History Semester

Propaganda Posters

"We Can Do It!" By: J. Howard Miller Produced: Westinghouse "Victory Waits On Your Fingers" Produced: The Royal Typewriter Company "Keep 'Em Fighting" Printed: The National Safety Council, Inc.

Culture & Counterculture

A student protest led by Mario Savio at the University of California at Berkeley; students challenged traditional college authority and rules > The Free Speech Movement Member of SDS and the primary author of the Port Huron Statement; in his statement, he called for "participatory democracy" > Tom Hayden Student organization whose goals included encouraging activism against poverty, nuclear weapons, and racism > Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) A manifesto, delivered in Port Huron, Michigan, that identified racism, poverty, and nuclear weapons as critical problems that young people needed to address through radical action > The Port Huron Statement The first president of the Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) organization > Al Haber Adviser to the YAF and a leading conservative writer and editor of the National Review > William F. Buckley An organization that championed lower taxes, less government regulation, and strenuous anti-communism > Young Americans for Freedom (YAF) A three-day giant rock concert held on a farm property in Bethel, New York; performers included Joan Baez, Janis Joplin, and Jimi Hendrix > Woodstock

Communism vs. Fascism

After World War I, fascist and communist leaders took over in Italy and Russia. Think about the characteristics and actions of each government. And then think of the characteristics that the two governments shared. Communism: - Government directs the economy. - Theoretically workers control the production of goods. - Government owns most of the land, factories, and other resources. - Theoretically workers share property. Fascism: - Government maintains strict control over economic activity. - Government makes sure private businesses serve the state's goals. - Glorifies the nation and its leaders. - Asks citizens to put interests of the state above their own. - Often persecutes minorities. All the above: - Are ruled by dictators. - Suppresses opposition. - Claims individual liberties must be sacrificed for the greater good of society. - Tends toward totalitarian control of people's lives. - Often uses war to expand and strengthen the state.

Eisenhower Cautions The Nation

As a former U.S. Army general and organizer of the D-day invasion, Dwight Eisenhower understood the terrible consequences of war. He also understood that nuclear weapons had forever changed the face of modern warfare. But Eisenhower knew that the Soviets were developing nuclear weapons, and the United States was therefore compelled to build up its own arsenal to deter attack. He supported the development of sophisticated weapons and missiles capable of delivering warheads to targets thousands of miles away.

Eastern Europe & Beyond

Bosnia and Herzegovina: Capital: Sarajevo Population: 3,840,000 GDP per Capita: US$1,900 Government Type: Federal Democratic Republic Independence from Yugoslavia: March 3, 1992 U.S. Relations: Between 1992 and 1995, Bosnia and Herzegovina fought a civil war over ethnic differences. Muslim Slavs (Bosniaks) and Roman Catholic Croats wanted independence from Yugoslavia, while Eastern Orthodox Serbs opposed their movement for independence. In 1995, the United States, under President Clinton, helped end the civil war by drafting the Dayton Peace Accords at a summit in Dayton, OH. The United States made sure that the accords were implemented and also donated funds to help with reconstruction, humanitarian assistance, economic rebuilding, and reconstruction of the military in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Georgia: Capital: T'bilisi Population: 4,615,807 GDP per Capita: US$4,700 Government Type: Republic Independence from the Soviet Union: April 9,1991 U.S. Relations: Along with other nations, the United States has assisted Georgia in promoting democratic reform, resolving regional conflicts, developing a national economy, and reducing poverty. The United States also gives substantial diplomatic and monetary support to Georgia's efforts to end the conflicts in South Ossetia and Abkhazia, and is helping Georgia end its dependence on Russian energy sources. Ukraine: Capital: Kiev Population: 47,110,000 GDP per Capita: US$4,500 Government Type: Republic Independence from the Soviet Union: August 24,1991 U.S. Relations: The United States officially recognized Ukraine as an independent nation on December 25, 1991, and supported Ukraine's successful efforts to make the transition to a democratic state with a strong market economy. Since Ukraine's democratic Orange Revolution, a series of protest and political events occurring between November 2004 and January 2005, the United States and Ukraine have had a close cooperation and an open dialogue. The U.S. policy continues to be centered on accepting and supporting a democratic, prosperous, and secure Ukraine that is closely integrated into Europe. Romania: Capital: Bucharest Population: 21,612,000 GDP per Capita: US$7,600 Government Type: Republic Independence from the Soviet Union: December 8, 1991 U.S. Relations: The United States has a long history with Romania. President Clinton visited Bucharest in 1997 to discuss mutual U.S.-Romanian goals, including political and economic development, reform of defense systems, and new threats in the modern era. Since the 9/11 terrorist attacks on U.S. soil, Romania has been very supportive of U.S. antiterrorism efforts. In 2002, President Bush praised a postcommunist Romania on its building of a democracy and a market economy. Today, the United States and Romania have a cooperative agreement that allows U.S. troops to use military facilities on Romanian soil. Croatia: Capital: Zagreb Population: 4,438,000 GDP per Capita: US$9,800 Government Type: Presidential/Parliamentary Democracy Independence from Yugoslavia: June 25, 1991 U.S. Relations: With an embassy in Zagreb since 1992, the United States seeks to support a secure, democratic society and market economy in Croatia, with the hope that Croatia will become a strong member of Euro-Atlantic organizations.

