HL Research Methods

(C) -Social desirability effect

A researcher carries out a study where the participants were asked to give electric shocks to a student in a study of learning. After the experiment, the researcher asks the participant why he thinks that he was willing to shock the student. He says that he "knew all along that this was fake." This is an example of (A) -Optimism bias (B) -Screw-you effect (C) -Social desirability effect (D) -Expectancy effect

(B) -Confirmation bias

A researcher hyptothesizes that boys will demonstrate more physical aggression on the playground, whereas girls will show more verbal aggression. This is exactly what he finds! What would be your concern about this study? (A) -Reflexivity (B) -Confirmation bias (C) -Social desirability effect (D) -Extraneous variables

(D) To establish credibility

A researcher wanted to study how mothers handle stress when they are with their child. A series of lab observations were carried out where mothers were given a very frustrating task to complete with the promise that they would be paid 20 dollars if they completed the task in the time allotted. They had been instructed to bring their 2 - 3 year old child with them to the lab. After writing up an interpretation of the mothers' behaviour, the researcher shared the interpretations with the mothers to see whether they felt that the interpretation reflected their experience in the lab. Why did the researcher do this? (A) To see if the results can be generalized to a larger population. (B) To meet ethical standards. (C) To see if the results have construct validity. (D) To establish credibility

(C) -A counterbalanced repeated measures design

A researcher wants to find out if talking on a hands-free mobile phone affects one's driving ability. Participants were asked to take a driving test in a driving simulator that monitored their mistakes. In one condition, the participants were asked simply to take the driving test. In the second condition, the participants were asked to dial up a friend and to have a conversation while taking the driving terst. Half the group did the first condition and half the group did the second condition. Then both groups took a one hour break before taking the test again - but in the other condition. What is the best description of the design of this study? (A) -A longitudinal case study (B) -A counterbalanced independent samples design (C) -A counterbalanced repeated measures design (D) -A counterbalanced matched pairs design

participants' interpretations

According to Ritchie and Lewis (2014), qualitative researchers can only come to understand behaviour through the _________________________________

natural settings

As qualitative researchers are interested in how people explain their everyday experiences, and therefore the research takes place in ________________________________________

ethical

Concepts in qualitative research - Essential understandings: Although _______________________ considerations are the same for quantitative and qualitative research, there are some differences in the key concerns.

credibility

Concepts in qualitative research - Essential understandings: It is essential for researchers to establish ______________________ for their research and to reflect on how their own personal biases may have affected the interpretation of their research

generalized

Concepts in qualitative research - Essential understandings: Qualitative research cannot be ____________________________ to the same extent as quantitative research.

purposive

Concepts in qualitative research - Essential understandings: Sampling for qualitative research is always __________________________

Qualitative, quantitative

Concepts in qualitative research - Essential understandings: _________________________ research is based on an interpretation approach that is more subjective than _______________________ research.

analysis of field notes

During observations, what is the next step after observations have been completed and field notes have been completed?

(B) A covert, naturalistic participant observation

Festinger's study of the Doomsday cult is an example of what type of observation? (A) A covert, naturalistic, non-participant observation (B) A covert, naturalistic participant observation (C) An overt, naturalistic, non-participant observation (D) An overt, naturalistic, participant observation

based on a trait or behaviour

How are participants selected and grouped in a quasi experiment?

being double-blind study

How can a research design address the concern of confirmation bias?

take time with participants before observations, so that get use to the researcher being there

How do researcher's using naturalistic observations, with a participant observer approach avoid reactivity?

researcher ensures confidentiality

How do researchers address the ethical consideration of deception in non-participant observations?

(D) -It increases credibility because we can know that it was not the choice of method alone that led to the results of the study.

How does method triangulation affect the credibility of a study? (A) -It increases credibility because it can be replicated more easily. (B) -It lowers credibility because each method has its own limitations, making it impossible to compare the results. (C) -It lowers the credibility because there may be conflicting data. (D) -It increases credibility because we can know that it was not the choice of method alone that led to the results of the study.

researcher triangulation

How does the researcher manage researcher bias when completing naturalistic observations?

