historyfinalsemester2examids

Ali

4th caliph of islam expanded islamic empire. was Prophet's son in-law. was assassinated by Umayyad general and governor of Syria called Muawiyaa.

Odoacer

A German leader finally ended the charade of Roman imperial rule. Odoacer (oh-doh-AY-sur) deposed the Roman emperor, Romulus Augustulus (RAHM-yuh-luss ow-GOOS- chuh-luss), in 476 and began to rule on his own.

Nero: Agrippina & Seneca

A Julio-Claudian successor to Augustus. corrupt and freely eliminated people e.g. arranged the murder of his own mother who murdered many to get him to power. He also was made to commit suicide by Nero bc he may have been involved in a conspiracy to kill Nero. After being abandoned by his guards, he committed suicide by stabbing himself in the throat.

Pharisees

A jewish division in judea under the direction of a roman procurator. The Pharisees adhered strictly to Jewish ritual, and although they wanted Judaea to be free from Roman control, they did not advocate violent means to achieve this goal.

Sadducees

A jewish division in judea under the direction of a roman procurator. The Sadducees believed in rigid adherence to Hebrew law, rejected the possibility of personal immortal- ity, and favored cooperation with the Romans.

manor

A manor was an agricultural estate operated by a lord and worked by peasants. Manorialism grew out of the unsettled circumstances of the Early Middle Ages, when small farmers often needed protection or food in a time of bad harvests. Free peasants gave up their freedom to the lords of large landed estates in return for protection and use of the lord's land.

Flavian Dynasty

After Nero's death there was a new civil war, known as the year of the four emperors. Finally, Vespasian , commander of the legions in the east, established himself as sole ruler and his family as a new dynasty known as the Flavians, which ruled from 69 to 96. The significance of the year 69 was summed up precisely by Tacitus when he stated that ''a well-hidden secret of the principate had been revealed: it was possible, it seemed, for an emperor to be chosen outside Rome.''

Vespasian

After Nero's death there was a new civil war, known as the year of the four emperors. Finally, Vespasian , commander of the legions in the east, established himself as sole ruler and his family as a new dynasty known as the Flavians, which ruled from 69 to 96. The significance of the year 69 was summed up precisely by Tacitus when he stated that ''a well-hidden secret of the principate had been revealed: it was possible, it seemed, for an emperor to be chosen outside Rome.''

Peter: Head Apostle/Petrine Doctrine

Although tradition holds that one of Jesus's disciples, Peter, founded the Christian church at Rome,

alexius comnenus

Another dynasty, however, soon breathed new life into the Byzantine Empire. The Comneni, under Alexius I Comnenus (kahm-NEE-nuss) (1081-1118), were victorious on the Greek Adriatic coast against the Normans, defeated the Pechenegs in the Balkans, and stopped the Turks in Anatolia. Lacking the resources to undertake additional campaigns against the Turks, Emperor Alexius I turned to the west for military assistance. The positive response to the emperor's request led to the Crusades.

Essenes

Another jewish group in judea under the direction of a roman procurator. The Essenes were a Jewish sect that lived in a religious community near the Dead Sea. As revealed in the Dead Sea Scrolls, a collection of documents first discovered in 1947, the Essenes, like many other Jews, awaited a Messiah who would save Israel from oppression, usher in the kingdom of God, and establish a true paradise on earth.

Germanic Tribes: Visigoths, Ostrogoths, Vandals, Franks, Lombards

Although the Romans had established a series of political frontiers along the Rhine and Danube Rivers, Romans and Germans often came into contact across these bounda- ries. For some time, the Romans had hired Germanic tribes to fight other Germanic tribes that threatened Rome or enlisted groups of Germans to fight for Rome. In any case, until the fourth century, the empire had proved capable of absorbing these people without harm to its political structure. As that century wore on, however, the situation began to change as the Germanic tribes came under new pressures from invaders. In the late fourth century, the Germanic tribes came under new pressure when the Huns, a fierce tribe of nomads from the steppes of Asia (see the box on p. 142), began moving into the Black Sea region. One of the groups displaced by the Huns was the Visigoths (VIZ-uh- gahths), who crossed the Danube into German territory and settled down as Roman allies. Ill-treated by Roman officials, the Visigoths soon revolted, and the attempt to stop them at Adrianople in 378 led to a crushing defeat for the Romans. Soon the Visigoths were again on the move. Under their king Alaric (AL-uh-rik), they moved into Italy and sacked Rome in 410. Then, at the urging of the emperor, they moved into Spain and southern Gaul as Roman allies. The Romans' experience with the Visigoths established a precedent. The emperors in the first half of the fifth century made alliances with whole groups of Germanic peoples, who settled peacefully in the western part of the empire. The Burgundians settled in much of eastern Gaul, just south of another German tribe called the Alemanni. Only the Van- dals consistently remained hostile to the Romans. They Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. ravaged parts of Gaul and crossed the Pyrenees into Spain. Defeated by incoming Visigoths, the Vandals crossed the Strait of Gibraltar and conquered the province of Africa. In 455, the Vandals even attacked Rome, sacking it more fero- ciously than the Visigoths had in 410. Increasingly, German military leaders dominated the imperial courts of the western empire, treating the Roman emperors as puppet rulers under their control. One such German leader finally ended the charade of Roman impe- rial rule. Odoacer (oh-doh-AY-sur) deposed the Roman emperor, Romulus Augustulus (RAHM-yuh-luss ow-GOOS- chuh-luss), in 476 and began to rule on his own. Mean- while, the Ostrogoths (AHSS-truh-gahths), another branch of the Goths, under their king Theodoric (thee-AHD-uh- rik) (493-526), marched into Italy, killed Odoacer, and established control of Italy in 493. By the end of the fifth century, Roman imperial authority in the west had ceased. Nevertheless, the intel- lectual, governmental, and cultural traditions of the Late Roman Empire continued to live in the new Germanic kingdoms.

Zealots

Another jewish group in judea under the direction of a roman procurator. The Zealots, were militant extremists who advocated the violent overthrow of Roman rule. A Jewish revolt in 66 C.E. was crushed by the Romans four years later. The Jewish Temple in Jerusalem was destroyed, and Roman power once more stood supreme in Judaea.