Brown vs. Board Of Education (1954)

Earl Warren was the NAACP lawyer who led the argument before the Supreme Court. > False The outcome of the case was that it was unconstitutional to separate public school children on the basis of race. > True The case overturned the separate but equal" doctrine that had been established by southern legislatures during Reconstruction. > False The Court's ruling in the case, while outlawing segregation in public education, had little effect on the hopes and expectations of most African Americans of the period. > False The Court ruled that having separate schools for black and white school children was constitutional as long as school districts ensured the schools received equal funding. > False The ruling in the case was met with great resistance, especially in the South. > True Many southern congressmen reacted to the Court's ruling in the case by vowing to use all lawful means to bring about a reversal in the decision. > True Most southern legislatures were opposed to the Court's decision but immediately began preparations for integrating their public schools. > False The lawyers for the plaintiffs in the case cited psychological studies that suggested segregation itself caused black children to feel unequal. > True The Court ruled that the plaintiffs in the case were deprived of the equal protection of the laws guaranteed by the 15th Amendment to the Constitution. > False

Axis Aggression 1930's

In the 1920s and 1930s, Germany faced a deep internal crisis, culminating in the collapse of its economy. In the absence of debt payments from Germany, and strapped with their own financial obligations to the United States, the Allies also slipped into economic recession. In Germany and Italy, dictators rose to power with promises of prosperity and order. Military leaders took power in Japan. Soon, the imperialist ambitions of these nations became evident. Why did the Axis Powers seek to expand their territory?

Letter From Birmingham Jail

Martin Luther King, Jr., and other leaders of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference began "Project C" in Birmingham, Alabama, in April 1963. Their goal was to increase the pressure on the Kennedy administration to take a more active role in the struggle for civil rights. King was arrested during a march and put in jail. There he wrote his "Letter from Birmingham Jail," which was written in response to a letter from local clergymen who had called his protests "unwise and untimely." "You may well ask: 'Why direct action? Why sit ins, marches and so forth? Isn't negotiation a better path?' You are quite right in calling for negotiation. Indeed, this is the very purpose of direct action. Nonviolent direct action seeks to create such a crisis and foster such a tension that a community which has constantly refused to negotiate is forced to confront the issue. It seeks so to dramatize the issue that it can no longer be ignored." Using nonviolent direct action, such as sit-ins and marches, results in a crisis and fosters tension so that a community is forced to confront an issue and negotiate. "Just as the prophets of the eighth century B.C. left their villages and carried their 'thus saith the Lord' far beyond the boundaries of their home towns, and just as the Apostle Paul left his village of Tarsus and carried the gospel of Jesus Christ to the far corners of the Greco Roman world, so am I compelled to carry the gospel of freedom beyond my own home town." King was a clergyman. It was probably natural to use religious examples. Also, his letter was written in response to what clergymen wrote, and perhaps he felt that fellow clergymen would more readily connect with a religious comparison. "We know through painful experience that freedom is never voluntarily given by the oppressor; it must be demanded by the oppressed. Frankly, I have yet to engage in a direct action campaign that was 'well timed' in the view of those who have not suffered unduly from the disease of segregation. For years now I have heard the word 'Wait!'" People who are oppressed have to demand freedom; they cannot wait for their oppressors to freely grant them their freedom. Blacks have suffered segregation long enough and refuse to wait any longer. "The answer lies in the fact that there are two types of laws: just and unjust. I would be the first to advocate obeying just laws. One has not only a legal but a moral responsibility to obey just laws. Conversely, one has a moral responsibility to disobey unjust laws. I would agree with St. Augustine that 'an unjust law is no law at all.'" When does King believe it's morally acceptable to break a law?: When the law is unjust. "Over the past few years I have consistently preached that nonviolence demands that the means we use must be as pure as the ends we seek. I have tried to make clear that it is wrong to use immoral means to attain moral ends. But now I must affirm that it is just as wrong, or perhaps even more so, to use moral means to preserve immoral ends." People who practice nonviolent civil disobedience must use methods that reflect the goal they wish to attain. In other words, those seeking equal rights should not take away the rights of others as part of their actions. It is wrong to act immorally to achieve a moral goal. It is also wrong for people to use moral means, such as the passage of laws, to preserve immoral ends, such as the segregation of the races. "Let us all hope that the dark clouds of racial prejudice will soon pass away and the deep fog of misunderstanding will be lifted from our fear drenched communities, and in some not too distant tomorrow the radiant stars of love and brotherhood will shine over our great nation with all their scintillating beauty." * Nonviolence