1. No undue pressure 2. Right to withdraw disclosed information 3. Full understanding of the topics to be addressed 4. Take action with any signs of discomfort 5. Stop interview if participant is distressed 6. Return to more comfortable topics at the end

Identify four ways in which a research can ensure that participants in their research are protected from harm. 1.__________________________________________________________________________________ 2.__________________________________________________________________________________ 3.__________________________________________________________________________________ 4.

1. share the findings with the participants 2. ask participants whether they agree with the interpretation of their behaviour 3. ask other researchers to take a critical look at the data

In Observational Research what are three strategies that researcher can use to ensure credibility of the interpretations of the observations? 1. ______________________________________________________________________________________ 2. ______________________________________________________________________________________ 3.

deductive

In Observational Research, an ____________________________________________________ approach (structured) requires the researcher to identify the behaviours that will be observed before the observation occurs and records specific predetermined features of behaviour, using a checklist that has been developed before the observation.

inductive

In Observational Research, an ____________________________________________________ approach (unstructured) requires the researcher record all behaviour relevant to a research question, and after the observations, the researchers look through their field notes to see what patterns emerge from their dat and then to analyse behaviour after the observation.

grounded

In Observational Research, the aim is for the researcher produces a coherent explanation and an overall theoretical framework for understanding the phenomenon under investigation. Therefore the theoretical framework is ______________________________________.

1. theory based 2. easier predetermined data collection 3. researchers can be trained to take observations 4. process is standardised

In Observational Research, what are four strengths of the deductive approach to data collection? 1.______________________________________________________________ 2._____________________________________________________________ 3._____________________________________________________________ 4.

1. to preserve researcher objectivity 2. to avoid selective perception of the researcher 3. to ensure that the focus behaviour is not missed

In Observational Research, what are three reasons why is inter-observer reliability used? 1.______________________________________________________________________________________ 2. ______________________________________________________________________________________ 3.

1. limited in determined criteria 2. decreased ecological validity

In Observational Research, what are two limitations strengths of the deductive approach to data collection? 1. _____________________________________________________________________________________ 2.

1. identify higher order themes 2. identify sub-themes 3. consider data that supports the theme interpretation 4. critically consider data that contradicts the interpretation

In Observational Research, what is the next four steps after the data has been classified into themes? 1. ______________________________________________________________________________________ 2. ______________________________________________________________________________________ 3. ______________________________________________________________________________________ 4.

grounded

In Observational Research, what is the term for when the theoretical framework is based on the categories identified during the observation?

inductive content analysis

In Observational Research, what is the term for where the data is analysed through a classification process consisting of reading and rereading the field notes in an interactive way? The researcher must be able to identify bits of data and create categories.

counter-balancing - one group of participants will start with condition A and then takes part in condition B, and the other group start with B, and then A

In Repeated Measures Design, how do researchers control for order effects?

positive correlation

In a correlational study, what is the term for when both variables are affected in the same way?

negative correlation

In a correlational study, what is the term for when one variable increases, the other decreases?

non-participant observations

In naturalistic observations, what is the term for when the researcher is not part of the group that is being observed?

participant observations

In naturalistic observations, what is the term for when the researcher is part of the group that is being observed?

prove disprove

In psychological research it is important to recognize that psychologists never ______________________________ anything - they can only _____________________________.

researcher reflexivity

In qualitative research, what is one way to minimize the effect of participant expectations and researcher bias is reflexivity throughout the research process?

Independent samples design

In research design, what is the term for when members of the sample are randomly allocated to one condition of the experiment?

participants' natural environment

In which environments do naturalistic observations occur?

quasi experiments natural experiments

In which two types of experiment are participants are not randomly allocated to conditions? 1.__________________________________________________________________________________ 2.

(A) -Differences in the traits and past experiences of the participants in each condition may affect the results of the study.