The Good Emperors

At the beginning of the second century, a series of five so- called good emperors presided over a period of peace and prosperity that lasted almost a hundred years. These men—Nerva (NUR-vuh), Trajan (TRAY-jun), Hadrian (HAY- dree-un), Antoninus Pius (an-tuh-NY-nuss PY-uss), and Marcus Aurelius (MAR-kuss aw-REE-lee-uss)—treated the ruling classes with respect, cooperated with the senate, ended arbitrary executions, maintained peace throughout the empire, and supported domestic policies generally bene- ficial to the empire. Though absolute monarchs, they were known for their tolerance and diplomacy. By adopting capa- ble men as their successors, the first four good emperors reduced the chances of succession problems.

leif erickson

Born in the 10th century, Norse explorer Leif Eriksson was the second son of Erik the Red, who is credited with settling Greenland. For his part, Eriksson is considered by many to be the first European to reach North America, centuries ahead of Christopher Columbus. Eriksson eventually returned to Greenland, where he had been commissioned by Norwegian king Olaf I Tryggvason to spread Christianity and is believed to have died circa 1020. In the early 1960s, the discovery of the ruins of a Viking settlement in Newfoundland lent further weight to accounts of Eriksson's voyage, and in 1964 the United States Congress authorized the president to proclaim each October 9 as Leif Eriksson Day.

Charles Martel

By the eighth century, the Merovingian dynasty was los- ing its control of the Frankish lands. Charles Martel, the mayor of the palace of Austrasia, became the virtual ruler of these territories. When Charles died in 741, his son, Pepin (PEP-in or pay-PAHN), deposed the Merovingians and assumed the kingship of the Frankish state for him- self and his family.

Mayor of the Palace

By the eighth century, the Merovingian dynasty was losing its control of the Frankish lands. Charles Martel, the mayor of the palace of Austrasia, became the virtual ruler of these territories.

Carolingian Renaissance

Charlemagne revived learning, provided and educated clergy for the church and literate officials for the government. His efforts in a revival of learning and culture is labeled the Carolingian Renaissance, or ''rebirth'' of learning. Most of the revival of Classical studies and the efforts to preserve Latin culture took place in the monasteries. Monasteries established scriptoria , or writing rooms, where monks copied not only the works of early Christian- ity, such as the Bible, but also the works of Classical Latin. Charlemagne established a palace school, encouraged scholars to the Carolingian court, created Alcuin school. He also revived the arts and encouraged his own artists to look to the arts of ancient Rome and the Byzantine Empire. He built a chapel at Aachen was modeled after the Church of San Vitale in Ravenna. The Carolingian Renaissance played an important role in keeping the Classical heritage alive.

Constantine the Great: Edict of Milan & Council of Nicaea

Constantine in 313 he issued the famous Edict of Milan, officially tolerating the existence of Christianity. Constantine, disturbed by Arianism the controversy, that said Jesus was human and not God, called the first ecumenical council of the church, a meeting composed of representa- tives from the entire Christian community. The Council of Nicaea (ny-SEE-uh), held in 325, condemned Arianism and stated that Jesus was of ''the same substance'' as God: "We believe in one God the Father All-sovereign, maker of all things visible and invisible; And in one Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of God, begotten of the Father, only-begotten, that is, of the substance of the Father, God of God, Light of Light, true God of true God, begotten not made, of one substance with the Father."1 The Council of Nicaea did not end the controversy and Arianism persisted in some parts of roman empire.

Pope Leo III

Crowned Charlemagne Holy Roman Emperor on Christmas Day, 800; he wanted to be seen as a kingmaker

Five Pillars of Faith

Ethical code that Muslims follow: 1. shahadah or declaration of faith belief in God and Muhammad as his Prophet; 2. salat or prayer; 3. sawam or fasting during ramadan; 4.zakat or giving alms to poor; 5. hajj or pilgrimage to mecca.

Harun al-Rashed

Harun al-Rashid (786-809), whose reign is often described as the golden age of the Abbasid caliphate. His son al- Ma'mun (813-833) was a great patron of learning. He founded an astronomical observatory and created a foundation for translating Classical Greek works. This was also a period of growing economic prosperity. The Arabs had conquered many of the richest provinces of the old Roman Empire, and they now controlled the trade routes to the east. Baghdad became the cen- ter of an enormous trade empire that extended into Europe, Asia, and Africa, greatly adding to the wealth of the Islamic world. There was much fighting over the succession to the caliphate. When Harun al-Rashid died, his two sons fought to succeed him in a struggle that almost destroyed the city of Baghdad.

Herod the Great

Herod, byname Herod the Great, Latin Herodes Magnus (born 73 bce—died March/April, 4 bce, Jericho, Judaea), Roman-appointed king of Judaea (37-4 bce), who built many fortresses, aqueducts, theatres, and other public buildings and generally raised the prosperity of his land but who was the centre of political and family intrigues in his later years. He is known for his colossal building projects throughout Judea, including his expansion of the Second Temple in Jerusalem (Herod's Temple), the construction of the port at Caesarea Maritima, the fortress at Masada and Herodium. The New Testament portrays him as a tyrant, into whose kingdom Jesus of Nazareth was born. Herod also appears in the Christian Gospel of Matthew as the ruler of Judea who orders the Massacre of the Innocents at the time of the birth of Jesus. Despite his successes, including singlehandedly forging a new aristocracy from practically nothing, he still garnered criticism from various historians.

Battle of Tours

In 732, a Muslim army, making a foray into southern France, was defeated at the Battle of Tours near Poitiers. Muslim expansion in Europe came to a halt.

treaty of verdun: lothaire, charles the bald, louis the german

In 843, after Louis the Pious' death, his three surviving sons signed the Treaty of Verdun, which divided the Carolingian Empire among them: Charles the Bald (843-877) obtained the west Frankish lands which eventually formed France; Louis the German (843-876) took the eastern lands, which became Germany. Loather took middle kingdom from the North Sea to Italy. France and Germany would fight over the middle kingdom for centuries.

Jesus: Sermon on the Mount

In his Sermon on the Mount, Jesus presented the ethical concepts— humility, charity, and brotherly love—that would form the basis for the value system of medieval Western civili- zation. As we have seen, these were not the values of Clas- sical Greco-Roman civilization.

Hagia Sophia: Greek Cross

Justinian greatest achievement was the famous Hagia Sophia, the Church of the Holy Wisdom, completed in 537. The center of Hagia Sophia consisted of four large piers crowned by an enor- mous dome, which seemed to be floating in space. In part this impression was created by ringing the base of the dome with forty-two windows, which allowed an incredi- ble play of light within the cathedral. Light served to remind the worshipers of God. As darkness is illuminated by invisible light, so too, it was believed, is the world illuminated by an invisible spirit.

