HISTORY TEST!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! Middle ages test-The real one

feudalism

A political system in which knights are granted the use of lands that legally belong to their king, in exchange for their loyalty, military service, and protection of the people who live on the land. It originated from when kings all over Europe were unable to defend their lands and their nobles' lands from all the attacks from the vikings, magyars, and muslims. Nobles used knights, highly skilled soldiers who fought on horseback, to defend their castles. Knights needed weapons, armor, and horses, all of which were expensive, resulting in knights demanding high payment for their services that usually was in the form of land, not money. The land knights were given was called fief, and was accepted by a vassal or anyone who accepted a fief as a form of payment, and was given by a lorn, or anyone who gave a fief to a vassal as a form of payment.

Normandy

A region in northwestern France on the English channel given to the vikings. Led by Rollo, Viking settled in Northern france. The king of france, who was tired of their raids, made a deal with rollo that said of the vikings stopped raiding france and instead defended Frankish lands, the kink would give him land. The land roll was given became known as normandy, or the land of the northmen.

crusades

A series of religious wars taking place between 1096 and 1291 launched by the European Christians during the Middle ages with the mission of taking Jerusalem and the area around it called the Holy Land away from the Muslims, who, alongside the Jews, also considered the land holy. Many Christians supported the battles to gain Jerusalem because a common belief among the Christian religion was that Christ would resurrect again only once Christians held Jerusalem, as Jerusalem was the place where Jesus was crucified and buried. Jews considered the land hold as well considering that the holy temple resided in Jerusalem.

hundred years war

A war that was fueled from the French king dying without a son in 1328. His closest male relative was his nephew King Edward III of England, but he also had a cousin who had served as his regent. France favored the king's cousin, as the did not want to be ruled by england, but quite obviously the english did want to rule France. Ultimately France crowned the regent and king's cousin heir, making him King Philip VI of France, making the English king, King Edward III, upset and fueling him to invade France in 1337, marking the beginning of the Hundred years' war. Fighting with his better weapons, like the longbow and cannon, Edward won victory after victory. A battle of the hundred years' war in which the English weapons devastated both the french fighters and their genoese allies. This battles, and battles similar to this one, helped the English march deeper into France, until they reached the gates of paris.

Joan of arc

A young peasant girl, who, in 1429, claimed that that the saints had told her to lead the French into Battle, and, after the French prince skeptically took her word on the story, was allowed to take command of an army. With this army, this young peasant girl, marched to the town of Orléans and defeated a huge English army. Following this initial victory, she led her army to win several more battles, before being captured, tried, and executed by the English.

salvation

Acceptance into Heaven

parliament

Although the Magna Carta did put many of the Nobles' concerns to rest, the nobles still were unsatisfied, leading them to rebel again in the 1260s with the intent of gaining a say on how the empire was run. The rebels ended with the agreement that the king would meet with nobles, the clergy, and the middle class to discuss key issues facing the country, resulting in a counsel called the parliament, which is still the governing body that makes England's laws. Edward I was the first king to clarify the role of parliament and to work effectively with this new governing body. In 1295, he summoned a parliament, which was made up of nobles, clergy, and representatives from every county and town in England , that had the power to create new taxes, advise the king on other matters of royal policy, and advise the king on law making.

act of supremacy

Declared the king (Henry VIII) the supreme head of the Church of England in 1534.

Germanic Languages

English German Dutch scandinavian languages

Chaucer

English poet remembered as author of the Canterbury Tales (1340-1400)

three-field system

Farmers on the manor used a three-field crop rotation system, as they learned that leaving a field empty for a year helped improve the soil, thus improving the quality and quantity of the harvest. In this system, famers planted one field in spring and harvested it in the fall, planted another field in winter and harvested that one in spring, and the last field was left unplanted for the year.

Henry VIII

Henry VIII created the protestant church of England in order to divorce his first wife, which meant splitting from Catholicism, which require Parliament to pass laws ending the power of the pope in England and passing the act of Supremacy in 1534, which names the king as the head of the church of England he had six wives (Divorced, beheaded, died, divorced, beheaded, survived)

peasants crusade

The first group of organized Crusaders out of nine who left France with the intent of reclaiming the Holy Land. This group left Europe in 1096, and from there split into two sections. The first of these sections was made up of unskilled peasants who had answered Pope Urban II's plead for help. As they traveled through Germany on their way to Jerusalem, the peasant crusaders passed large groups of Jews, whom the peasants decided to attack violently as they were eager to fight non-Christians. The peasants slaughtered entire communities of Jews despite the fact that local officials and clergy protested for them to stop. Those peasants who did not finish the full journey to Jerusalem fell quickly to the army of the Seljuk Turks.

castle

before feudalism, nobles built these wooden buildings on top of hilltops for their families to take shelter in during an attack, as hills were easy to defend.

Explain how precedents were set in England during the middle ages that directly affected the history of the united states

bill of rights (people should have rights) (today us constitution and bill of rights) People should have representation (parliament) (today congress) limits of the rulers power (magna carta) (today checks and balances)

utopia

book about an ideal society by Thomas more

michaelangelo

david ceiling of sistine chapel back hurt from lying down so long painting the ceiling

spanish armada

elizabeth I defeated it, making it one of her biggest acheivements

the book of the courtier

castiglione

gothic / Romanesque architecture

gothic architecture = flying butresses that allow for large windows which create art. there are also alot of stained glass romanesque architecture is a lot darker and there are much more columns, arches and domes

limited monarchy

government in which a constitution or legislative body limits the monarch's powers A system of government that emerged in England in which the monarch was made to share power with an elected Parliament.

just price

guilds set certain prices and standards for the products they made to prevent competition and to make sure the prices were fair.

printing press

gutenberg

the canterbury tales

chaucer

castiglione

courtier

where did the renaissance begin? Why did the renaissnace begin?

it began in italy due to the sucess of the italian city states in trade merchants were not only bringing back tons of new ideas to spread, but were also bringing back lots of money to spend on trade also due to the close proximity to italy, greek scholars took refuge there to escape the poor treatment of the ottomans in greece, bringing back old ideas that intrigued venice

Mona lisa

leonardo

What were four ways art changed during the renaissance?