Rise Of Global Fascism

Rise Of Global Fascism -> Global Economic Depression -> Treaty Of Versailles Global Economic Depression -> Social Unrest -> Unemployment -> Dictators Promise An End To These Treaty Of Versailles -> Economic Depression & Unemployment -> Hitler & Nazis Rise To Power

Tragedies Two Centuries Apart

The Boston Massacre occurred on March 5, 1770, when a group of citizens angry at the presence of British troops in Boston goaded soldiers into firing into the crowd. The soldiers killed five. Two hundred years later, on May 4, 1970, members of the Ohio National Guard fired into a crowd of angry students at Kent State University, killing four and wounding nine. The students were protesting President Nixon's decision to invade Cambodia. Neither incident was actually this simple. Neither one occurred as part of a plan to injure innocent citizens. Both may have unwittingly been incited by the protesters themselves. Both may have been the result of panic. Just what are the parallels, if any, between these two incidents? Panic may have led to soldiers firing into the protestors. > Boston Massacre & Kent State University Students protest Nixon's invasion of Cambodia. > Kent State University Someone yells "Fire" (person unknown). > Boston Massacre Soldiers fire into the crowd. > Boston Massacre & Kent State University Soldiers are withdrawn from Boston. > Boston Massacre March 5, 1770 > Boston Massacre Ohio National Guard troops are assigned to campus. > Kent State University Crowds are dispersed with tear gas. > Kent State University People in the crowd are killed and wounded. > Boston Massacre & Kent State University Confrontations occur between soldiers and crowd. > Boston Massacre & Kent State University Soldiers are posted in Boston. > Boston Massacre May 4, 1970. > Kent State University Crowds who gathered include protestors and spectators. > Boston Massacre & Kent State University

Japanese Internment

The U.S. Constitution clearly states that the writ of habeas corpus (HAY-bee-uhs COR-puhs) shall not be suspended, or done away with. The basic idea behind habeas corpus is that people living in the United States cannot be held against their will without just cause. To put it another way, you cannot be jailed or detained if there are no charges against you. If you are being held illegally, you can demand that the courts issue a writ of habeas corpus. A writ of habeas corpus is an explanation of the reason for your detention. If there is no good or compelling reason for your detainment, the court must set you free. From the Fifth Amendment: "No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the Militia, when in actual service in time of War or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation."

The Cold War

The end of World War II saw the emergence of two new superpowers—the democratic, capitalist United States and the communist Soviet Union. Their bitter rivalry would shape much of the modern era. Each nation worked to gain allies and spread their own philosophies of government and economics. This dangerous era of competition and mistrust came to be called the Cold War—a war of words and ideas. But at times, the hostile relations between the two superpowers threatened to turn into open warfare. Europe: At the end of World War II, the Soviets occupied much of eastern and central Europe. Stalin had agreed to allow free elections in occupied countries, but instead he set up communist governments. Soviet forces remained in the region. Distrust grew between the Soviet Union and Western nations, and split Europe in two—capitalist countries in the west and Soviet-controlled. NATO: In April 1949, the United States, Canada, and 10 Western European nations signed a pact establishing the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). NATO nations agreed to help defend each other from Soviet aggression. The Warsaw Pact: The Soviet Union and the other communist governments of Eastern Europe established the Warsaw Pact in 1955. They formed this alliance when West Germany joined NATO. The Warsaw Pact nations agreed to defend each other against Western nations. The Soviets controlled a military force established by Warsaw Pact nations. Nonaligned Nations: Some European nations, such as Spain and Austria, did not join NATO or the Warsaw Pact. In effect, these nations remained neutral during the Cold War. Korean War: After World War II, the United States and the Soviet Union occupied the East Asian country of Korea, dividing it in half along the 38th parallel. Unable to agree on how to unify Korea, the two superpowers withdrew their forces, leaving the country divided. In June 1950, communist North Korea invaded democratic South Korea. Truman ordered the American troops stationed in occupied Japan into South Korea, and the United Nations sent a multinational force. Under the direction of General MacArthur, American and UN forces invaded North Korea. On November 26, 1950, communist China entered the conflict by sending troops to support the North Koreans. UN forces retreated back into South Korea. After three years of fighting, the boundary between North and South Korea was essentially unchanged.