Code of Law

Justinian's most important contribution was his codifi- cation of Roman law. The eastern empire had inherited a vast quantity of legal materials connected to the develop- ment of Roman law, which Justinian wished to simplify. The result was the Corpus Iuris Civilis (KOR-pus YOOR-iss SIV-i-liss) (Body of Civil Law), a codification of Roman law that remained in force in the Eastern Roman Empire until its end in 1453. And because it was written in Latin (it was in fact the last product of eastern Roman culture to be writ- ten in Latin, which was soon replaced by Greek), the Corpus was also eventually used in the west and ultimately became the basis of the legal systems of all of continental Europe.

Mary & Joseph

Mary, was a 1st-century Galilean Jewish woman of Nazareth, and the mother of Jesus, according to the New Testament and the Quran. She had a virgin birth. The gospels of Matthew and Luke in the New Testament and the Quran describe Mary as a virgin and Christians believe that she conceived her son while a virgin by the Holy Spirit. The miraculous birth took place when she was already betrothed to Joseph and was awaiting the concluding rite of marriage, the formal home-taking ceremony. She married Joseph and accompanied him to Bethlehem, where Jesus was born.

Koran

Muslim holy text verbally revealed to Prophet Muhammad when he was meditating in cave on Mount Hira. Angel Gabriel came down and told the Prophet to recite.It was eventually written down.

Nerva

Nerva was one footed five good emperors that presided over a period of peace and prosperity that lasted almost a hundred years. These men treated the ruling classes with respect, cooperated with the senate, ended arbitrary executions, maintained peace throughout the empire, and supported domestic policies generally beneficial to the empire. Though absolute monarchs, they were known for their tolerance and diplomacy. By adopting capable men as their successors, the first four good emperors reduced the chances of succession problems.

pope gregory I

Nevertheless, the emergence of a strong pope, Gregory I (590-604), known as Gregory the Great, in the sixth cen- tury set the papacy and the Roman Catholic Church on an energetic path that enabled the church to play an increas- ingly prominent role in civilizing the Germans and aiding the emergence of a distinctly new European civilization in the seventh and eighth centuries. As pope, Gregory I took charge of Rome and its sur- rounding area and made it into an administrative unit that eventually came to be known as the Papal States. Gregory also pursued a policy of extending papal authority over the Christian church in the west.

Trajan

One of the 5 good emperors. Trajan (98-117) established a program that provided state funds to assist poor parents in raising and educating their children. Trajan was especially active in constructing public works—aqueducts, bridges, roads, and harbor facilities—throughout the provinces and in Rome. Trajan built a new forum in Rome to provide a setting for his cele- brated victory column. Trajan broke with Augustus's policy of defensive imperialism by extending Roman rule into Dacia (modern Romania), Mesopotamia, and the Sinai peninsula, his con- quests represent the high-water mark of Roman expansion (see Map 6.1).

rollo of normandy

Rollo (born c. 860—died c. 932), Scandinavian rover who founded the duchy of Normandy. According to later Scandinavian sagas, Rollo, making himself independent of King Harald I of Norway, sailed off to raid Scotland, England, Flanders, and France on pirating expeditions. Early in the 10th century, Rollo's Danish army attacked France, and he established himself in an area along the Seine River. Charles III the Simple of France held off his siege of Paris, defeated him near Chartres, and negotiated the treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte, giving him the part of Neustria that came to be called Normandy; Rollo in return agreed to end his brigandage. He gave his son, William I Longsword, governance of the dukedom (927) before his death. Rollo was baptized in 912 but is said to have died a pagan.

John the Baptist

St. John the Baptist, (born 1st decade bce, Judaea, Palestine, near Jerusalem—died 28-36 ce; feast day June 24), Jewish prophet of priestly origin who preached the imminence of God's Final Judgment and baptized those who repented in self-preparation for it; he is revered in the Christian church as the forerunner of Jesus Christ. After a period of desert solitude, John the Baptist emerged as a prophet in the region of the lower Jordan River valley. He had a circle of disciples, and Jesus was among the recipients of his rite of baptism.

first crusade

The Crusades were based on the idea of a holy war against the infidel or unbeliever. The wrath of Christians was directed against the Muslims and had already found some expression. Pope Urban II inclined to trust knights who had been well trained in the art of war. The warriors of western Europe, particularly France, formed the first ''official'' crusading armies. The knights who made up this first crusading host were motivated by religious fervor, adventure and welcomed fighting. Others saw an opportunity to gain territory, riches, status, possibly a title, and even salvation—had the pope not offered a full remission of sins for those who partici- pated in these ''armed pilgrimages''? From the perspective of the pope and European monarchs, the Crusades offered a way to rid Europe of contentious young nobles who dis- turbed the peace and wasted lives and energy fighting each other. The Catholic Church had tried earlier to limit the ongoing bloodletting, but without a great deal of success. And merchants in many Italian cities relished the prospect of new trading opportunities in Muslim lands. In the First Crusade, launched in 1096, three organized bands of noble warriors, most of them French, made their way to the east. This first crusading army included several thousand cavalry and as many as 10,000 foot soldiers. After the capture of Antioch in 1098, much of the crusading host proceeded down the coast of Palestine, and reached Jerusalem in June 1099. After a five-week siege, the Holy City was taken amid a horrible massacre of the inhabitants, men, women, and children. After further conquest of Palestinian lands, the crusaders ignored the wishes of the Byzantine emperor (who foolishly believed the crusaders were working on his behalf) and organized four crusader states (Edessa, Antioch, Tripoli, and Jerusalem). Because the crusader states were surrounded by Muslim enemies, they grew increasingly dependent on the Italian commercial cities for supplies from Europe. Some Italian cities, such as Genoa, Pisa, and especially Venice, became rich and powerful in the process.

Mecca: Kaaba

The Kaaba was a central shrine in Mecca and had massive black meteorite that was worshiped by the Arabs. The Kaaba was a black square box building which used to hold the gods of the polytheistic arabs but was cleared out by Muhammad and is now where the Muslims go and circumambulate it when doing pilgrimage. Empty inside but meteor on outside that Muslims kiss. Mecca was also the place were Muhammad was born and lived until was forced out of the city after the death of his wife in 622 to medina this was called the hijra.