linear perspective to show three dimensions and depth the use of shading (Sfumato) to show realism and depth source of light for a more realistic look

vernacular

local; a word to describe inform local languages

the prince

machiavelli

johann tetzel

made martin luther mad-sold indulgences

95 theses

martin luther

predestination

martin luther's philosophy that everything you do is predetermined

Oliver cromwell

member of parliament named Oliver Cromwell who had risen to leadership as an army general and led the roundheads to victory in the english civil warThe royalist army was beaten by Cromwell's disciplined troops and in 1646 the king surrendered. Cromwell, now in full control, dismissed all members of parliament who disagreed with him, and with the remaining folks made up the Rump Parliament. The rump Parliament charged the king with treason and put him on trial, where charles defended himself well, but refused to even recognize the parliament's authority to try him. At the end of the trial, the king was sentenced to death for treason and on January 30th, 1649 Charles I was publicly beheaded in front of his own palace. To some he was a tyrant who got what he deserved, but to others he was a martyr. After the civil war, the english government changed completely. The house of commons got rid of the house of lords and outlawed the monarchy. At this point, England became a commonwealth, which is a republican government based of the common good of all people. In 1653, Cromwell, was given the title lord protector of england, scotland, and ireland. Cromwell was a strict leader who closed theaters and limited other forms of popular entertainment. People were unhappy under the rule of Cromwell

david

michaelangelo

sistine chapel

michaelangelo painted the dome of this

leonardo

mona lisa

franciscans

monks known for their charity and hospital work

what new protestant religions were created as a result of the reformation

new kinds of christians (protestants) (lutheran created by martin luther in germany) anglican (created by Henry VIII in england) presbyterian (created by John Knox in Scotland) babtist (us) Calvanism brought to switzetland by calvin

heathens / infidels

non christians

house of commons

one of the houses of Parliament including wealthy landowners and rich business leaders that represent the middle class and are elected to office England's lower house in Parliament

serf

peasants farmed the manor fields, and in return, the peasants received protection and small plats of land to cultivate for themselves. Most peasants were serfs, workers who were legally bound to the manor on which they worked, but could be sold by their employers to other manors. Serfs were not free to marry or leave a manor without their employer's permission and in addition, if a parent was a serf, his or her child was required to be a serf 0f the same lord, as serfdom was hereditary.

witch craft

people were accused of this crime if they were an easy target = old, poor, vulnerable- easy to blame their problems on protestants also accused catholics of this crime, while catholics accused protestants of this crime

missionaries

people who work to spread their religious beliefs

gutenberg

printing press

vassal / knight

protectors of lords recieved land for duties

how did the renaissance and reformation change Europe?

results of reformation: catholic church loses power catholic church survives and reforms itself in the counter-reformation nationalism grows with the concept of "separation of church and state" frequent warfare, millions dead persecution and intolerance increased towards jews and muslims education increases (catholic schools and printed texts) new kinds of christians (protestants) (lutheran created by martin luther in germany) anglican (created by Henry VIII in england) presbyterian (created by John Knox in Scotland) babtist (us) Calvanism brought to switzetland by calvin

romeo and juliet

shakespeare

middle class

started in middle age towns when towns came, feaudal system broke so there wasnt just lords or peasants, now there was something in between

bill of rights

that english way to give more rights to the people that is a precedent for the american bill of rights

trial by combat or ordeal

vassals, lords, g-ds involved they fight joust

Chaucer

writer, wrote canterberry tales

protestant reformation

Problems in the church that led to the reformation: It had strayed too far from its spiritual roots as it gained worldliness, extravagance, and influence The church abused their growing power and they dishonestly and unfairly committed actions in the financial world with their vast wealth As more and more bad acts were committed by the church, people's respect for priests, monks, and popes weakened The taxes collected by the church were also displeasing, as the money the church collected from the middle class and peasants was used to fund elaborate art projects In the 1500 Pope Leo X approved the sale of Indulgence, pardons issued by the pop that people could buy to reduce a soul's time in purgatory, which was where the catholics believed dying people went to work off the sins they had committed, in order to raise money for the construction of the Saint Peter's Basilica in Rome. The Sale of Indulgences, however, was greatly criticized by the people. Since taxation wasn't working, the sale of indulgences grew. There was also a major shift going on in Europe at this time, in which nationalism, or the devotion to a particular nation or state rather to the church, grew, causing people to consider themselves citizens of a government separate from the church Early Reformers: John Wycliffe, born in England in about 1330, believed that the church should give up its early possessions, which was a belief unpopular with church officials, who removed him from his teaching position Jan Hus, born in Southern Bohemia in about 1370, became a priest and soon preached against immortality and worldliness of the catholic church, beliefs that caused him to be excommunicated from the church by Pope Gregory XII in 1412 and later to be arrested, tried for heresy, and burned at the stake. These two men were the first and most influential theologians to openly criticize the church. Their views, which may have been hated on by the church and weren't exactly accepted by ordinary people, did begin a discussion that would eventually lead to reformation Martin Luther's role in the reformation: In 1517, Martin Luther publicly made his complaints about the church, marking the beginning of the protestant reformation His complaints consisted of the denial that indulgences had any power to remit sin, and the harsh criticism to the power of the pope and the wealth of the church These theses were not intended for ordinary people to read, but for church leaders, which was why they were written in academic latin, which most could not understand He placed his complaints of the church door, which were like communal bulletin boards back in the day Luther's theses began a discussion among university intellectuals, as he had wanted The theses were published, spread across Europe, and widely read by intellectuals, clergy, and laypeople, all thanks to the the invention of the printing press. The ideas in the theses made sense to many people, and pushed the desire for reform Following the theses, luther continued to study and debate. He criticized basic catholic beliefs when he insisted that G-d's grace cannot be won by good works, as he believed faith alone was needed. He even said in 1519 in Leipzig that only Jesus was the head of the Christian Church, not the pope He also insisted that individuals should interpret the scripture on their own and that christian practices should only come from the bible To further his message, he translated the bible into german, so that many more people could read the bible without the aid of the clergy In 1520, Pope Leo X excommunicated Luther In 1521, the newly crowned holy roman emperor, Charles V, and the German Diet, or assembly, summoned Luther to appear in front of them at the city of worms, where Luther refused to change his opinions The holy roman emperor handed down the edict of worms, a decree that declared luther to be outlawed and condemned his writings The edict did not prevent Luther's ideas from spreading, however, as by 1530, Lutheranism was formally recognized as a branch of christianity, even though Martin Luther never intended to begin a new religion. In 1529, Charles V moved to suppress Lutherans in germany, however, the lutheran princes in the German assembly issued a protestatio, or protest, against these measure, which is how we get the term Protestant Martin Luther's stand against the Roman Catholic Church opened the door for others to put forth their differing ideas on religious matters Reasons for the appeal of reformation ideas: Well to change everything that was wrong How/Where Protestantism Spread: Another reformation priest was Ulrish Zwingli, a man born in Switzerland who entered the priesthood at the age of 22 and soon began preaching similar ideas to those of luther, only his went even farther and were even viewed as radical He established a church with a base of theocracy, a government in which church and state are joined and in which officials are considered to be divinely inspired Although his movement gained support in Switzerland, it was rejected and opposed by many, including Martin Luther, who accused Zwingli of tampering with the word of G-d. John Calvin, who was born in 1509 and educated in France, was the second most important protestant reformer and was influenced by Erasmus and other renaissance humanists. He also supported the reforms of Martin Luther in Germany Inspired by ideas of Augustin, calvin preached the doctrine of predestination, which holds that G-d knows who will be saved, even before people are born and therefore guides the lives of those destined for salvation, thus creating the idea that nothing humans can for, either good or bad will change their predestined end Calvinism took root in Geneva, Switzerland, which became a theocracy under calvin's leadership. Calvinists viewed people as sinful by nature, thus making strict laws enacted that regulated people's behavior. In Geneva, church attendance was mandatory and even matters such as the number of courses in each meal and the color of the clothing were the subject of laws Amusements such as feasting, dancing, singing, and wearing Jewelry were forbidden. This strictness was actually the heart of calvinism's appeal because it gave its followers a sense of mission and discipline. John Knox became the spokesman for the reformation in scotland after spending time in john calvin's Geneva After years of religious turmoil in scotland, Knox's reformed church replaced the Roman Catholic Church. His church structure laid the ground for the presbyterian denomination that arose later The anabaptists insisted on rebaptizing adults, which was a crime punishable by death at that time. The Anabaptist church later evolved into several religious factions, including the hutterites, which was names for their founder Jakob Hutter, the mennonites, and the amish mennonites At age 17, in 1509, Henry VIII became king of England. He was a devout Catholic who angrily protested the ideas of luther, actions that earned him the title "defender of the faith." By 1525, Henry's wife catherine of Aragon had borne only one child, a girl named mary, which was a problem for Henry, who wanted a male heir Henry decided to aned or declare his marriage invalid based on church laws so that he could marry again to a wife who could produce a male heir The pope would not agree to the annulment because catherine and her nephew, holy roman emperor charles V, opposed it, which faced the king with a dilemma known as "the king's great matter." While henry argued over his annulment, he fell in love with anne boleyn, forcing henry to take matters into his own hands Henry summoned parliament, known as the reformation parliament. this gathering led to the declaration that england no longer considered itself under the authority of the pope, but instead, Henry himself became the head of the church of England. He changed to rituals of the church very little but Henry did close any catholic monasteries and convents and distributed much of the land to nobles. This helped build more public support from the church In 1533, Anne and Henry were secretly married and later had a child name Elizabeth. The next year parliament passed the act of supremacy, which required subjects to take an oath declaring Henry VIII to be "supreme head of the church of england." The break with rome was complete Henry's third wife Jane Seymour gave england its male heir, Edward VI, who took the throne in 1547 at age nine. Edward died before his 16th birthday, and Henry;s daughter Mary became queen of England. Mary returned england to the authority of the pope, burned hundreds for their protestant beliefs, and earned herself the title bloody mary for her gruesome control. When Mary died, her 25 year old sister Elizabeth, who was protestant at heat, became queen and once again split England from Rome in 1559. Elizabeth persecuted any who dared to worship as catholics and firmly established the church of england.

