index because of this.
Reimposition of conservative constraints on language
Printing revolution brought forth the idea that there was a right way to speak; language became a social index once again. The ideology that came forth was that the shape and development of a language could and should be fixed. Spelling and vocabulary were the first to experience conventionalization.
Substitutes for an Academy (Lowth and Johnson)
Robert Lowth: 1762, A Short Introduction to English Grammar; proposes that English has no rules and that a grammar lets you determine whether a phrase is inherently right or not; says there are logical principles common to all languages and that although English has been cultivating, it hasn't increased in accuracy in the past 200 years. Samuel Johnson: 1755, Dictionary of the English Language. Defines the words for himself and though it's prescriptivist and doesn't really take off, it inspires future dictionaries.
The Royal Society/Origin of Academy Movement
Royal Society served as a coordinator and clearinghouse for English scientific endeavaors; proposed a solution in the 1660s that the English language played a crucial role in. Leading proponents were religious moderates (Latitudinarian Anglicans and moderate Puritans). Argued that English prose of scientists should be stripped of ornamentation and emotive language, instead being plain, precise, clear, and nonassertive in style.. Evidence and reasoning were supposed to take the head, not emotion. Liberal Arts were reigned in with Mechanic Arts. Led to movements to write universal languages. Locke wrote in the Essay of Human Understanding and other works that he wished scientific prose could be extended to all prose. All of this gave rise to the idea that perhaps a plain style was best, and in the face of creativity and the uncertainty of English in comparison to fixed languages like Latin, the Academy Movement began (18th Century)
Academy Movement
Special committee established in the Royal Society with the Rationalist goal of correcting, improving, and regulating the English language, i.e., to act as a Royal Academy of the English Language. The committee assigned Bishop John Wilkins the task of identifying the areas of the language that are imperfect and in need of correction and proposing improvements; this was his "Essay toward a real character and a philosophical language" (1668). Ultimately it failed and the Royal Society stopped trying to establish an Academy. Originally, they were basing the idea of of the Accademia della Crusca (Florence, 1582) that desired to expel foreign corruptions of Italian in favor of a pure language, and the Academie Francaise (Paris, 1635) that tried to give definite rules to French to make it pure. A lot of this was inspired by the classical languages like Latin that were seen as "pure and rule governed and set in stone"
Influence on spelling: Analogy
Spelling a word based on conventions seen in other words. Examples include holp/holpen becoming help/helped because of the general -ed rule in English. Also, would/could/should.
Influence on spelling: Phonetics
Spelling a word based on how it sounds. Problem with this is that there are dialectal differences and temporal change that causes there to be different pronunciations (i.e., the Great Vowel Shift, etc.). Knight used to pronounce the k but now it doesn't.
Influence on spelling: Tradition
Spelling a word based on how you've always seen it spelled. Problem with this is there are multiple spellings, and some people aren't even consistent in their own spelling.
Influence on spelling: Perceived Etymology
Spelling a word based on what you believe to be its etymology, even if you're wrong. Dette became Debt because in Latin is was Debitum. Problem is that people weren't always right, which resulted in some totally tubular pronunciations, am I right?
OED as the culmination of the drive to standardize the language
The Oxford English Dictionary drew upon textual evidence and legitimate usage of words in order to compile a list of all words in the English language with several definitions for each, including like six or seven pages just for the word "carry." While its intents were originally good (i.e., even though it relied on actual usage of the language to dictate what made it up instead of making its own determinations without regards to others [I'm talkin bout you, Johnson), it wound up being a prescriptivist piece because people interpreted as containing the only possible meanings for words. It draws from a large number of individuals recording every occurrence of certain words in literature and then recording its usage.
Definition of standardization and standard language
The Standard form of a language is the way that those in authority in a community of speakers themselves recognize and promote as /the/ way of writing and speaking the language.
Universe of discourse
The complete range of objects, events, attributes, relations, ideas, etc. that are expressed, assumed, or implied in a discussion. This is limited in Pidgin languages.
Romantic philosophy of language
The history and character of a nation are reflected in the characteristics of its language (historicism), and these language characteristics shape who the people of a nation are today (relativism). Ultimately, language reflects the spirit of a people at a time and acts as a vehicle of cultural continuity.
Meaning of "correcting, improving, and refining" the language
The idea that English was largely imperfect and needed to be edited in order to become a proper language, like Latin. The intent was to determine what parts of the language were already "well-made" and "fix" those that weren't, and to improve it as a vehicle of thought, knowledge, reasoning, and understanding in order to theoretically benefit the people who use that language.
Richard Trench
Tons of shit about boundless and historic truths and wanting the knowledge of a language in order to achieve the excitement of the mind, yada yada yada, fossil history and ethics contained within the past, studying a nation's language means studying its speakers, the whole point was that there was as resurgence in passion about language as it was and all the evidence we have to go back on and track the development of the language. Richard Trench, On the Study of Words 1851
Arguments and evidence for Continuity Hypothesis
Two senses of continuity: ME is a continuation of the same OE language, and the changes that took place are a result of a domino effect. Fixed initial stress > weakening > leveling of unstressed vowels > indistinguishable inflections > loss of inflections > need for new way to show grammatical relations > English becomes analytic.
Reason vs Usage in standardization arguments
Usage argument states that language should be standardized around how people actually use it, while reason argument states that there's an ideal theory of what a language should look like. The problem with the usage argument is that so many people speak different dialects, which could be difficult to consolidate into one standardized language, while a problem with the reason argument is that it exists as an institutional social index.
Pronunciation changes From Old English to Middle English
Vowels: [a:] to [ɔ:], [ae:] to [ε:], [ae] to [a], unrounding of [y], unstressed vowels to [ə], loss of final [ə] pronunciation, adding of [ɔi] diphthong. Consonants: Voiceless and voiced fricatives no longer allophonic variants of same phoneme (font vs vont), reduction of consonant clusters ([hl] hlaf, [hr] hring, [hn] hnecca, [hw] hwat, [wr] wrong, [kn] knee, [sw] sword, [tw] twa), [ɣ] to [w] (gehalgod to hallowed), "ge" to [i], sometimes written with "y" (geronne to yrunne)
Calque
Word for word translations from one language to another of sayings, phrases, or idioms. "avant la main" > beforehand; "preter l'oreille" > lend an ear. Examples of English borrowings from French
Mulcaster's solution
Wrote Elementarie (1582) perceiving that efforts at radical reform were largely wasted; extensive and most important treatise on English spelling in 16th century. Didn't see the point in relying on phonetic spelling, so he proposed that spelling be judged upon custom or usage. Believed that defects in the system could be removed outright instead of replaced, and that general goodness of the "already good tongue and penning" would suffice because no set of rules could cover everything. Four conventions of spelling were analogy, etymology, phonetic representation, and tradition.