Nika Rebellion

The Nika Rebellion occurred during Byzantine emperor Justinian's time when during a chariot race in Januar 532 two rival political factions the Blues and the Greens started a riot in the hippodrome. The rioters were upset about many of Justinian and Theodora's actions and the rioters burned many public buildings on fire and proclaimed Hypatius as the new emperor. Justinian was told by his wife Theodora not to flee but instead to stay at the palace which he did and he went on to crush the rebellion by sending troops to the hippodrome where they killed 30000 demonstrators. On Theodora's advice Justinian executed Hypatius.

jerusalem

The Third Crusade was a reaction to the fall of the Holy City of Jerusalem in 1187 to Muslim forces under Saladin.

saladin

The Third Crusade was a reaction to the fall of the Holy City of Jerusalem in 1187 to Muslim forces under Saladin. In the third crusade the crusaders encountered nothing but problems. They met with success against the coastal cities, where they had the support of their fleets, but when they moved inland, they failed miserably. Richard negotiated a settlement whereby Saladin agreed to allow Christian pilgrims free access to Jerusalem. After the death of Saladin in 1193, Pope Innocent III initi- ated the Fourth Crusade.

feudalism

The contract sworn between a lord and his subordinate (known as a vassal) is the basis of a form of social organization that later generations of histori- ans called feudalism. But feudalism was never a system, and many historians today prefer to avoid using the term.

Clovis

The establishment of a Frankish kingdom was the work of Clovis (c. 482-511), a member of the Merovingian (meh- ruh-VIN-jee-un) dynasty who became a Catholic Christian around 500. Clovis's conversion to Catholic Christianity gained him the support of the Roman Catholic Church, which was eager to obtain the friendship of a major Ger- manic ruler who was a Catholic Christian. By 510, Clovis had established a powerful new Frankish kingdom stretching from the Pyrenees in the west to German lands in the east (modern-day France and western Germany). Af- ter the death of Clovis, however, his sons divided the newly created kingdom among themselves, as was the Frankish custom.

Domitian

The greatest historian of the silver age was Tacitus (c. 56-120). His main works included the Annals and Histories, which presented a narrative account of Roman history from the reign of Tiberius through the assassination of the emperor Domitian in 96.

fief

The land or some other type of income granted to a vassal in return for military service came to be known as a fief (FEEF). In time, many vassals who held such grants of land came to exercise rights of jurisdiction or political and legal authority within their fiefs.

vassalage

The practice of vassalage was derived from Germanic so- ciety, in which warriors swore an oath of loyalty to their leader. They fought for their chief, and he in turn took care of their needs. By the eighth century, an individual who served a lord in a military capacity was known as a vassal.

Pontius Pilate

To the Roman authorities of Palestine and their local allies, the Nazarene was a potential revolutionary who might transform Jewish expectations of a messianic kingdom into a revolt against Rome. Jesus thus found himself denounced on many sides and was given over to the Roman authorities. The procu- rator Pontius Pilate ordered his crucifixion. But that did not solve the problem.

Belisarius

When he became emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire, Justinian was determined to reestablish the empire in the entire Mediterranean world. His army, commanded by Belisarius, probably the best general of the late Roman period, sailed to North Africa and quickly destroyed the Vandals in two major battles. From North Africa, Belisarius led his forces onto the Italian peninsula and defeated the Ostrogoths.

Justinian

When he became emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire, Justinian was determined to reestablish the empire in the entire Mediterranean world. Important for the codification of Roman Law. His army, commanded by Belisarius probably the best general of the late Roman period. By 552, Justinian appeared to have achieved his goal. His reconstituted empire included Italy, part of Spain, North Africa, Asia Minor, Palestine, and Syria. But his success proved fleeting. Justinian added many new buildings. His public works projects included roads, bridges, walls, public baths, law courts, and colossal underground reservoirs to hold the city's water supply. He also built hospitals, schools, monasteries, and churches. Churches were his special passion, and in Constantinople alone he built or rebuilt thirty-four of them. His greatest achievement was the famous Hagia Sophia, the Church of the Holy Wisdom, completed in 537. The hippodrome a large amphitheater. Justinian's accomplishments had been spectacular, but when he died, he left the Eastern Roman Empire with Justinian and His Court. Ravenna remained the center of the Byzantine presence in Italy for two hundred years. The Church of San Vitale at Ravenna contains some of the finest examples of sixth-century Byzantine mosaics (artworks created by cementing small pieces of colored glass or rock to a wall or floor). This mosaic depicts the emperor Justinian and his court dressed in their elaborate robes. Justinian is seen with soldiers, his staff, and members of the clergy. serious problems: too much distant territory to protect, an empty treasury, a smaller population after an epidemic of plague, and renewed threats to its frontiers. In the first half of the seventh century, the empire faced attacks from the Persians to the east and the Slavs to the north. The most serious challenge to the Eastern Roman Empire, however, came from the rise of Islam. . The legal systems of the west owed much to Justinian's codification of Roman law.

tithe

a family's payment of one-tenth of its income to a church

Omar

second caliph of islam expanded Islamic empire.

Caliphate

system of rule after Prophet died with a caliph or leader of the Islamic community. both political and religious leader.

Othman

thrid caliph of islam expanded islamic empire.

monasticism

voluntary separation from society to dedicate one's life to God

great schism

After Pope Gregory XI, died the college of cardinals met in conclave to elect a new pope, the roman citizens did not want a French Pope so they and the the guards of the conclave warned the cardinals that they ''ran the risk of being torn in pieces'' if they did not choose an Italian. The terrified cardinals duly elected the Italian archbishop of Bari, who became Pope Urban VI (1378-1389) on Easter Sunday. After many of the cardinals (the French ones) left Rome, they issued a manifesto, saying that they had been coerced by the mob and that Urban's election was therefore null and void. The dissenting cardinals chose a Frenchman, who took the title of Clement VII and returned to Avignon. Since Urban remained in Rome, there were now two popes, initiating what has been called the Great Schism of the church. Europe's loyalties soon became divided: France, Spain, Scotland, and southern Italy supported Clement, while England, Germany, Scandinavia, and most of Italy sup- ported Urban. The Great Schism badly damaged the faith of Christian believers.