school of athens

Raphael

catholic counter reformation

Reforms made by the catholic church: Some Catholics beside protestants were displeased with the church and were working to fix it with a series of reforms in response to the spread of Protestantism known as the counter-reformation One of the earliest people to try to reform the church from within was a monk named Girolamo Savonarola who, in the late 1400s, preached fiery sermons against the abuses of the church and called for churches to melt down their gold and silver ornaments to buy bread for the hungry and poor members of the church Savonarola convinced people to gather and burn jewelry and trinkets in an enormous fire known as "the bonfire of the vanities," which was first allowed by Pope Alexander, but eventually the current pope excommunicated Savonarola for spreading ideas the pope thought were dangerous, and even executed him in 1498 in Florence. One of the most influential religious orders made to reform the church and renew the catholic's emphasis on spirituality and service was the society of Jesus, or the Jesuits In 1534, the jesuit order was founded by Ignatius of Loyola, a basque nobleman and former soldier, and in 1539 the pope approved the order. Loyola ran the Jesuits like a military organization, with a strong emphasis on obedience to the church. They established missions, schools, and university as a concentration on education would be the means of combating the Protestant Reformation. In 1545, Pope Paul, who recognized the need to redefine the doctrines of the catholic church, organized the Council of Trent, which, during the time between 1545 and 1563, examined the criticisms made by Protestants about Catholic practices, thus clarifying catholic teaching on important points. The delegates addressed the abuses that had caused a problem for the catholic church over the past century and constructed a series of reforms, such as the regulation of the training of priests or the curb of financial abuse or the abolishment of selling indulgences, that targeted fixing the corruption of the clergy. The Council of Trent rejected Protestants' emphasis on self-discipline and individual faith. The council claimed the the church could help believers to achieve salvation with the use of mystery and magnificent ceremonies. This was consistent with the beliefs of millions, especially the majority of Europeans who remained catholic. The pronouncements of the Council of Trent meant that no compromise would be formed with protestants. Catholicism was boosted by the council's bold actions, especially when Austria, Poland, and other parts of Europe returned to the catholic church. Catholics everywhere felt renewed spiritually and in their confidence with the church Using this renewed spirit, Jesuits set out to expand the scope of the church by building and operating 669 colleges in Italy, Germany, and other places by 1700. The order began to have some influence over political affairs, as many future leaders were educated at Jesuit schools. Jesuits passed along information about the cultures of other lands as they worked in India, Japan, China, and other places. Charles Borromeo, the archbishop of Milan from 1560 to 1584, was among the important figures in the Catholic church who helped to carry out the reforms decreed by the council of trent. He built a new school for the education of priests to help implement the decrees. Francis of Sales, a french man, worked to regain the district of savoy, which had largely converted to calvinism. After his missionary work, most people of Savoy returned to the catholic church. Later, he founded a religious teaching order for women. During the Renaissance women in Religious orders began to be more active in the church, which before the renaissance, they lived in secluded convents. By the late middle ages, it was accepted that nuns could help the poor, orphaned, or sick. In 1535, a nun, Angela Merici, started the company of saint ursula, whose goal was to teach girls Jane of Chantal and Francis of Sales founded an order to train women to be teachers called the Visitation of Holy Mary Order Mary ward of England started a series of schools throughout Europe. At first her ideas about women were considered dangerously new, and were therefore denounced by anti, Jesuits. However, later, her missionary influence was formally recognized by the church Teresa of Avila was perhaps the most famous female spiritual leader. She was born in spain in 1515 and decide to become a nun at age 20. When her father opposed her spiritually desires in 1536, she ran away to a convent, where she decide the practices were too lax, so she followed her own strict rules regarding fasting, prayer, and sleep. Eventually the church granted Teresa permission to reform the carmelite order. Teresa's deep spirituality, reported visions of Christ, and love for the Catholic faith all helped to inspire many people who would have converted to protestantism to remain in the catholic church The Roman Inquisition was founded in 1542 by the church court in order to fight protestantism and counter the reformation Later popes increased the inquisition's power so that they could try people accused of being protestant, of practicing witchcraft, or of breaking church law. The spanish monarchs set up and controlled the much harsher spanish inquisition in 1478. They used the inquisition to impose religious uniformity, trying to convert Jews, Muslims, and later on, Protestants The church also attempted to stop rebellion through its index of Forbidden Books. The Church stated that people would lose their souls if they read the books on the list. The church's image was damaged by accounts of torture and execution by the courts. The inquisition's actions during the counter-reformation are seen as an abuse of the church's power.

fief

The land knights, or vassals, were given as a form of payment for protecting their lord.