The New Deal: Relief, Recovery & Reform

The goals of the New Deal were to help hungry Americans, bring the nation out of the Great Depression, and make sure a similar economic catastrophe did not happen again. Some New Deal programs had a specific goal, but many programs addressed more than one objective. Three main themes characterized New Deal programs: - Relief: Providing money to ensure that unemployed people had basic necessities, and creating jobs to put people back to work. - Recovery: Taking steps at a national level to get the economy moving again. - Reform: Creating laws to restructure institutions such as banks, changing labor relations, and creating new social programs, with the goal of making American capitalism stable and fair. Home Owners' Loan Corporation (HOLC) worked with economically struggling families to keep them from losing their homes The HOLC bought mortgages from loan institutions and then offered homeowners new mortgages with payments they could afford so they could keep their homes. The program helped more than a million Americans. The HOLC stopped lending money in 1935, but continued managing accounts until 1951. > Relief/Recovery: Provide money and create jobs. Take steps at a national level to get the economy moving. Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) built dams and developed projects to bring electricity and flood control to the Tennessee River Valley The TVA created thousands of jobs for workers in seven states, building dams that supplied hydroelectric power and protected the region from floods Dams and power plants built by the TVA continue to provide electricity and flood control today. > Relief/Recovery: Provide money and create jobs. Take steps at a national level to get the economy moving. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) provided a legal structure for the trading of stock and other securities The SEC regulated the trading of stocks, bonds, and other securities, and protected investors by ensuring fair practices. The SEC still serves in that role today. > Reform: Restructure business to minimize unfair or unstable practices. Establish a framework for strengthening and stabilizing the economy. Social Security Administration (SSA) developed an ongoing program to provide unemployment insurance, retiree pensions, disability insurance, and aid to poor children In the long term, the SSA met all of the New Dears goals, and is still in existence today. ~ Relief: Money from a special social security tax on employers and employees funded payments to people who were unemployed or unable to work due to disability, old age, or other circumstances. ~ Recovery: The program helped the economy as people spent the money they received. ~ Reform: The program guaranteed a more secure economic future for almost all Americans. > All three goals Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA) paid farmers to decrease production In the Great Depression, agricultural surpluses drove prices so low that many farmers could not make a living. The AAA paid farmers to take some of their acreage out of production. As production decreased, prices rose and the farm crisis eased slightly. The AAA was later declared unconstitutional, though similar programs continue today. > Relief/Recovery: Provide money and create jobs. Take steps at a national level to get the economy moving. Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) insured bank deposits so people who put money in a bank account would not lose the money if the bank failed. The FDIC protected the deposits of individuals who put money in an FDIC-insured bank. If the bank failed, the FDIC would give the depositor his or her money. The FDIC remains a source of security for modem-day bank customers. > Reform: Restructure business to minimize unfair or unstable practices. Establish a framework for strengthening and stabilizing the economy. Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) created jobs for young men in the nation's parks. Over a period of 10 years, the CCC employed more than 2 million young men to plant trees, fight forest fires, and improve national parks. > Relief/Recovery: Provide money and create jobs. Take steps at a national level to get the economy moving. Works Progress Administration (WPA) created jobs for people in public works, research, and the arts. For nearly a decade, the WPA employed workers to build hospitals, schools, airports, playgrounds, and public structures such as bridges and dams. For a few years, the WPA also sponsored projects that employed artists, writers, and musicians. > Relief/Recovery: Provide money and create jobs. Take steps at a national level to get the economy moving. National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) supervised relations between workers and employers. The NLRB gave the federal government authority over relations between workers and employers. It guaranteed workers the right to organize, join unions, and bargain collectively with employers. The NLRB has enforced fair dealings between unions and employers ever since its creation. > Reform: Restructure business to minimize unfair or unstable practices. Establish a framework for strengthening and stabilizing the economy.