Septimus Severus

After a series of civil wars, Septimius Severus (sep-TIM- ee-uss se-VEER-uss) (193-211), who was born in North Africa and spoke Latin with an accent, used his legions to seize power. On his deathbed, Septimius Severus advised his sons, ''Live in harmony, make the soldiers rich, and don't give a damn for anything else.'' His advice set the tone for the new dynasty he established. The Severan rul- ers (193-235) began to create a military monarchy. The army was expanded, soldiers' pay was increased, and mili- tary officers were appointed to important government positions. A

the crusades

Another manifestation of the religious enthusiasm that seized Europe in the High Middle Ages was the series of Crusades mounted against the Muslims. These campaigns gave the revived papacy of the High Middle Ages yet another opportunity to demonstrate its influence over Eu- ropean society. The Crusades were a curious mix of God and warfare, two of the chief concerns of the Middle Ages. Although European civilization developed in relative isolation, it had never entirely lost contact with the lands and empires to the east. At the end of the eleventh century, that contact increased, in part because developments in the Islamic and Byzantine worlds prompted the first major attempt of the new European civilization to expand beyond Europe proper.

Antonius Pius

Antoninus Pius, in full Caesar Titus Aelius Hadrianus Antoninus Augustus Pius, original name Titus Aurelius Fulvius Boionius Arrius Antoninus (born Sept. 19, 86, Lanuvium, Latium—died March 7, 161, Lorium, Etruria), Roman emperor from ad 138 to 161. Mild-mannered and capable, he was the fourth of the "five good emperors" who guided the empire through an 84-year period (96-180) of internal peace and prosperity. His family originated in Gaul, and his father and grandfathers had all been consuls.

erik the red

As a child, Erik the Red was a Noerwegian Viking, he left his native Norway for western Iceland with his father. When Erik was exiled from Iceland circa 980, he decided to explore the land to the west (Greenland). He sailed in 982 but was unable to approach the coast because of drift ice. The party rounded the tip of Greenland and settled in an area near Julianehåb. Erik returned to Iceland in 986 and formed a colony. One of Erik the Red's four children was Leif Eriksson.

Livia

Augustus' wife and the next 4 generations of successors after him were related either to Augustus or to Livia.

Holy Roman Emperor

Charelmagne was crowned Holy Roman Emepror by Pope Leo III because Charlemagne gave the Pope refuge after a rebellion to overthrow him, when charlemagne went to visit the pope on Christmas Day 800 the pope crowned him Holy Roman Emperor. Charlemagne ''at first had such an aversion that he declared that he would not have set foot in the Church the day that it was conferred, although it was a great feast-day, if he could have foreseen the design of the Pope.'' But Charlemagne also perceived the usefulness of the imperial title; he was now on a equal level of with the Byzantine emperor. Moreover, the papacy now had a defender of great stature. Charlemagne's coronation as Roman emperor demonstrated the strength, even after three hundred years, of the concept of an enduring Roman Empire. More important, it symbolized the fusion of Roman, Christian, and Germanic elements.

Louis the Pious

Charlemagne was succeeded by his son Louis the Pious, who was unable to control either the Frankish aristocracy or his own four sons, who fought continually.

Caludius: Ostia & Britain

Claudius: Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus; August 10 BC - 13 October 54 AD) was Roman emperor from 41 to 54. A member of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, he was the son of Drusus and Antonia Minor. Because he was afflicted with a limp and slight deafness due to sickness at a young age, his family ostracized him and excluded him from public office until his consulship, shared with his nephew Caligula in 37. Despite his lack of experience, Claudius proved to be an able and efficient administrator. He was also an ambitious builder, constructing many new roads, aqueducts, and canals across the Empire. During his reign the Empire began the conquest of Britain. Among his extensive building projects Claudius constructed the port of Ostia (Portus), a scheme already proposed by Julius Caesar. This eased congestion on the river Tiber, but the sea currents should gradually cause the harbour to silt up, which is why today it is no longer present.

Constantine the Great: Constantinople

Constantine (306- 337) continued and even expanded the autocratic policies of Diocletian. He greatly strengthened and enlarged the administrative bureaucracies of the Roman Empire. Henceforth, civil and military bureaucracies were sharply separated. Each contained a hierarchy of officials who exercised control at the various levels. S The political and military reforms of Diocletian and Constantine greatly enlarged two institutions—the army and the civil service—that drained most of the public funds. Alhough more revenues were needed to pay for the army and bureaucracy, the population was not growing, so the tax base could not be expanded. Diocletian and Constantine devised new eco- nomic and social policies to deal with these financial burdens, but like their political policies, they were all based on coercion and loss of individual freedom. Constantine was especially interested in building programs despite the strain they placed on the budget. Between 324 and 330, he engaged in his biggest project, the construction of a new cap- ital city in the east, on the site of the Greek city of Byzan- tium (buh-ZAN-tee-um), on the shores of the Bosporus. Named the ''city of Constantine,'' or Constantinople (modern Istanbul), it was developed for defensive reasons; it had an excellent strategic location. Calling it his ''New Rome,'' Constantine endowed the city with a forum, large palaces, and a vast amphitheater. It was officially dedicated on May 11, 330, ''by the commandment of God,'' and in the following years, many Christian churches were built there. Constantine was the first Christian emperor

Diocletian

Diocletian had risen through the ranks to become a prom- inent military leader. After the murder of the emperor Numerian by his praetorian prefect, Diocletian executed the prefect and was then hailed as emperor by his sol- diers. Diocletian's own rise to power led him to see the need for a new system for ruling the Roman Empire. Believing that the empire had grown too large for a single ruler, Diocletian (284-305) divided it into four administrative units (see Map 7.1); each had its own prefect with the title of either ''Augustus'' or ''Caesar.'' Despite the appearance of four-man rule, however, Diocletian's military seniority enabled him to claim a higher status and hold the ultimate authority. He greatly strengthened and enlarged the administrative bureaucracies of the Roman Empire. Henceforth, civil and military bureaucracies were sharply separated. Each contained a hierarchy of officials who exercised control at the various levels. The political and military reforms of Diocletian and Constantine greatly enlarged two institutions—the army and the civil service—that drained most of the public funds. Alhough more revenues were needed to pay for the army and bureaucracy, the population was not growing, so the tax base could not be expanded. Diocletian and Constantine devised new eco- nomic and social policies to deal with these financial burdens, but like their political policies, they were all based on coercion and loss of individual freedom. T

Abbasid Dynasty: Abu al-Abbas

Finally, in 750, Abu al-Abbas a descendant of the uncle of Muhammad, brought an end to the corrupt Umayyad dynasty and established the Abbasid dynasty, which lasted until 1258. Brilliant urban culture created. They tried to break down the distinctions between Arab and non-Arab Muslims. All Muslims, regardless of ethnic background, could now hold both civil and military offices. In 762, the Abbasids built a new capital city, Baghdad, on the Tigris River far to the east of Damascus. The new Abbasid dynasty experienced a period of splendid rule well into the ninth century. known for scholarship and progress in the arts, mathematics, translation of classics, and sciences. Golden age of Islam.