Saladin

The nickname the Europeans used to refer to Salah Ad-Din, the new leader of the Muslim World who arose about 30 years after the Second Crusade. He took the liberty of overthrowing the Fatimids and taking the title of Sultan for himself. Saladin successfully completed his goal of taking back the Crusader states and driving the European Christians out of Jerusalem.

trial jury

The right of a person to be tried by a jury, or a group of citizens, to decide if the person is guilty or innocent of committing a crime. issues a verdict

tithe

an offering of a tenth part of some personal income a tax to the church

explain the process for becoming a master craftsmen

apprentice - observe / work for master in shop journey man-travel around learningfrom masters make masterpiece that shows your best work master - can own own shop

what general areas / fields were dramatically changed by the renaissance?

arts: paintings, sculptures, architexture science: scientific revolution, science of astronomy, medicine Education religion ecpnomics: mercantilism literature warfare philosophy exploratipn

house of lords

the upper house of the British parliament Chamber of Parliament composed of members of the noble class and clergy (Anglican Church Leadership)

fallow

(adj.) plowed but not seeded; inactive; reddish-yellow; (n.) land left unseeded; (v.) to plow but not seed

Charlemagne

800 AD crowned by the Pope as the first head of the Holy Roman Empire, which extended from northern Spain to western Germany and northern Italy. His palace was at Aachen in central Europe

Franks

A Germanic people who settled in the Roman province of Gaul. France and germany.

Domesday book

A book that William the conqueror used to create a central tax system for England that was based on the data found in the survey William sent out to the people of England, which asked questions that had the functions of learning who lived in each part of England, what they owed, and how much they could afford to pay in taxes.

bubonic plague / Black death

A devastating plague that swept across Europe between 1347 and 1351. This crisis broke out right while the Hundred Years' war was taking its toll on the armies of England and France. Historians debate what this plague really was, but many believe that it took two different forms. On of these plagues, the bubonic plague, was spread by fleas that lived on rats and other animals, while the other plague, the pneumonic plague, could be spread through the air from person to person. This disease began when plague struck mongol armies in 1346 laying siege to a black sea port. From their, infected rats and fleas were able to board the ship. Infected fleas bite humans, transferring the disease to people. As people, mostly merchants, traveled, so did this disease. It spread quickly through Europe, string the coastal regions first and then gaining its way inland. By 1351, almost everywhere in Europe had seen the Black Death. Most of the time, when someone would get the Black Death, they would die in just a few days. People recognized the black death by the development of large dark splotches on the skin, alongside other symptoms, such as high fever, vomiting, and severe headaches. Priests and doctors, who usually treated the sick, easily caught the plague and died themselves because it spread so easily. Historians estimate that about 25 million Europeans, which is one-third the population, died due to the black death. The plague not only spread through Europe, but it also managed to devastate the people of Central Asia, North Africa, and the Byzantine Empire. In China the number of people dropped from as many as 125 million in the late 1200s to about 90 million in the late 1300s. Most people believed that the plague was a sign that G-d was punishing them for their sins, which led some of these people to beat or harm themselves. In some areas, people idiotically and evilly blamed the Jews, saying that they poisoned wells, which led frightened, or just plain out cruel and anti-semitic, mobs to massacre entire Jewish communities :( :( These reactions led to an increase in anticlericalism and also added to the already abundant anti-semitic feelings in Europe. Due to the giant loss of population, the Black death helped bring an end to the manorial system. The ones who avoided the plague were able to demand higher wages because so many workers had died. Some peasants were able to ditch their farm life, and become manufacturing workers in cities. In more rural areas, lords attempted to change wages back to the lower, pre-plague amount, but these efforts failed. People with money bought vacant lands, which they turned into efficiently organized estates that required less people to run, also helping to end the manorial system.

charter

A document that gives the holder the right to organize settlements in an area given out by the king. While trying to find good places to sell their goods, merchants found themselves in medieval towns, which were mostly run by local lords who could charge any fees or taxes they liked. To avoid these taxes, merchants asked the king to let them build new towns, which the king agreed to do, with the payment of money of course to the king. Under the leadership of the merchants, these towns quickly grew.

magna carta

A document that limited the king of England's power and suggested that the King was not above the law, that was made and signed after nobles began to worry about the English King's ever growing power, that put a threat on their nobility rights. The single event that really pushed the noble's concerns was in 1215 when King John found himself caught up in a war with France, which resulted in the loss of England's French holdings, and came up short of money. To raise the difference in money, king john placed a new tax on the nobles. This crisis led the nobles to first refuse to pay the tax and second to rebel against the king, which ended in the john being forced to sign a document, known as the magna carta, that contained an outline of the nobles rights, provisions on the king's power, and other such laws, such as the one that states that the king had to gain the consent of the nobles before raising taxes, or the one that ended the king's ability to arrest and punish civilians without cause or to take their personal property without following legal precautions. This document is still concerned one of the most important documents in the history of documents even today.

indictment

A formal written statement from a grand jury charging an individual with an offense; also called a true bill.

Vikings

A group of people from Denmark, Sweden, and Norway, otherwise collectively known as scandinavia, earning them the name "Norsemen" because of their northern routes. They specialized in farming, a challenging job in Northern Europe due to the lack of fertile soil in scandinavia, and fishing, an easy job due to Scandinavia's close proximity to a fish filled sea. As farming was challenging in the region, food shortages were common, especially when the population grew. To compensate for the lack of food, vikings began to take what they needed from other people. Their first places to raid for food and money were northern france and England. They were also able to raid much further places such as kiev and Constantinople, with their advanced ships that could carry up to 100 warriors and could withstand tough sea conditions. The viking even sailed their ships through rivers to attack inland cities, such as paris and Aachen. The Vikings would also attack with no warning so no one could prepare for their fierce arrival. They were armed with axes, spears, and shields, capturing and killing any person who opposed them. They took any precious item they could find and sailed off in a short amount of time. Their favorite target was monasteries, as monks were generally not warriors, making them as easy target. Also, monasteries held precious items, such as jeweled crosses or gold candlesticks that the non-christian vikings desired and felt no guilt taking. Some vikings who left scandinavia were explorers who established permanent settlements in distant lands. In the late 700s, vikings, led by a council called the Althing, arrived in iceland and thrived there for many years. From Iceland, groups of vikings set out to find other new distant lands. Tales from the sagas, long icelandic stories about amazing heroes and events, say that viking explorers reached greenland in 982. In 1082, Vikings reached North America, in what is now the eastern shore of Canada, being led by Leif Eriksson. Led by Rollo, Viking settled in Northern france. The king of france, who was tired of their raids, made a deal with rollo that said of the vikings stopped raiding france and instead defended Frankish lands, the kink would give him land. The land roll was given became known as normandy, or the land of the northmen.

grand jury

A jury of 12 to 23 persons who, in private, hear evidence presented by the government to determine whether persons shall be required to stand trial. If the jury believes there is sufficient evidence that a crime was committed, it issues an indictment.