Independent measures designs have the problem of participant variability. What does this mean? (A) -Differences in the traits and past experiences of the participants in each condition may affect the results of the study. (B) -Participants drop out of the study because of boredom. (C) -Participants are not the same as the general population and the results cannot be generalized. (D) -Participants have different levels of skill, so some understand the directions better than others.

individual is only compared to him or herself

One of the strengths of Repeated Measures Design is that participant variables are controlled. What does this mean?

descriptive, behaviour

Qualitative research methods - Essential understanding: Qualitative research methods produce _______________________ data that is used to gain an understanding of underlying reasons, opinions, and motivations for an individual or group's _______________.

quantitative research

Qualitative research methods - Essential understanding: The goals of qualitative research are different from those of _______________________.

research questions

Qualitative research projects do not use a hypothesis, but normally guided by one or more ___________________________________

specific research study.

Quantitative research methods - Essential understanding: A researcher will choose the method or methods that are most suitable for a ___________________________________________

validity

Quantitative research methods - Essential understanding: Extraneous variables may affect the ______________ of a study.

hypothesis

Quantitative research methods - Essential understanding: Psychologists do not "prove" anything; they either support or refute a __________________________

objective, data

Quantitative research methods - Essential understanding: Quantitative research methods emphasize ______________________ measurements and the statistical analysis of __________________.

operationalized, validity

Quantitative research methods - Essential understanding: Variables must be fully ________________________ in order for a study to have _______________.

random selection important characteristics

Quantitative research methods uses sampling methods to generate samples that are statistically representative through _____________________________________ of participants. Qualitative research methods use sampling methods, which are much smaller and the participants represents __________________________ of a selected population.

people who are observed do not behave naturally

Reactivity is a major issue in non-participant observations. What does reactivity mean?

biases

Researchers must be aware of their own ______________________________ when setting up, carrying out and analysing the data in an observation.

(A) -Likert Scale survey

The school is doing a study on how student attitudes toward exercise. Students are given a survey which gives them a statement and then asks them to rank how strongly they agree with it. For example, the students read a statement like: I exercise in order to fit in with friends. Then they are asked to choose how strongly they agree with this statement: Strongly agree; agree; no opinion; disagree; strongly disagree. What type of survey is this? (A) -Likert Scale survey (B) -A longitudinal survey (C) -An open-ended questionnaire (D) -Thurstone scale survey

1. controlled variables 2. standardised procedures 3. random allocation of participants

The three main characteristics of lab experiments are : 1.____________________________________________________________________ variables, 2.__________________________________________________________ procedures and 3.____________________________________________________________ of participants.

the aims and objectives of an investigation.

The type of observation chosen by a researcher will depend on __________________________________________________________________________________

a) Provide rich data b) complex and sensitive issues c) Explain phenomena d) solving a problem e) ideas and theories f) validity

These are strengths of qualitative approach to research. a. ___________________________________________________ -that is, in-depth descriptions of individual experiences based on concepts, meanings, and explanations emerging from the data. b.Particularly useful for investigating ________________________________________________________, such as coping with illness, human sexuality, homelessness or living in a violent relationship. c. ______________________________________________________- that is, go beyond mere observation of phenomena to understand what lies behind them. (e.g. Why do people become homeless?) d. Identify and evaluate factors that contribute to ________________________________________________________. (e.g. What initiatives are needed to successfully resettle people who are homeless?) e. Generate ________________________________________________________ to explain and overcome problems. f. People are studied in their own environment, which increases _________________________________________________________

1. replication is not possible 2. influenced by researcher bias 3. effected by memory distortions 4. effected by social-desirability effects 5. retrospective 6. limited generalisability

What are six disadvantages of case studies? 1.__________________________________________________________________________________ 2.__________________________________________________________________________________ 3.__________________________________________________________________________________ 4.__________________________________________________________________________________ 5.__________________________________________________________________________________ 6.

1. informed consent 2. no deception 3. right to withdraw 4. debriefing 5. confidentiality

What are the five key ethical considerations for researchers using a case study approach? 1.__________________________________________________________________________________ 2.__________________________________________________________________________________ 3.__________________________________________________________________________________ 4.__________________________________________________________________________________ 5.