Caligula: A Really Crazy Guy

Gaius Caesar, nicknamed Caligula or "Little Boot," was born on August 31, in 12 A.D. He succeeded Tiberius as Roman emperor in 37 A.D., and adopted the name Gaius Caesar Germanicus. Records depict him as a cruel and unpredictable leader. He restored treason trials and put people to death. Cassius Chaerea murdered him in 41 A.D. at the Palatine Games.

Cordoba

In the eighth century, Spain had already established its own caliphate when Abd al-Rahman of the Umayyad dynasty had fled there. In 756, he seized control of southern Spain and then expanded his power into the center of the peninsula. He took the title of emir, or commander, and set up the emirate of al- Andalus (the Arabic name for Spain), with its center at Cordoba. Under Abd al-Rahman's successors, a unique society developed in which all religions were tolerated. The court also supported writers and artists, creating a brilliant and flourishing culture. With a population of possibly 100,000, Co ́rdoba was Europe's largest city after Constantinople. It had seventy public libraries, and the number of manuscripts in the caliph's private library reached 400,000. One caliph collected books from different parts of the world and then had them translated into Arabic and Latin. These included works on geography that later proved valuable to Western sailors and merchants. Schools were also established, and the Great Mosque of Co ́rdoba became a center for scholars from all over the Islamic world. Large numbers of women served as teachers and librarians in Co ́rdoba. During the first few centuries of the Arab empire

crusader states

In the first crusade, after the conquest of Palestine, the crusaders organized four crusader states (Edessa, Antioch, Tri- poli, and Jerusalem). Because the crusader states were sur- rounded by Muslim enemies, they grew increasingly dependent on the Italian commercial cities for supplies from Europe. Some Italian cities, such as Genoa, Pisa, and especially Venice, became rich and powerful in the process. The crusader states had a hard time maintaining themselves. Already by the 1120s, the Muslims had begun to strike back. In 1144, Edessa became the first of the four Latin states to be recaptured. Its fall led to renewed calls for another Crusade,

Judas

In the midst of the confusion and conflict in Judaea, Jesus of Nazareth (c. 6 B.C.E.-30 C.E.) began his public preaching. Jesus grew up in Galilee, an important center of the militant Zealots. Jesus's message was straightforward. He reassured his fellow Jews that he did not plan to under- mine their traditional religion: ''Do not think that I have come to abolish the Law or the Prophets; I have not come to abolish them but to fulfill them.''13 According to Jesus, what was important was not strict adherence to the letter of the law and attention to rules and prohibitions but the transformation of the inner person: ''So in everything, do to others what you would have them do to you, for this sums up the Law and the Prophets.''14 God's command was simple—to love God and one another: ''Love the Lord your God with all your heart and with all your soul and with all your mind and with all your strength. The second is this: Love your neighbor as yourself.''15 In his Sermon on the Mount, Jesus presented the ethical concepts— humility, charity, and brotherly love—that would form the basis for the value system of medieval Western civili- zation. As we have seen, these were not the values of Clas- sical Greco-Roman civilization. Although some Jews welcomed Jesus as the Messiah who would save Israel from oppression and establish God's kingdom on earth, Jesus spoke of a heavenly king- dom, not an earthly one: ''My kingdom is not of this world.''16 In this he disappointed the radicals. At the same time, conservative religious leaders believed that Jesus was another false Messiah who was undermining respect for traditional Jewish religion.

viking invasion

In the ninth and tenth centuries, western Europe was beset by a wave of invasions of several non-Christian peoples— one old enemy, the Muslims, and two new ones, the Magyars and Vikings. By far the most devastating and far-reaching attacks of the time came from the Northmen or Norsemen of Scandinavia, also known as the Vikings. The Vikings were a Germanic people who had settled in Scandinavia. they invaded other areas of Europe because of overpopulation and the emergence of more effective monarchs in Denmark, Norway, and Sweden caused some of the freedom-loving Scandinavians to seek escape from the growing order. The Vikings' great love of adventure and their search for booty and new avenues of trade may also have been important factors. Two features of Viking society help explain what the Vikings accomplished. First, they were warriors. Second, they were superb shipbuilders and sailors. Their ships were the best of the period. Because there were different groups of Scandinavians, Viking expansion varied a great deal. Norwegian Vikings moved into Ireland and western England, while the Danes attacked eastern England, Frisia, and the Rhineland and navigated rivers to enter western Frankish lands. Swedish Vikings dominated the Baltic Sea and progressed into the Slavic areas to the east. Moving into northwestern Russia, they went down the rivers to Novgorod and Kiev and established fortified ports throughout these territories.

Merovingian Dynasty

Only one of the German states on the European continent proved long-lasting—the kingdom of the Franks. The establishment of a Frankish kingdom was the work of Clovis (c. 482-511), a member of the Merovingian (meh- ruh-VIN-jee-un) dynasty who became a Catholic Christian around 500. By the eighth century, the Merovingian dynasty was los- ing its control of the Frankish lands. Charles Martel, the mayor of the palace of Austrasia, became the virtual ruler of these territories. When Charles died in 741, his son, Pepin (PEP-in or pay-PAHN), deposed the Merovingians and assumed the kingship of the Frankish state for him- self and his family.

Charlemagne

Pepin's son, a dynamic and powerful ruler known to history as Charles the Great, or Charlemagne (Carolus magnus in Latin—hence, our word Carolingian). Charle- magne was a determined and decisive man, intelligent and inquisitive. A fierce warrior, he was also a wise patron of learning and a resolute statesman (see the box on p. 164). He greatly expanded the territory of the Carolingian Empire during his lengthy rule.

Persecution: Nero & Diocletian

Roman persecution of Christians began during the reign of Nero. After the fire that destroyed much of Rome, the emperor used the Christians as scapegoats, accusing them of arson and ha- tred of the human race and subjecting them to cruel deaths in Rome.Diocletian attempted the last great persecution of Christianity began in the 4th century but he realized it had become too strong to be gotten rid of by force.