Normans

A member of a Viking people who raided and then settled in the French province later known as Normandy, and who invaded England in 1066

manorialism

A system at the heart of medieval economics that revolved around large estates called manors. Manors were owned by wealthy lords or knights, who were too busy to farm their own lands, so peasants farmed the manor fields, and in return, the peasants received protection and small plats of land to cultivate for themselves. Some free people, such as land-owning peasants or skilled workers which may include millers and blacksmiths, rented land on a manor from a lord. Most manors also included a priest for spiritual needs. Farmers on the manor used a three0field crop rotation system, as they learned that leaving a field empty for a year helped improve the soil, thus improving the quality and quantity of the harvest, Manor lords had the goal of making the manor self sufficient or being able to produce everything the manor needed to survive and run right there on the land of the manor, which is why the manor also included a church, a mill to grind grain, and a blacksmith. Peasants lived in a small one or two bedroom cottage that they built themselves. In these cottages, the floor was packed dirt, the windows were small to prevent heat loss, a carefully arranged thatched roof made of hay was thick enough to be waterproof, but wasn't too thick that it collapsed into the house, the wooden stools and benches were their only furniture, and bedding was just stacks of straw, that had to be replaces often, as it also housed lice and bedbugs

Protestant Reformation

A time period in which christians began protesting against the church, creating new "protestant religions." This change too place in the 1500s or 16th century and started in Germany by Martin Luther when the Catholic church had many problems in it. It had strayed too far from its spiritual roots as it gained worldliness, extravagance, and influence. The church abused their growing power and they dishonestly and unfairly committed actions in the financial world with their vast wealth. As more and more bad acts were committed by the church, people's respect for priests, monks, and popes weakened. The taxes collected by the church were also displeasing, as the money the church collected from the middle class and peasants was used to fund elaborate art projects. In the 1500 Pope Leo X approved the sale of Indulgence, pardons issued by the pope that people could buy to reduce a soul's time in purgatory, which was where the catholics believed dying people went to work off the sins they had committed, in order to raise money for the construction of the Saint Peter's Basilica in Rome. The Sale of Indulgences, however, was greatly criticized by the people. Since taxation wasn't working, the sale of indulgences grew. There was also a major shift going on in Europe at this time, in which nationalism, or the devotion to a particular nation or state rather to the church, grew, causing people to consider themselves citizens of a government separate from the church

Elizabeth I

After Henry's death, the death of his son Edward who briefly ruled, and the death of his daughter Mary, who during her short reign made catholicism the religion of England again, Elizabeth I was finally crowned queen. Her first order as Queen was using the parliament to help her pass laws that would convert England to Anglican or English protestant once again. Elizabeth was a strong female who refused to marry, even though parliament kept on trying to get her to, because she knew it would limit her freedoms. Despite her opposition to the parliaments' commands, she still managed to talk them into approving funds she needed using her strong voice she gained from being a strong leader. Elizabeth maintained a good relationship with parliament and was very open to having members speak their mind without punishment. She had the parliament meet 10 times during her 45-year-reign. Elizabeth I died in 1603, leaving a relative of the Tudors from Scotland to become king. His name was James I, the first member of the stuart dynasty to rule England. His view of absolute monarchy was not well liked by parliament at all. also defeated spanish armada

Excommunication

Banishment from the Roman Catholic Church

exchequer

British treasury

Why did people go on the crusades? Results of Crusades?

Christians had the mission to take the holy land from the muslims Effects of the Crusades: The crusades did not end in the original goal of the Christian Europeans, but they did result in many long-lasting effects that changed both Europe and the Holy Land economically, politically, and socially. The crusades enhanced the existing trade between the Muslims, Byzantines, and Western Europeans because returning crusaders brought even more goods, such as spices and textiles, to Europe. The Increase in trade resulting from the crusades added to the changing european economy of the Middle Ages. The crusades resulted in many lost Knights and Nobles, leaving their homes and valuable lands vulnerable, which many Kings used to their advantage as they took control of the unoccupied lands. With the increase of land control, the kings' power also increased. The Crusades resulted in Europeans learning more about the culture of the muslims, which ended up impacting European society greatly. Some European Christians who once fought as a Crusader began to have more respect for other cultures and religions. Interestingly, many who had not had a part in the Crusades became more intolerant, resulting in many Europeans viewing any non-christians as enemies. This intolerance led to the increase of persecution of Jews in Europe. :( :( Jews and Muslims in turn saw the intolerant Christian Europeans and therefore the Crusaders as invaders. These cultures unfortunately kept their views of each other for many years after the crusades.

chivalry

Code of conduct for knights during the Middle Ages; the qualities that would be ideal for a knight to have

Charles I

I fear I'll be beheaded his arguing with the parliament caused the English civil war, in which he led the royalists to defeat