1. stimulate new research 2. may contradict existing theory. 3. may give new insight into phenomena or experience 4. may permit investigation of otherwise inaccessible situations.

What are the four advantages of case studies? 1.__________________________________________________________________________________ 2.__________________________________________________________________________________ 3.__________________________________________________________________________________ 4.

1. informed consent 2. protection of participants from psychological or physical harm 3. respect for the participants' privacy, 4. right to withdraw from the research

What are the four key ethical considerations required in qualitative research? 1.__________________________________________________________________________________ 2.__________________________________________________________________________________ 3.__________________________________________________________________________________ 4.

1. highly descriptive 2. narrowly focused 3. combine objective and subjective data 4. process oriented

What are the four main characteristics of a case study? 1.__________________________________________________________________________________ 2.__________________________________________________________________________________ 3.__________________________________________________________________________________ 4.

1. DATA triangulation, involving time, space, and persons 2. INVESTIGATOR triangulation, which consist of the use of multiple, rather than single observers; 3. THEORY triangulation, which consists of using more than one theoretical scheme in the interpretation of the phenomenon; 4. METHOD triangulation, which involves using more than one method and may consist of within-method or between-method strategies.

What are the four types of triangulation? 1.__________________________________________________________________________________ 2.__________________________________________________________________________________ 3.__________________________________________________________________________________ 4.

1. event sampling 2. point sampling 3. time sampling

What are the three different data collection techniques used in Observational Research? 1.______________________________________________________________ 2._____________________________________________________________ 3.

1. structured interview 2. unstructured interview 3. semi-structured interview

What are the three different types of interviews used in qualitative research? 1.__________________________________________________________________________________ 2.__________________________________________________________________________________ 3.

1. purposive sampling 2. opportunity sampling 3. snowball sampling

What are the three main selection techniques used by qualitative research? 1.__________________________________________________________________________________ 2.__________________________________________________________________________________ 3.

1. Expectancy effect 2. Screw you effect 3. Social desirability effect

What are the three participants effects that are referred to as "demand characteristics"? 1.__________________________________________________________________________________ 2.__________________________________________________________________________________ 3.

participant observation non-participant observation

What are the two basic methods of observation? 1.___________________________________________________________________________________ 2.

1. control of discussion by one dominant person 2. conformity effects

What are the two disadvantages of using focus group interviews? 1.__________________________________________________________________________________ 2.

extraneous variables participants effects

What are the two effects that can influence the validity of an observation? 1.______________________________________________________ 2.

cannot control for extraneous variables cannot be easily replicated.

What are the two key limitations involved in field experiments? 1.__________________________________________________________________________________ 2.

Qualitative Quantative

What are the two main research approaches? 1.__________________________________________________________________________________ 2.

1. social desirability effect 2. memory distortions effect

What are the two participant effects that can effect qualitative research study? 1.__________________________________________________________________________________ 2.

1. deciding what is the focus of the observations 2. researcher bias 3. reactivity of the participants being observed

What are three challenges of naturalistic observations? 1.__________________________________________________________________________________ 2.__________________________________________________________________________________ 3.

1. decide exactly on focus 2. become familiar with setting 3. become familiar with participants

What are three considerations for the researcher when setting up an Observation Research? 1.______________________________________________________________ 2._____________________________________________________________ 3.

1. reactivity - risk that people do react to being observed 2. creditability - problems in checking the data when there is only one researcher 3. Ethical considerations of deception

What are three limitations of naturalistic observations? 1._____________________________________________________________________________________ 2._____________________________________________________________________________________ 3.

1. Difficult to record data promptly and objectively 2. Time-consuming and demanding 3. Risk that researchers lose objectivity

What are three limitations of participant observation? 1. ________________________________________________________________________________________________ 2.________________________________________________________________________________________________ 3.

1. time-consuming 2. generates a lot of data. 3. difficulties in analysing data analysis 4. subjective interpretation of data

What are three limitations of qualitative research? 1. __________________________________________________________________________________ 2. __________________________________________________________________________________ 3.