Romulus Augustus

Romulus Augustus was a Roman emperor deposed by German leader Odoacer in 476 who began to rule on his own.

seljuk turks

The Fatimids created a strong army by using nonnative peoples as mercenaries. One of these peoples, the Seljuk Turks, soon posed a threat to the Fatimids themselves. The Seljuk Turks were a nomadic people from Central Asia who had been converted to Islam and flourished as military mercenaries for the Abbasid caliphate. They grew in number and in the eleventh century took over the eastern provinces of the Abbasid empire. In 1055, a Turkish leader captured Baghdad and assumed command of the Abbasid empire with the title of sultan (''holder of power''). By the second half of the eleventh century, the Seljuk Turks were exerting military pressure on Egypt and the Byzantine Empire. When the Byzantine emperor foolishly challenged the Turks, the latter routed the Byzantine army at Manzikert in 1071. In dire straits, the Byzantines turned to the west for help, setting in motion the papal pleas that led to the Crusades.

Marcus Aurelius

The Franks advanced into Gaul and Spain. Not until the reign of Aurelian (aw-REEL-yun) (270-275) were most of the boundaries restored. Although he abandoned the Danubian province of Dacia, Aurelian reconquered Gaul and reestablished order in the east and along the Danube. Grate- ful citizens hailed him as ''restorer of the world.' He defended his ''Gallic empire'' until he was killed by his own soldiers in 269.

Passover-Last Supper

The Last Supper is the final meal that, in the Gospel accounts, Jesus shared with his Apostles in Jerusalem before his crucifixion. The Last Supper is commemorated by Christians especially on Maundy Thursday. The Last Supper provides the scriptural basis for the Eucharist, also known as "Holy Communion" or "The Lord's Supper." At first glance, the Last Supper bears more than a passing resemblance to the traditional Passover meal. In most depictions, Jesus and his 12 disciples are reclining. They say prayers, they drink wine, and they break bread—all hallmarks of a Passover celebration. Symbolically, Jesus' martyrdom the next day dovetails perfectly with the symbol of the Passover lamb, which ancient Jews sacrificed to commemorate their redemption from slavery in Egypt. Thus, Jesus becomes (as in John 1:29) the sacrificial "Lamb of God."

Theodoric

The Ostrogothic king Theodoric (493-526), marched into Italy, killed Odoacer, and established control of Italy in 493. Theodoric, had received a Roman education while a hostage in Constantinople. After taking control of Italy, he was eager to create a synthesis of Ostrogothic and Roman practices. In addi-tion to maintaining the entire structure of imperial Roman government, he established separate systems of rule for the Ostrogoths and the Romans. The Italian population lived under Roman law administered by Roman officials. The Ostrogoths were governed by their own customs and their own officials. After Theodoric's death in 526, it quickly became ap- parent that much of his success had been due to the force of his personality.

pope urban II

The immediate impetus for the Crusades came when the Byzantine emperor, Alexius I, asked Pope Urban II (1088- 1099) for help against the Seljuk Turks. The pope saw a golden opportunity to provide papal leadership for a great cause: to rally the warriors of Europe for the liberation of Je- rusalem and the Holy Land from the Muslim infidel. At the Council of Clermont in southern France near the end of 1095, Urban challenged Christians to take up their weapons against the infidel and join in a holy war to recover the Holy Land. The pope promised remission of sins: ''All who die by the way, whether by land or by sea, or in battle against the pagans, shall have immediate remission of sins. This I grant them through the power of God with which I am invested.''9 The initial response to Urban's speech reveals how appealing many people found this combined call to military arms and religious fervor.

Julio-Claudian Caesars

The next dynasty established by Augustus and the next 4 rulers were related to him or his wife livia. Several major tendencies emerged during the reigns of the Julio-Claudians (14-68). In general, more and more of the responsibilities that Augustus had given to the senate were taken over by the emperors, who also instituted an imperial bureaucracy, staffed by talented freedmen, to run the gov- ernment on a daily basis. As the Julio-Claudian successors of Augustus acted more openly as real rulers rather than ''first citizens of the state,'' the opportunity for arbitrary and corrupt acts also increased.

Crucifixion & Resurrection

The procurator Pontius Pilate ordered his crucifixion. But that did not solve the problem. A few loyal disciples spread the story that Jesus had overcome death, had been resur- rected, and had then ascended into heaven. The belief in Jesus's resurrection became an important tenet of Chris- tian doctrine. Jesus was now hailed by his followers as the ''anointed one'' (Christ in Greek), the Messiah who would return and usher in the kingdom of God on earth.

Theodora

Theodora was Byzantine emperor Justinian's wife. She was very influential and and was his co-regent. She is a saint along with Justinian in the Eastern Orthodox church. She was important in the Nika rebellion because she told Justinian to stay instead of fleeing from the mob of Greens and Blues who wanted Hypatius to be emperor. She told Justinian to execute Hypatius. She helped Justinian save his throne.

Tiberius: Drussus & Sejanus

Tiberius was Augustus' stepson and his successor. Sejanus, in full Lucius Aelius Sejanus (died 31 ce), chief administrator of the Roman Empire for the emperor Tiberius, alleged murderer of Tiberius's only son, Drusus Caesar, by poisoning, and suspect in a plot to overthrow Tiberius and become emperor himself.

Titus

Titus was the son of emperor Vespasian. The Colosseum was a large amphitheater constructed under the emperor Vespasian and his son Titus. The Colosseum was named after the Colossus of Nero, a large statue of the first-century C.E. emperor that stood nearby. The scene of many bloody gladiatorial combats, the Colosseum could be used for other spectacles as well. It was flooded for a spectacular naval battle when the emperor Titus held the first games there. Reportedly, five thousand beasts were killed in one day of games when the emperor Titus inaugurated the Colosseum in 80 C.E.

Pepin the Short

When Charles died in 741, his son, Pepin (PEP-in or pay-PAHN), deposed the Merovingians and assumed the kingship of the Frankish state for him- self and his family. Pepin's actions, which were approved by the pope, created a new form of Frankish kingship. In imitation of an Old Testament practice, Pepin (751-768) was crowned and formally anointed with holy oil by a representative of the pope. The anointing not only symbolized that the king had been entrusted with a sacred office but also provided yet another example of how a Germanic institution fused with a Christian practice in the Early Middle Ages.

battle of manzikert

When the Byzantine emperor foolishly challenged the Turks, the latter routed the Byzantine army at Manzikert in 1071. In dire straits, the Byzantines turned to the west for help, setting in motion the papal pleas that led to the Crusades.