english revolution

In 1625, James I's son Charles I was crowned king James I and parliament never really got along. Charles wanted money, but Parliament refused to grant Charles the money without signing a document called the Petition of right, which placed limits on the king's power, such as the statement that said the king could not levy taxes without the Parliament's approval or the the statement that stated that the king could not imprison anyone without Legal Justification, Force Citizens to house soldiers, or declare martial law in peacetime. This document was a direct threat to absolute monarchy that Charles I craved. Parliament again defied charles and refused to give him money, which was when Charles taxed the English people on his own and forced bankers to loan him money, which absolutely infuriated parliament. In response, in 1629 Charles decided to rule without consulting parliament ever again. In 1640, Charles I was badly in debt due to a religious rebellion in Scotland that he finally had to reconvene parliament so that he could ask for more money This session is known as the long parliament because it did not disband for many years. After being ignored for 11 years, parliament didn't want to help the king, so they took this moment to further limit the king's powers. They demanded that Parliament must meet every three years and the king could no longer dismiss parliament. Charles I accepted these new rules from parliament, but he awaited the right moment to overturn them. That moment came when a radical puritan group within parliament moved to abolish the appointment of bishops in the church of England. The king, whose power came from running the church, was infuriated. To counter the puritans' insulting action, Charles decided to arrest the puritan leaders for treason by leading troops into the house of commons to make the arrest, but the med had already escaped. Now charles had revealed his plans to take back power, causing some members of parliament to rise up against the king. Charles I called for the support of the english people. Within months, the English civil war began in 1642 The results of the English civil war: Without funding from Parliament, the kind relied on contributions to pay for his army, which is why many of his supporters, who were called Royalists due to their loyalty to the king, were wealthy nobles. Parliament could pay for its army by voting for funding. Roundheads were the supporters of parliament who were named for their short bowl shaped haircuts, contrary to the long wigs Royalists wore. Puritans, merchants, and some members of the upper classes made up the roundheads, who were led by a member of parliament named Oliver Cromwell who had risen to leadership as an army general. In 1644 cromwell led a victory in which 4,000 of the king's soldiers died, which greatly helped him rise in power until he was commander-in-chief of the parliament's army. The royalist army was beaten by Cromwell's disciplined troops and in 1646 the king surrendered. Cromwell, now in full control, dismissed all members of parliament who disagreed with him, and with the remaining folks made up the Rump Parliament. The rump Parliament charged the king with treason and put him on trial, where charles defended himself well, but refused to even recognize the parliament's authority to try him. At the end of the trial, the king was sentenced to death for treason and on January 30th, 1649 Charles I was publicly beheaded in front of his own palace. To some he was a tyrant who got what he deserved, but to others he was a martyr. After the civil war, the english government changed completely. The house of commons got rid of the house of lords and outlawed the monarchy. At this point, England became a commonwealth, which is a republican government based of the common good of all people. In 1653, Cromwell, was given the title lord protector of england, scotland, and ireland. Cromwell was a strict leader who closed theaters and limited other forms of popular entertainment. People were unhappy under the rule of Cromwell, so when he died, and his son became the leader, when the government collapsed, forcing parliament to meet again, parliament voted to bring back the monarchy. This event was called the restoration. In 1660, the son of dead charles I, also named charles, was invited back to be king under certain conditions. Two of the best things Charles II did was reopen English theaters and passed the habeas corpus act in 1679, which guaranteed people accused of a crime to a trial that would decide if he or she should be held or released.

Describe the many ways the Church influenced medieval society

In around 1000 CE, the uprising of piety, or a devotion to one's religion, in Europe caused thousands of Christians to become more devout and many to even go as far as joining a monastery, which is why the growing power of Christianity wasn't surprising. The majority of people in Europe were in fact Christian, and many were brought together to discuss their beliefs when religious identity became more important. Religious Christian events happened at any important time of anyone's life in Europe, from birth, to marriage, to death. Monks often acted as peacemakers in arguments and even prayed for an army's safety when in battle. Church officials worked as teachers and record keepers for the general public.

indulgences

In the 1500 Pope Leo X approved the sale of Indulgence, pardons issued by the pop that people could buy to reduce a soul's time in purgatory, which was where the catholics believed dying people went to work off the sins they had committed, in order to raise money for the construction of the Saint Peter's Basilica in Rome. The Sale of Indulgences, however, was greatly criticized by the people. Since taxation wasn't working, the sale of indulgences grew.

What were three causes of the protestant reformation

It had strayed too far from its spiritual roots as it gained worldliness, extravagance, and influence The church abused their growing power and they dishonestly and unfairly committed actions in the financial world with their vast wealth As more and more bad acts were committed by the church, people's respect for priests, monks, and popes weakened The taxes collected by the church were also displeasing, as the money the church collected from the middle class and peasants was used to fund elaborate art projects In the 1500 Pope Leo X approved the sale of Indulgence, pardons issued by the pop that people could buy to reduce a soul's time in purgatory, which was where the catholics believed dying people went to work off the sins they had committed, in order to raise money for the construction of the Saint Peter's Basilica in Rome. The Sale of Indulgences, however, was greatly criticized by the people. Since taxation wasn't working, the sale of indulgences grew. There was also a major shift going on in Europe at this time, in which nationalism, or the devotion to a particular nation or state rather to the church, grew, causing people to consider themselves citizens of a government separate from the church

florence

Italy's leading cultural center during Renaissance; important for trade and commerce;dominated by Medici's

inquisition

Legal procedures supervised by special judges who tried suspected heretics that worked by the method of having accused people come before the court and if he or she was found guilty of heresy, he or she was punished by local authorities. This legal procedure was used by the clergy as the primary way to try to stop the spread of heresy. The Roman Inquisition was founded in 1542 by the church court in order to fight protestantism and counter the reformation Later popes increased the inquisition's power so that they could try people accused of being protestant, of practicing witchcraft, or of breaking church law. The spanish monarchs set up and controlled the much harsher spanish inquisition in 1478. They used the inquisition to impose religious uniformity, trying to convert Jews, Muslims, and later on, Protestants The church also attempted to stop rebellion through its index of Forbidden Books. The Church stated that people would lose their souls if they read the books on the list. The church's image was damaged by accounts of torture and execution by the courts. The inquisition's actions during the counter-reformation are seen as an abuse of the church's power.

feudal contract

Lords and vassals who participated in the feudal system had duties to fulfill for one another. A knight's most important duty as a vassal was to provide protection to his lord. A knight also had the duty of being completely loyal to his lord and never tuning against him, which a knight promised to do in an oath called a fealty. A knight also had to pay bail for his lord if ever his lord were captured in battle. A knight also had to give money to his lord on special occasions, such as the knighting of the manor lord's eldest son. A lord had to treat his knight fairly, which required never demanding to much of the knight's time or money. The lord had to protect his knight if ever the knight was being attacked by enemies. The lord also had to act like a judge and sort out fights between his knights

magyars

Originating from central asia, these warrior nomads who eventually settled in hungry, were extremely skilled horsemen nut were not good sailers like the vikings. They raided carefully, choosing small cities that were not heavily armed. After raiding these carefully selected settlements, they would easily outrun any armies sent to stop them with their tactics that enabled them to raid eastern france, eastern Germany, Northern Italy, and the Eastern Byzantine Empire. The magyars gave up their nomadic ways, establishing a permanent home, which made it hard for them to outrun their opposing armies, which used to be their major advantage in battle. The Magyar raids ended when king otto the great of Germany crushed a huge magyar army.