1. to meet ethical considerations 2. to open discussions 3. access to environments

What are three reasons why overt observational techniques are used in Observational Research? 1._______________________________________________________________________________ 2. _______________________________________________________________________________ 3.

1. very detailed and in-depth knowledge of a topic 2. one of the best methods to avoid researcher bias 3. holistic interpretation of a topic

What are three strengths of participant observation? 1. ________________________________________________________________________________________________ 2.________________________________________________________________________________________________ 3.

1. order effects are controlled 2. less demand characteristics 3. same materials can be used for all conditions

What are three strengths of the Independent Samples Design? 1.__________________________________________________________________________________ 2.__________________________________________________________________________________ 3.

1. simple and straightforward 2. cost and time efficient

What are two advantages of a survey? 1.__________________________________________________________________________________ 2.

1. speedy collection of data 2. low cost 3. interaction and group conversation more natural 4. flexibility 5. ideas of others initiates further conversation

What are two advantages of using focus group interviews? 1.__________________________________________________________________________________ 2.

1. builds trust through shared connections 2. makes finding participant from fringe groups easier to connect with 3. cost-efficient

What are two advantages of using the snowball sampling approach in qualitative research? 1. __________________________________________________________________________________ 2.

1. participant variability effect 2. more participants are required

What are two limitations of the Independent Samples Design? 1.__________________________________________________________________________________ 2.

1. sampling bias 2. confidentiality issues

What are two limitations of using snowball sampling in qualitative research? 1.__________________________________________________________________________________ 2.

1. in settings where it would otherwise be difficult to gain access 2.when it is important that the presence of the researcher does not affect the behaviour of the people in the study.

What are two reasons why covert observational techniques are used in Observational Research? 1._______________________________________________________________________________ 2.

1. document the procedures for checking and rechecking the data 2. critical review of the results by another researcher 3. identify contradictions of prior observations 4. conduct a data audit and identifies areas of potential bias or distortion.

What are two strategies used by the researcher to enhance confirmability in qualitative research? 1.__________________________________________________________________________________ 2.

1. high ecological validity 2. collect data in cases where it would be impossible or unethical to do so otherwise

What are two strengths of naturalistic observations? 1._____________________________________________________________________________________ 2.

double-blind control

What can a researcher use to limit researcher bias effecting the outcome of the research?

Transferability

What criteria addresses the degree to which the results of qualitative research can be generalized to other contexts or settings?

Credibility

What criteria addresses whether the results of qualitative research are believable from the perspective of the participant in the research?

(C) -There is not a "correct" interpretation of the data and it is open to the biases of the researcher.

What does it mean when we say that the interpretation of the data may be subjective? (A) -The subjects (participants) must confirm the validity of the interpretation. (B) -The interpretation is based on "grounded theory" - that is, it is based on theories that have already been studied. (C) -There is not a "correct" interpretation of the data and it is open to the biases of the researcher. (D) -The interpretation is free of bias.

1. interviews 2. psychometric testing 3. questionnaires 4. observations.

What four types of methodological triangulation are commonly used by case studies? 1.__________________________________________________________________________________ 2.__________________________________________________________________________________ 3.__________________________________________________________________________________ 4.

(C) -The findings can be used to generate new theories or extend our undestanding of existing theories.

What is meant when a researcher says that the results have "theoretical generalizability?" (A) -We cannot be sure of the extent of generalizability of the findings, but it is theoretically possible to generalize to a larger population. (B) -The findings cannot be generalized, except to groups with the exact same traits. (C) -The findings can be used to generate new theories or extend our undestanding of existing theories. (D) -The findings can be generalized to similar populations from which the sample was obtained.

advantage - highly standardised disadvantage - artificial and lacks ecological validity

What is one advantage and one disadvantage of the structured interview? Advantage: __________________________________________________________________________________ Disadvantage: __________________________________________________________________________________

advantage - open to the interests and motivation of the interviewee advantage - more validity disadvantage - more difficult to analyse and draw conclusions

What is one advantage and one disadvantage of the unstructured interview?

sampling bias

What is one of the limitations using purposive sampling?