Pearl Harbor To Paris

War Photographer: During World War II, military and civilian photographers documented major events in both the Pacific and in Europe. They captured hundreds of thousands of still images and took millions of feet of film. Imagine you are a photographer during World War II. You have been at the scene of every major battle leading up to the Allied liberation of Paris. Now it's time to organize your photographs. Answer the questions on the following screens, and document your photos with titles and captions. A Declaration of War: In late 1941, President Roosevelt traveled to Capitol Hill, where he grimly addressed a joint session of Congress. His speech was broadcast by radio around the country to 60 million Americans. "Yesterday, December 7, 1941-a date which will live in infamy," he began. He went on to describe a surprise attack by Axis forces. He asked Congress for a declaration of war against the nation that inflicted the surprise attack. Congress overwhelmingly approved the president's request, and the United States joined the Allies in the fight against the Axis Powers. What happened on December 7, 1941, that drew the United States into World War II? > Japan attacked U.S. forces at Pearl Harbor. Pearl Harbor: On December 7, 1941, the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor, home of the U.S. Navy's Pacific fleet. They destroyed eight U.S. battleships, several smaller vessels, and nearly 200 U.S. planes. Where is Pearl Harbor? > Hawaii The attack on Pearl Harbor came as a complete surprise to Americans. Explosion after explosion rocked the navy base as sailors ran for cover. Some reached for their anti-aircraft guns and began shooting, but it was too late. Ships burst into fireballs as bombs tore into their hulls. Midway Islands: Months after the attack on Pearl Harbor, Japanese forces took the Philippines. They then set their sights on Midway Island, west of Hawaii. U.S. Army intelligence officers cracked the Japanese naval code and learned of the plans. What happened at Midway Island? > The Americans won the Battle of Midway, turning the war in the Pacific against Japan. By mid-1942, Japan controlled large swaths of Southeast Asia, and had decided to concentrate on seizing Midway Island. The Japanese navy launched an attack on the island in early June. Why did the Japanese want to gain control of Midway Island? > They wanted to use Midway to launch an invasion of Hawaii. The Battle of Midway: At Midway, American dive-bombers caught the Japanese naval fleet by surprise. The Japanese shot down about 150 American aircraft, but the remaining planes pounded the Japanese ships with bombs. Within minutes, three Japanese aircraft carriers were in flames, and a fourth later sank. The rest limped away from Midway. D - day: By January 1944, the Allied Powers were ready to focus their attention on launching an invasion on western Europe from England. The plan was to move a great number of men and machinery across the English Channel and liberate western Europe. During World War II, the term D-day was used by military planners to designate any secret date for a military campaign. Who organized the most famous D-day in history? > Dwight D. Eisenhower One decision Eisenhower had to make was where in France the invasion would come ashore. Allied commanders fooled the Germans into thinking they would land further north than the intended target. Where did the Allied troops-mostly British, American, and Canadian-land? > Normandy Most people thought the invasion would take place in Calais, where the English Channel is narrowest. Eisenhower managed to fool the Germans by placing a number of men, inflatable tanks, and fake landing craft across the Channel from Calais. He also sent misleading radio messages over the airwaves. The Allies Move East: By the end of the day on June 6, 156,000 troops had come ashore in Normandy and all five landing sites had been secured. During the next three weeks, the Allies landed more than a million men, nearly 200,000 vehicles, and 600,000 tons of supplies. Mile after mile, they fought their way inland, moving east. On August 25, Allied troops liberated what city? > Paris As Allied troops advanced toward Paris, Hitler ordered his generals to burn the French capital to the ground. Fortunately, the generals hesitated, and Allied soldiers liberated the city, cheered on by grateful Parisians.