moors

Muslims who first came to Europe in large numbers with the goal to conquer. In 711, a muslim army crossed the straight of gibraltar and quickly captured spain, a beginning a period of 700 years in which they controlled the Iberian Peninsula. The capital, cordoba, was the wealthiest and most culturally advanced cities of the medieval world. Muslim Spain was known for its tolerance because christians, jews, and muslims all lived alongside each other in peace. In 732, the muslims had crossed the Pyrenees into France, where a muslim raiding party would be stopped short by Charles Martel at the battle of Tours. The battle of tours is seen only as a minor set back to the muslims, but to the Europeans this event is noted as a major muslim defeat. During the 800s and 900s, muslims decided to neglect their raiding strategy of full scale invasions, and instead began ordering small, fast raids against cities and towns in southern france and Italy. Using this new tactic, muslims invaded Rome, the center of christianity and home to the pope. In Rome, Muslims destroyed many churches, including Saint Peter's basilica, which was a big loss to European Christians. Muslim fleets blocked Byzantine trade in the Mediterranean, stole goods from many passing ships, and their pirates even sold some enemy crews into slavery. They also blocked trade between Italy and its Eastern allies, causing the pope to go to the franks for protection, resulting in a shift in the balance of power in western Europe

glorious revolution

Next in line after Charles II was his brother James, who was catholic and married to a catholic princess who had a son that would easily outrank James's protestant daughters from his first marriage. When Charles died in 1685, James II was unpopularly crowned. Besides being a catholic, he believed in absolutes monarchy, which the English people had no tolerance to deal with. In 1688 a group of nobles invited James's daughter Mary and her husband to become king and queen of England. William and Mary were protestants from the Netherlands. James knew it was pointless to fight, so he fled to france. Parliament gave the throne to William III and Mary II as joint rulers. This transfer of power is known as the Glorious Revolution. Results of the glorious revolution: When William and Mary took the throne, they had to sign a document called the English Bill of Rights which prevented the monarch from levying taxes without the consent of parliament, among other provisions. Decades later, the bill of RIghts helped form the U.S constitution. The bill was central to England as a constitutional monarchy, a monarchy limited by law.

jesuits

One of the most influential religious orders made to reform the church and renew the catholic's emphasis on spirituality and service was the society of Jesus, or the Jesuits In 1534, the jesuit order was founded by Ignatius of Loyola, a basque nobleman and former soldier, and in 1539 the pope approved the order. Loyola ran the Jesuits like a military organization, with a strong emphasis on obedience to the church. They established missions, schools, and university as a concentration on education would be the means of combating the Protestant Reformation. Using this renewed spirit, Jesuits set out to expand the scope of the church by building and operating 669 colleges in Italy, Germany, and other places by 1700. The order began to have some influence over political affairs, as many future leaders were educated at Jesuit schools. Jesuits passed along information about the cultures of other lands as they worked in India, Japan, China, and other places.

monasteries /convents

Religious community where Christians called monks gave up their possessions and devoted their lives to serving G-d. In around 1000 CE, the uprising of piety, or a devotion to one's religion, in Europe caused thousands of Christians to become more devout and many to even go as far as joining a monastery. In medieval times, monasteries, paid for by local rulers who chose the abbots who led the monasteries, in Europe began to be founded all across Europe by men trying to gain lives completely dedicated to their religion. By 900 CE, rulers stopped choosing good abbots, and started choosing abbots who just wanted the position because of the prestige it brought to their families. A small group of monks began to strive to reform monasticism back to its strict roots when the strict Benedictine Rule was largely abandoned by the bad abbots, by beginning a new monastery in Cluny, France, where they would live strictly under the old law and would preserve their right to choose their own abbot. This monastery became the most influential in Europe. Monks from CLuny established daughter houses, whose leaders had to answer to the abbot of cluny. In addition, other monasteries all over Europe, including France, Spain, and Italy, adopted Cluny's costumes and agreed to follow the direction of its abbots. For some monks, even the Benedictine laws weren't strict enough to fully free them from any worldly distractions, leading them to create new orders. The most important of these new orders was the Cistercian order, which were usually broad undecorated, unheated estates built outside of towns to ensure isolation. The monks who inhabited the Cistercian orders split their time between labor, such as farm work or copying texts, and strict and heavy prayer. Some other orders even surpassed Cistercians' strictness. Members of these extreme orders live like hermits, having absolutely no contact with outside people. These hermit members were respected for their extreme piety to their faith.

shakespeare

Romeo & Juliet

Sacraments

Sacred rituals of the Roman Catholic Church

queen mary

The daughter of henry the VIII who is known as Bloody Mary due to her gruesome tactics to convert English back to catholicism from Protestantism

Renaissance

Time of transformative cultural change featuring a rebirth of Greek and Roman Ideas focused on humanism and individualism from 1350 to 1600 C.E. Everyone was beginning to specialize in one certain product, even cities. The region that is today modern Italy once held several large city-states in the north and in the south held the Papal states and various other kingdoms. Many of these large northern city states, such Venice, Milan, and Florence, were bustling centers of commerce and and were societally dominated primarily by nobles, merchants, the Roman Catholic Church, and artisan. Merchants were generally bankers or traders, while artisans practiced crafts such as goldsmithing. Nobles and merchants quickly became wealthy with their new found dominance in society, and, in wanting to display this wealth, knowledge of arts such as painting, sculpting, and architecture increased. Venice, an Italian city with good access to the sea, built its economy around trade, which wasn't so hard after so many years of its people trading with other ports along the Mediterranean Sea. Shipbuilding began to prosper, as traveling increased to the point where sailors were frequently going to the near east. Soon, Venetian merchants became among the wealthiest people in the world. With this wealth, the venetian merchants built a beautifully unique city that is considered a work of art in itself. To the west of Venice was Milan, who based its economy on agriculture, silk, and weapons, while to the south stood Florence, who was famous for its banking and cloth. Monarchs even went to Florentine bankers for money to fund wars or other projects. Merchants were able to reinvent raw wool and make it into fine cloth, which they sold abroad. The most prodigious merchants and bankers focused their money on creating a beautiful city that rivaled any other in Europe. This realization of italians that humans could achieve so much developed into a very common belief and idea during the renaissance, which is known as humanism. The interest in ancient Greek and Roman culture pushed scholars to think about the different parts that made up a good education. Under this influence, the Church's scholastic education began to be replaced by the classics, such as rhetoric, grammar, poetry, history, latin, and greek. These various subjects made up Humanities, which inspired the movement of humanism. Humanists opposed the Church's teachings by supporting the idea that individuality and achievement were important. They also emphasized the idea that the human mind was almost limitless. People trace this idea of humanism back to the florentine poet of the late middle ages, Dante Alighieri. His work makes references to the humanistic focus of human nature. It is a common belief among historians that the renaissance began with two humanists, Giovanni Boccaccio and Francesco Petrarch, who lived during the time of Dante and wrote in the vernacular language of the people, instead of formal latin like most other literature of the time. Humanists rediscovered ancient texts that focused on anatomy, geography, and astronomy. Medical knowledge became more advance, mainly thanks to the studies of Leonardo da Vinci's on human anatomy. Philosophers and writers were able to make works that had a lasting influence in europe for centuries, while advances were also made in astronomy. War in the early 1500s led to a period of insecureness in Italy in which the church could no longer provide stability and peace, which led people looking for comfort and guidance to turn to a new form of humanism based on Petrarch's ideas that focused more on people using their individuality and individual talents to help the rest of the city. One of these humanists who focused on this particular type of humanism was an Italian diplomat named Baldassare Castiglione who wrote a book published in 1528 called The Courtier, which describes how the perfect renaissance gentleman or gentlewoman should act. He creates a fictional conversation between a duke and his guests in the book, which creates a setting for him to express how courtiers and court ladies should behave at such events, suggesting that they should speak of serious subjects, have a knowledge of Latin and Greek, be well-acquainted with poetry and history, and should be able to write prose as well as poetry. Merchants used Castiglione's book with the intent of learning to act like courtiers to raise their status. Niccoló Machiavelli of Florence also wrote an influential book, which focused more so on how governments should rule. This book was called The Prince and encouraged harsh treatment of citizens and rival states, as men were, as described in the book, "ungrateful, fickle, liars, and, deceivers;" I'm going to assume that he had a tough night. The book also advises rulers to separate morals from politics, as "Power and ruthlessness" as said by Machiavelli are more useful than idealism to a good ruler. He insists that a ruler would do whatever they have to do to maintain political power, no matter how cruel and vicious to the people...so he seems like a nice guy. Machiavelli's theory that "the end justifies the means" became the opposite of the accepted form of correct behaviour, but was, however, used as a foundation for much later political philosophy. As Humanists found more Arab translations for classical texts, they learned a lot more about scientific information. The majority of humanist scholars and writers focused on human sciences such as history, geography, and politics, but with the find of more archives of scientific knowledge, the natural world began to be explored more. Science soon became important to people, which completely challenged the church's teachings about the world. Some science ideas that challenged the church's teachings was when viewers of the night began to claim that the Earth was not the center of the universe or when Nicholas Copernicus, a polish astronomer, claimed that the sun was placed in the middle of the universe, constantly being orbited by the planets and stars. Church officials even arrested the Italian astronomer Galileo Galilei who suggested that the Earth orbited the sun.