Confirmability

What is researcher trying to enhance when they actively search for and describe any negative instances that contradict prior observations?

Confirmability

What is researcher trying to enhance when they ask another researcher to take a "devil's advocate" role with respect to the results, and this process can be documented?

Confirmability

What is researcher trying to enhance when they conduct a data audit that examines the data collection and analysis procedures and makes judgments about the potential for bias or distortion?

Confirmability

What is researcher trying to enhance when they document the procedures for checking and rechecking the data throughout the study?

gather first-hand information in a naturally occurring situation

What is the aim of completing observations?

gain a close and intimate familiarity with a given area of interest

What is the aim of participant observations?

event sampling

What is the data collection technique in Observational Research where researcher makes a note only when they observe the behaviour being studied? i.e: If the researcher is studying aggression on a school playground, she would only take notes when an aggressive act is observed.

point sampling

What is the data collection technique in Observational Research where the researcher makes note of the behaviour of each participant and then moves on to the next participant? i.e: If the researcher is studying time "on-task" in the classroom, he may note what student 1 is doing, then student 2, then student 3, and so on.

time sampling

What is the data collection technique in Observational Research where the researcher makes note of the behaviour of the sample at a regular time interval? i.e.: If the researcher is studying time "on-task" in the classroom, every three minutes she may note what percentage of the students are engaged.

overt observation, the participants know they are being observed covert observation, the participants are not aware they are being studied

What is the difference between overt observation and covert observation?

informed consent

What is the ethical consideration used in qualitative research where all the participants should know that participation is voluntary?

confidentiality

What is the ethical consideration where anyone conducting a case study is very protective of their research participant's identity and that they must try to obscure details that can lead to deduction of identity?

C - In a quasi experiment, participants have a trait that determines which condition they are in; in a true experiment, they are randomly allocated.

What is the key difference between a quasi-experiment and a "true experiment?" (A) -Quasi experiments do not have controlled variables. (B) -Quasi experiments are cross-sectional; true experiments are longitudinal. (C) -In a quasi experiment, participants have a trait that determines which condition they are in; in a true experiment, they are randomly allocated. (D) -Quasi experiments take place in naturalistic environments; true experiments take place in laboratories.

(D) -Unstructured interviews are based on themes and does not have a strict list of questions that must be followed in a specific order.

What is the key difference between an unstructured and a structured interview? (A) -Unstructured interviews are easier to analyse. (B) -Structured interviews are more natural than unstructured interviews. (C) -Structured interviews are more valid. (D) -Unstructured interviews are based on themes and does not have a strict list of questions that must be followed in a specific order.

order effects

What is the limitation in Repeated Measures Design when participants are asked to take part in more than one condition, they may demonstrate boredom or fatigue?

practice effects

What is the limitation in Repeated Measures Design when participants get better at something just because they keep doing it?

taking notes and recording data without anyone noticing

What is the main data collection issue with making covert observational techniques in Observational Research?

(D) -An interview schedule.

What is the name given to the plan for carrying out an interview? (A) -A memo. (B) -A transcript. (C) -An interview agenda. (D) -An interview schedule.

non-participant observation

What is the observation method where the researcher is not part of the situation being studied and does not interact with the participants

participant observations

What is the observation method where the researcher is part of the situation being studied and may interact with the participants?

Demand characteristics

What is the overall term for when participants act differently simply because they know that they are in a study? They may try to guess the aims of the study and act accordingly

repeated measures design

What is the research design for one sample of participants that receives each condition of an experiment?