The Civil Rights Movement

Welcome to 1954 and the Trailways Bus station in Washington, D.C. Dwight D. Eisenhower is president. The Korean War ended last year. Radio stations are starting to play a new kind of music—rock and roll. On the Waterfront, starring Marlon Brando, is playing in movie theaters. People are watching for UFOs, wearing blue jeans and poodle skirts, and laughing along with the characters on I Love Lucy. But all is not well in America. We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness. These words from the Declaration of Independence ring hollow for millions of African Americans denied political, economic, educational, and social equality by unjust laws and social customs. It has been seven years since 16 young men boarded a bus to challenge segregation laws in the South. Since then, the NAACP has shifted its focus to fighting segregation in public schools. The organized struggle for racial equality in America is gaining momentum. You will take a trip back through time and across America to review some of the key events of the civil rights movement. It's time to board the bus. The Supreme Court case of Morgan v. Virginia, 1946, made state laws requiring the segregation of white and black passengers unconstitutional. If you were headed north, you probably wouldn't see blacks and whites sitting in separate sections of the bus. Passengers on buses traveling through the South, however, are often segregated, despite the Court's ruling. Civil rights activists are trying to end this kind of racial segregation. In the 1950s, school segregation was widely accepted throughout the nation. Some states actually required segregated schools. In 1952, the Supreme Court heard several cases involving school segregation. In 1954, the Supreme Court agreed to hear the case of Brown v. Board of Education. Travel to the city where Linda Brown and others challenged the doctrine of "separate but equal." > Topeka, KS: The local chapter of the NAACP in Topeka, Kansas, helped a group of 13 parents file a class-action lawsuit against the Board of Education of Topeka Schools. The case eventually went to the U.S. Supreme Court and now the Court is handing down its ruling. Here it is! The Court ruled unanimously that the "separate but equal" clause from Plessy v. Ferguson is unconstitutional because it violates the children's __14th__ Amendment rights. The Court ruled that the "separate but equal" clause from Plessy v. Ferguson was unconstitutional because it violated the children's 14th Amendment rights by separating them according to the color of their skin. Although the Court ruled that separate but equal was unconstitutional, change did not come immediately. Nor did it come without a fight. In a campaign known as "massive resistance," southern congressmen resisted the move toward desegregation. Rosa Parks refuses to give up her bus seat to a white man. > Montgomery, AL There will be a lot of civil rights activity in Alabama. It begins when a 43-year-old black woman named Rosa Parks refuses to give up her seat near the front of the bus to a white man. The police arrive and arrest Parks. The city buses are segregated in Montgomery. By law, blacks must give their seats to whites. Her arrest prompts 50 leaders of the black community to meet and discuss the arrest. The leaders decide to __organize a boycott of the buses__. The residents of Montgomery launch a bus boycott. Soon afterward they elect a young pastor by the name of Martin Luther King, Jr., president of the newly formed Montgomery Improvement Association. The boycott continues into 1956 and King gains national prominence for his role in the boycott. The boycott works—in December the Supreme Court rules that Alabama's segregation laws are unlawful and Montgomery buses must desegregate. Brown v. Board of Education. The Montgomery bus boycott. The Supreme Court has ruled that segregation is unconstitutional. But in the face of a hundred years of prejudice and racial inequality, change comes slowly. But it does come, and now it's time to travel two years forward in time to a city where a high school is set to begin the 1957−58 school year as a desegregated school. > Little Rock, AR It's September 3—the first day of school. Nine black students arrive at Little Rock High School, but Arkansas National Guardsmen and a crowd intent on keeping the school segregated prevent their entry. On September 23, the students return but another large mob turns them away. Finally, the president of the United States intervenes, sending 1,000 U.S. Army paratroopers to Little Rock. On September 25, the black students return and, escorted and protected by the federal troops, finally enter Little Rock High School. > Dwight D. Eisenhower President Dwight D. Eisenhower sent federal troops to Little Rock to enforce school desegregation. Some white southerners characterized Eisenhower's deployment of federal troops as a "second invasion" (the first being the Civil War and Reconstruction).This characterization was often repeated in later years. Accordingly, segregationists were just as hostile and confrontational with the federal soldiers and marshals as they were with black students. Three years later, in 1960, the sit-in protest movement begins at a segregated Woolworth's lunch counter in Greensboro, North Carolina, and spreads across the nation. In 1961, the Congress of Racial Equality sends student volunteers on Freedom Rides—bus trips across the South to challenge segregation in bus terminals. These nonviolent protestors, both black and white, encounter violence at many stops. A year later, amid protests and riots, James Meredith becomes the first African American to enroll at the University of Mississippi. Slowly, and against great odds, the civil rights movement gains momentum. August 28, 1963, to support pending civil rights legislation. Martin Luther King. Jr., will be delivering an important speech during the event. > Washington, DC Civil rights activists are hoping that Congress will pass legislation to guarantee racial equality. The March on Washington is taking place here. In front of the Lincoln Memorial and a crowd of more than 200,000 peaceful marchers, the Reverend Martin Luther King, Jr., is delivering a powerful speech. He speaks of his dream to see the day when his "four little children will...live in a nation where they will not be judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their character." King, who like Gandhi believes in nonviolence, says in his speech: Let us not seek to satisfy our thirst for freedom by drinking from the cup of bitterness and hatred. We must lorever conduct our struggle on the high plane of dignity and discipline. We must not allow our creative protest to degenerate into physical violence. What do you think of a person who could make that plea in spite of the hatred and violence directed toward him and others, simply because their skin was a different color? Did the March on Washington have any effect? Well, the next year, President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act of 1964. What was the purpose of that legislation? > It outlawed discrimination in employment and public facilities. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 outlawed discrimination in employment and public facilities. It also allowed the federal government to withhold federal funds from any state public program that discriminated on the basis of race. Although the Civil Rights Act had been signed into law, civil rights leaders continued to push for further reforms. In the Freedom Summer campaign of 1964, SNCC and CORE sent thousands of young people, most of them white, to Mississippi. Their goal was to register hundreds of thousands of black voters. Organizers also set up the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party, which sent a delegation to the Democratic National Convention. Unfortunately, not all civil rights protests were peaceful. Destination is the place where police stopped peaceful protest marchers who were on their way to Montgomery to support voting rights. The incident there came to be known as "Bloody Sunday." > Selma, AL It's Sunday, March 7, 1965, and Martin Luther King, Jr., was planning to lead a march from Selma to Montgomery. Governor Wallace is refusing to allow the march, and King has just decided to delay it and go to Washington, D.C., to speak with President Johnson. The marchers, impatient in their desire for voting rights, begin the march anyway. When they reach the city limits at the Pettus Bridge, they are stopped by a police blockade. The police order the marchers to disperse. Without waiting for the marchers to obey their orders, police attack the protestors, using tear gas, whips, and clubs. Dozens are injured. The incident receives national media attention and is dubbed "Bloody Sunday." President Johnson intervenes so King is finally able to lead a successful demonstration march on March 25. Angry about the way the protestors were treated, Johnson gives a stirring speech to Congress about civil rights. President Johnson signs the Voting Rights Act of 1965. What did this law do? > It made it easier for blacks in the South to vote. By removing obstacles such as literacy tests and poll taxes, the Voting Rights Act of 1965 made it easier for southern blacks to register to vote. Over the next four years, the number of black voters in the South increased to 3.1 million. An unintended consequence of the legislation was that the region's white majority shifted its allegiance to the Republican Party. August 1965, a routine traffic stop in a neighborhood called Watts sparked riots that lasted for six days. > Los Angeles, CA After the Civil Rights Act of 1964 was signed, states had moved quickly to get around the new federal law. California passed a law to block the fair housing section of the Civil Rights Act. That, and other state actions, made people believe they were being unjustly treated and created despair in inner cities. The Watts riots erupt. The riots last for six days and leave 34 people dead, more than a thousand injured, and hundreds of buildings destroyed. The police arrest nearly 4,000 people. After the riots, Governor Brown forms a commission to study the riots. The commission's report concludes that the riots were not the act of thugs, but rather the result of much deeper problems, including the high jobless rate in the inner city, poor housing, and bad schools. Despite the report, no one makes any significant effort to address the problems. The Watts riots, and riots that occur in Newark, New Jersey, and Detroit, Michigan, two years later raise serious questions about the intertwined problems of race and poverty. Martin Luther King, Jr., and other civil rights leaders begin to focus their attention on these problems. The city where Martin Luther King, Jr., is assassinated. > Memphis, TN Memphis, Tennessee. April 4, 1968. While organizing the Poor People's Campaign, Martin Luther King, Jr., has stopped in Memphis to show his support for striking sanitation workers. Yesterday King addressed a crowd of workers. He encouraged them in their struggle for economic justice. The week before, King had marched with the striking sanitation workers. The march had turned violent. King had been furious; he urged the participants to call the march off and he left. Now he has come back to lead a peaceful march. They have been planning it all day. The civil rights leader returns to his hotel room, where he worries about the strike and works on a sermon for an upcoming church service. Around 5:00 p.m. King leaves his room. He and some close friends are going to get something to eat. He paused on the balcony, and a shot rings out. A bullet fired by escaped convict James Earl Ray strikes King. The civil rights leader is rushed to a Memphis hospital, but at 7:05 p.m. the doctors declare that Martin Luther King, Jr., is dead. King's assassination had a tremendous effect on the nation. It also affected a major civil rights bill that was making its way through Congress. The wave of national remorse over King's death helped pass the bill in the House on April 10. President Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act of 1968 into law the next day. The bill was originally designed to extend U.S. government protection to civil rights workers, but was amended to prohibit discrimination in the sale, rental, and financing of housing. This legislation, often referred to as the Housing Rights Act of 1968, was the last of the three great civil rights acts of the I 960s. Much has happened in the last 14 years and, in some ways, the struggle for equality is just getting started. The successes of the civil rights movement, however incomplete and imperfect, have shown what can be accomplished by people acting out of conscience and with dedication to democratic ideals.