renaissance

Time of transformative cultural change featuring a rebirth of Greek and Roman ideas focused on humanism and individualism from 1350 to 1600 C.E. Areas that exhibited change were the arts, science, education, religion, politics, economics, literature, warfare, philosophy, and exploration.

Thomas more

Utopia

towns

While trying to find good places to sell their goods, merchants found themselves in medieval towns, which were mostly run by local lords who could charge any fees or taxes they liked. To avoid these taxes, merchants asked the king to let them build new towns, which the king agreed to do, with the payment of money of course to the king. Under the leadership of the merchants, these towns quickly grew. In the high middle ages, more and more people began to migrate to European towns. By 1300, Paris and Rome had about 100,000 inhabitants, while London and Florence boasted their 75,000 residents. Soon, these towns started to be called cities. Middle aged cities in Europe were small and crowding, creating a sometimes unpleasant environment for life. Tall four story high houses and shops lined both sides of the narrow and winding streets, which were filled with people, horses, pigs, and various other creatures. The houses were dark, as the tall buildings blocked sunlight. Cities mostly lacked public sanitation facilities, which created waste filled streets, which attracted rats and other insects, making disease a common threat. The air was filled with smoke from cooking fires, forges, glass factories, and tanneries, creating the threat of fire to the wood built buildings. Violence was also a common threat because criminals filled the streets.

guild

With the growth of cities, craftspeople desired to organize themselves into their own interests. The organization of craft people eventually led to the creation of trade groups called guilds. All the members of a given guild had the same interest and occupations as each other. The biggest function of a guild was to prevent competition. Working side by side, members of the guild set specific prices and standards for their products. In this way, guilds enabled for mutual protection and also insured quality control. Guilds also trained children who wanted to learn a craft. These children started as an apprentice, working for several years beside his or her craftsperson, learning the basic skills of the craft, and usually living in their masters' house. After a child completed his or her term as an apprentice, he or she became a journeyman, which is a person who traveled from workshop to workshop, learning from many different masters. Because of the guild restrictions, it was challenging for journeymen to graduate on to become masters. Most guild restricted women from working in their craft, but some were open to female workers, such as textiles.

Angles and saxons

a group of people who settled in the U.K. Descendants of the Angles and the Saxons, which are two groups that both came and invaded England in the 400s, who ruled the country and were the first to unify it. Our modern day language English originates from these groups

William the conqueror

the duke of normandy in France and a distant relative of the dead king who was one of the people who had a chance of becoming king in the battle of hastings. The English nobility supported Harold, the other choice for king, leading him to become the next kind, which infuriated William and led him to take the crown by force. Harold organized one army, while William sailed to England with another strong force, and the two fought in the Battle of Hastings, which resulted in a victory for William and the title of king William I of England, but he is more frequently called the nickname of William the Conqueror. William, a stronger king than any previous Anglo-Saxon leaders, claim all the land in England as his own and then divided it into fiefs to give to his Norman Soldiers, thus creating a new nobility, who owed their positions and their loyalty directly to the king. William and the Normans introduced many elements of French culture into England, mainly because most of England's new nibbles had been born in france and thus spoke in French and practiced French Customs. The lower classes of England still kept their old Anglo-Saxon language and habits.

slavs

the group of people in southeastern Europe who were the same ethnic group as the Russians settled in modern day russia, poland, and the ukraine.

pope urban II

the pope the Emperor of the Byzantine empire turned to for help when he believed the Turks would destroy Constantinople. He also organized the council of Clermont

machiavelli

the prince

Martin Luther

wrote 95 theses started reformation In 1517, Martin Luther publicly made his complaints about the church, marking the beginning of the protestant reformation His complaints consisted of the denial that indulgences had any power to remit sin, and the harsh criticism to the power of the pope and the wealth of the church These theses were not intended for ordinary people to read, but for church leaders, which was why they were written in academic latin, which most could not understand He placed his complaints of the church door, which were like communal bulletin boards back in the day Luther's theses began a discussion among university intellectuals, as he had wanted The theses were published, spread across Europe, and widely read by intellectuals, clergy, and laypeople, all thanks to the the invention of the printing press. The ideas in the theses made sense to many people, and pushed the desire for reform Following the theses, luther continued to study and debate. He criticized basic catholic beliefs when he insisted that G-d's grace cannot be won by good works, as he believed faith alone was needed. He even said in 1519 in Leipzig that only Jesus was the head of the Christian Church, not the pope He also insisted that individuals should interpret the scripture on their own and that christian practices should only come from the bible To further his message, he translated the bible into german, so that many more people could read the bible without the aid of the clergy In 1520, Pope Leo X excommunicated Luther In 1521, the newly crowned holy roman emperor, Charles V, and the German Diet, or assembly, summoned Luther to appear in front of them at the city of worms, where Luther refused to change his opinions The holy roman emperor handed down the edict of worms, a decree that declared luther to be outlawed and condemned his writings The edict did not prevent Luther's ideas from spreading, however, as by 1530, Lutheranism was formally recognized as a branch of christianity, even though Martin Luther never intended to begin a new religion. In 1529, Charles V moved to suppress Lutherans in germany, however, the lutheran princes in the German assembly issued a protestatio, or protest, against these measure, which is how we get the term Protestant Martin Luther's stand against the Roman Catholic Church opened the door for others to put forth their differing ideas on religious matters