Matched Pairs Design

What is the research design where participants are not randomly allocated to conditions. Instead, they are usually pre-tested with regard to the variable and then "matched" based on a trait?

interviews

What is the research method used in qualitative research ranges from a few brief questions to an in-depth session that takes an hour or more?

survey

What is the research method where data is draw from collecting information from a large and dispersed group of people rather than from the very small number, which can be dealt with through interviews?

non-participant observations

What is the research technique by which the researcher observes participants, with or without their knowledge?

hypothesis

What is the term for a claim, often derived from theory, that is tested against empirical evidence so that it can be either accepted or rejected?

representational generalization

What is the term for generalization of findings that can be applied to the population from which the sample was drawn?

focus groups

What is the term for group interviews?

confounding variables

What is the term for other variables that DID influence the results of the study?

extraneous variables

What is the term for other variables that MAY influence the results of the study?

research design

What is the term for overall strategy that a researcher chooses to investigate the research problem and test their hypothesis?

field experiment

What is the term for studies outside of the laboratory?

triangulation

What is the term for the application and combination of several research methodologies (multiple observers, theories, methods & empirical materials) in the study of the same phenomenon?

interpretative approach

What is the term for the approach used by qualitative researchers where their aim is to understanding things from the view of the people involved? This approach states that the researcher should strive to be as objective and neutral as possible in the collection, interpretation, and presentation of qualitative data - and their research should be informed by the feedback from the participants.

naturalistic observations

What is the term for the data collection method which takes place in a natural setting and aims to describe behaviour without trying to establish cause-and-effect relationships?

field notes

What is the term for the demanding task where the researcher produces a highly detailed account of what has been observed in field work?

inferential generalisation or transferability

What is the term for the generalization of findings that can be applied to settings outside the setting of the study?

theoretical generalisation

What is the term for the generalization of the theoretical concepts derived from the study can be used to develop further theory?

hypothesis

What is the term for the prediction of how the independent variable affects the dependent variable?

experimental hypothesis

What is the term for the prediction of the RELATIONSHIP between the independent and dependent variables?

dependent variable

What is the term for the variable that is measured after the manipulation of the independent variable?

independent variable

What is the term for the variable that the researcher deliberately manipulates?

extraneous variables

What is the term for undesirable variables that influence the relationship between the independent and dependent variables?

participant variability

What is the term for when a research study is limited due to characteristics of the sample group affect the dependent variable?

operationalized

What is the term for when independent and dependent variables are written in such a way that it is clear what is being measured?

response bias

What is the term for when people adjust their responses so as to give the "right answer" to the researcher?

reactivity

What is the term for when people and animals often change their behaviour when they are observed?

standardised

What is the term for when procedures are written in enough detail that they can be easily replicated by another researcher?

high inter-observer reliability

What is the term for when researchers using research triangulation observe the same frequency and intensity of behaviour?

low inter-observer reliability

What is the term for when researchers using research triangulation, do not produce similar data or observations, due to variables that are poorly operationalized or that the procedure for the observation is not well designed?

researcher triangulation

What is the term for when several observers can observe the same behaviour and then compare the results of their observations?

Researcher bias

What is the term for when the expectations of the researcher consciously or unconsciously affect the findings of the study, and the experimenter sees what he or she is looking for?

Expectancy effect

What is the term for when the participant attempts to discern the experimenter's hypotheses with the goal of "helping" the researcher? This may result in acting in a certain way or giving the "right answer."

Screw you effect

What is the term for when the participant attempts to discern the experimenter's hypotheses, but only in order to destroy the credibility of the study?

overt observations

What is the term for when the research has disclosed the study and there participants know that they are being observed?

confirmation bias

What is the term for when the researcher "sees what she/he wants to see" when carrying out an observation?

covert observations

What is the term for when the researcher undisclosed and the participants do not know that they are being observed, in order to ensure that the participants behave in natural ways?

researcher bias

What is the term for when the researcher's own beliefs influence the research process?

artificiality

What is the term for when the situation created is so unlikely to occur that one has to wonder if there is any validity in the findings?

bidirectional ambiguity

What is the term for when there is no cause-and-effect relationship at all and no independent variable being manipulated, therefore making it impossible to know if x causes y, y causes x, if they interact to cause behaviour, or whether it is just coincidental and the results are actually due to a third variable?

inter-observer reliability

What is the term in Observational Research where several researchers are involved observing the sample at the same time?

reactivity

What is the term in non-participant observations where people who are observed do not behave naturally?

credibility

What is the term in qualitative research when the findings of the research reflect the meanings as they are described by the participants?