Modern Turning

When American voters chose Reagan, they initiated what many called the Reagan Era. In his two terms as president, Ronald Reagan would energize America's conservatives and push American policy toward the right of the political spectrum. Along with his successor in the White House, George H.W. Bush, Reagan would preside over some of the most dramatic and surprising changes in recent history. What problem confronted President Carter as the 1980 election approached? > Hostages in Iran What nickname, given to Ronald Reagan during his campaign, identified one of his skills? > The great communicator Which economic theory promotes growth in the production of goods and services? > Supply-side economics What group helped elect Ronald Reagan? > The New Right In which agency or institution did Reagan appointees push for government deregulation? > Environmental Protection Agency In which area did government deregulation benefit both businesses and consumers? > Airlines Who was the first woman to become a Supreme Court justice? > Sandra Day O'Connor What were Mikhail Gorbachev and Alexei Sakharov partially responsible for? > The fall of the Soviet Union Who joined Ronald Reagan in taking a firm hand against communism in the Eastern Bloc? > Margaret Thatcher In which country did Lech Walesa, Solidarity, and Pope John Paul II all play a role in ending communism? > Poland Which policies allowed the Soviet Union access to the outside world and different political and economic options? > Glasnost and perestroika Who was president during the fall of the Berlin Wall and the end of the Soviet Union? > George H.W. Bush

The Final Solution

When Hitler rose to power in Germany, he announced that he was establishing a Third Reich, or Third Empire, that would last a thousand years. He promised to lead the Germans to glory by conquering new territories. He also told the Germans that it was their "sacred mission" to maintain racial purity. To achieve that end, he called for the elimination of what he viewed as "inferior races." Hitler's plan included the deliberate and methodical destruction of a people, and the period of genocide that he implemented is known as the Holocaust.

Turnmoil

Which leader used nonviolent techniques to advocate on behalf of California farm workers? > Cesar Chavez The economic crisis of the 1970s had its roots in which of the following events? > The Yom Kippur War between Egypt and Israel The concept of executive privilege in the Watergate scandal, investigation, and subsequent court cases > Was not something the Constitution addressed. "True Equality for Women" would have been seen on a sign held by demonstrators for which of the following groups? > National Organization of Women Which word best describes the economic condition of the 1970s? > Slagflation In the early 1960s, large numbers of people fled East Berlin, causing an economic crisis for the East Germans. What did this result in? > The construction of a wall separating East and West Berlin All of the following describe Richard Nixon's foreign and domestic achievements as president EXCEPT > Ending the Vietnam War. What provided the most hope to women, Native Americans, Hispanics, and gays and lesbians seeking equal protection under the law during the 1960s and '70s? > The success of African Americans in their struggle for civil rights What was the most significant aspect of détente? > The risk of nuclear war between the two superpowers was reduced. Protests, riots, and the presence of National Guard troops characterized what 1960s event? > The 1968 Democratic National Convention All of the following describe changes in the role of women and the structure of the family that occurred in the late twentieth century EXCEPT > The size of the average family increased dramatically due to women working outside the home. What author and book brought to light women's unhappiness with their roles and initiated the second wave of the women's movement? > Betty Friedan and The Feminine Mystique "Go to college, get a good job and work 9 to 5, have a family, climb the corporate ladder.... These values just aren't for me." Who would most likely have said this? > A college dropout living in a commune in the late 1960s What best describes one lasting effect of the Watergate scandal? > Many Americans became cynical about politics and lost faith in their government. Activists achieved all of the following during the second wave of the women's movement EXCEPT > Ratification of the Equal Rights Amendment.

New Millennium

Which of the following had the greatest effect on the election of 1992, in which George H.W. Bush lost to Bill Clinton? ~ Economic issues played a major role in Clinton's victory over Bush in the 1992 election. Who was president during the Persian Gulf War? ~ George H.W. Bush Since 1990, most immigrants to the United States have come from ~ Latin America. Business trends in the 1990s included all of the following EXCEPT ~ Providing pensions for workers What technology helped turn the Internet into an information superhighway? ~ World Wide Web What two men helped to make personal computers accessible to the general public? ~ Steve Jobs and Bill Gates What were the charges against Bill Clinton in his impeachment? ~ lying in court and obstructing justice