Macedonian Dyansty

a new dynasty of Byzantine emperors, known as the Macedonians (867-1081). This dynastic line managed to repel the external enemies, go over to the offensive, and reestablish domestic order. Supported by the church, the emperors continued to think of the Byzantine Empire as a continuation of the Christian Roman Empire of late antiquity. Although for diplomatic reasons they occasionally recognized the imperial title of western emperors, such as Charlemagne, they still regarded them as little more than barbarian parvenus. The Macedonian emperors could boast of a remarkable number of achievements in the late ninth and tenth cen- turies. They worked to strengthen the position of free farmers who made up the rank and file of the Byzantine cavalry and provided the military strength of the empire. The Macedonian emperors also fostered a burst of economic prosperity by expanding trade relations with western Europe, especially by selling silks and metalwork. Thanks to this prosperity, the city of Constantinople flourished. For- eign visitors continued to be astounded by its size, wealth, and physical surroundings. Under the Macedonian rulers, Byzantium enjoyed a strong civil service, talented emperors, and successful military campaigns.

Mosque

building where muslims go to pray and worship. there is a muezzin who does the daily 5 calls to prayer in muslim countries with mosques.

Abu Bakr

first caliph after prophet died. was a wealthy merchant, his close friend and father in-law because prophet was married to his daughter aisha. expanded islamic empire.

Sunnites

follow the sunnah or the path of the prophet Muhammad.

Shi'ites

group that was known as party or shiite of ali. formed after prophets son-in-law ali was murdered by ummayia. have a clerical order.

Augustus: Princeps & Imperator

in 27 bce, the senate awarded Ocatvian the title of AUGUSTUS, ''revered one.'' He preferred the title princeps, which included Augustus and the an aristocratic senate. PRINCEPS meant ''chief citizen'' or ''first among equals." the princeps was also the military commander and when victorious was called by his troops as IMPERATOR which came to be known as EMPEROR. The system of rule that Augustus established is sometimes called the principate or state. he controlled the army and enjoyed popularity and peace during his rule. In the new constitutional order that Augustus created, the basic governmental structure consisted of the princeps (Augustus) and an aristocratic senate. He had created a new order while placating the old by restoring and maintaining traditional values, a fitting combination for a leader whose favorite maxim was ''make haste slowly.''

magyars

in the 9th and 10th centuries western europe was beset by a wave of invasions of several non-Christian peoples— one old enemy, the Muslims, and two new ones, the Mag- yars (MAG-yarz) and Vikings (see Map 8.2). The Magyars were a people from western Asia who moved into eastern and central Europe at the end of the ninth century. They established themselves on the plains of Hungary and from there made raids into western Europe. The Magyars were finally crushed at the Battle of Lechfeld in Germany in 955. At the end of the tenth century, they converted to Christianity and settled down to establish the kingdom of Hungary.

Hadrian

one of the 5 good emperors who with Trajan made a lot of public works - aqueducts, bridges, roads, and harbor facilities throughout the provinces and in rome. Hadrian's Pantheon, a temple of ''all the gods,'' is one of the grandest ancient buildings sur- viving in Rome. Hadrian withdrew Roman forces from much of Mesopota- mia. Although he retained Dacia and Arabia, he went on the defensive in his frontier policy, reinforcing the fortifications along a line connecting the Rhine and Danube Rivers and building a defensive wall 80 miles long to keep the Scots out of Roman Britain.

Mohammad: Medina

prophet of Islam. went on hijra or emigrated to Median when he was being persecuted in Mecca. Was invited to rule there and His grave is there. Muhammad soon began to win support from people in Medina as well as from members of the Bedouin tribes in the surrounding countryside. From these groups, he formed the first Muslim community.

serf

serfs—peasants bound to the land and required to pro- vide labor services, pay rents, and be subject to the lord's jurisdiction. By the ninth century, probably 60 percent of the population of western Europe had become serfs.

Muawiya: Umayyad Dynasty

started the Umayyad caliphate/dynasty. assassinated 4th caliph Ali, which began sunni shi'i divide in islam. Muawiya moved quickly to make the caliphate heredi- tary in his own family, thus establish- ing the Umayyad (oo-MY-ad) dynasty. As one of its first actions, the Umayyad dynasty moved the capital of the Muslim empire from Medina to Damascus in Syria. This internal dissension over the caliphate created a split in Islam between the Shi'ites, or those who accepted only the de- scendants of Ali, Muhammad's son-in-law, as the true rulers, and the Sunnites, who claimed that the descendants of the Umayyads were the true caliphs. This seventh- century split in Islam has lasted to the present day. Internal dissension, however, did not stop the expan- sion of Islam. After sweeping across North Africa, the Muslims crossed the Strait of Gibraltar and moved into Spain around 710. The Visigothic kingdom collapsed, and by 725, most of Spain had become a Muslim state with its center at Co ́rdoba. In 732, a Muslim army, making a foray into southern France, was defeated at the Battle of Tours near Poitiers. Muslim expansion in Europe came to a halt.

Bedouins

the Arabian penin- sula came to be dominated by Bedouin nomads who moved constantly to find water and food for themselves and their animals. In early times, the Bedouins had supported themselves primarily by sheepherding or by raiding passing caravans, but after the domestication of the camel during the second millennium B.C.E., the Bedouins began to participate in the caravan trade themselves and became major carriers of goods between the Persian Gulf and the Mediterranean Sea.

Paul: Second Founder of Christianity

the most important figure in early Christianity after Jesus was Paul of Tarsus (c. 5-c. 67). Paul reached out to non-Jews and transformed Christianity from a Jewish sect into a broader religious movement. Called the ''second founder of Christianity,'' Paul was a Jewish Roman citizen who had been strongly influenced by Hellenistic Greek culture. He believed that the message of Jesus should be preached not only to Jews but to Gentiles (non-Jews) as well. Paul was responsible for founding Christian communities throughout Asia Minor and along the shores of the Aegean. It was Paul who provided a universal foundation for the spread of Jesus's ideas. He taught that Jesus was, in effect, a savior-God, the son of God, who had come to earth to save all humans, who were basically sinners as a result of Adam's original sin of disobedience against God as recorded in the Old Testament. By his death, Jesus had atoned for the sins of all humans and made it possible for all men and women to experience a new beginning with the potential for individual salvation. By accepting Jesus Christ as their savior, they too could be saved. Although tradi- tion holds that one of Jesus's disciples, Peter, founded the Christian church at Rome,