Confirmability

What is the term refers to the degree to which the results could be confirmed or corroborated by others?

Dependability

What is the term that emphasizes the need for the researcher to account for the ever-changing context within which research occurs?

null hypothesis

What is the term that states that the IV will have no effect on the DV, or that any change in the DV will be due to chance?

research question

What is the term used by qualitative research instead of the "hypothesis"?

(C) -Transferability

What is the term used for the type of generalizabilty where we assume that a situation in which many of the variables are the same is likely to result in the same findings as the original study? (A) -Representational generalizability (B) -Population validity (C) -Transferability (D) -Theoretical generalizability

Anonymity

What is the term which ensures that the data is managed and stored after the research in a way that is unable to be linked back to the participants?

Confidentiality

What is the term which ensures that the research data will not be known to anyone outside the study?

Overt observations

What is the terms for the observation technique for when participants know they are being observed, but the purpose of the study may not always be clear?

Covert observation

What is the terms for the observations technique for when participants are not aware they are being studied, so they have not agreed to it?

opportunity samplying

What is the terms for the qualitative sampling technique that selects a particular group of people who happen to be available?

Social desirability effect

What is the terms for when the participant answers in a way that makes him/her look good to the researcher? This is done to avoid embarrassment or judgement.

theory triangulation

What is the type if triangulation which involves looking at the data using different theoretical approaches - for example, a biological, psychological and sociocultural approach?

correlational study

What is the type of study where an experiment cannot be carried out, but data are collected which show a relationship between two variables?

Method triangulation

What is the type of triangulation which involves comparing data that come from the use of different methods? This could involve qualitative and quantitative methods.

researcher triangulation

What is the type of triangulation which involves the use of several observers, interviewers, or researchers to compare and check data collection and interpretation?

(D) -Rich data

What is the word used to describe data that provides depth of detail in the description of people, places and conversations? (A) -Intrinsic data (B) -Depth analysis data (C) -Explanatory data (D) -Rich data

deductive approach

What sort of approach to reasoning does a hypothesis use?

inductive approach

What sort of approach to reasoning does a research question use?

1. people skills 2. verbal skills 3. non-verbal communication skills

What three skills does an interviewer need to be an effective researcher? 1.__________________________________________________________________________________ 2.__________________________________________________________________________________ 3.

semi-structured interviews

What type of interview uses an informal conversation approach with a schedule, and is based around a set of open-ended questions that permit the respondent to answer more freely while maintaining the focus of the interview?

structured interview

What type of interview uses an interview schedule, set questions, set order of questions and is a highly controlled procedure?

unstructured interview

What type of interview uses interview schedule that only specifies the topic and the available time?

numbers participants

When comparing qualitative and quantitate, in quantitative research, the data are in the form of ______________________ that are easy to summarize and submit to statistical analysis; while qualitative data are gathered through direct interaction with _______________________________________.

(C) -Reactivity

When participants change their behaviour because they know that they are being observed, this is called (A) -Interviewer effects. (B) -Expectancy effect (C) -Reactivity (D) -Event sampling

no relationship between two variables

When researchers accept the null hypothesis, it means that there is _____________________________________________________________________.

that there is some type of relationship between the two variables.

When researchers reject the null hypothesis, it means ______________________________________________________________________

1. qualitative techniques (semi-structured interviews, participant observation) 2. personal artefacts (e.g. letters, diaries, photographs, notes) 3. official documents (e.g. case notes, clinical notes, appraisal reports) 4. medical tests 5. psychological tests

When using a case study, what are three techniques that can be used for collecting data? 1.__________________________________________________________________________________ 2.__________________________________________________________________________________ 3.

deception

Which ethical consideration is difficult to avoid in non-participant observations?

(A) -Qualitative data is more reliable than quantitative data

Which of the following is NOT a difference between qualitative and quantitative data? (A) -Qualitative data is more reliable than quantitative data. (B) -Qualitative data is descriptive; quantitative data is numeric. (C) -It is more difficult to analyse and interpret qualitative data. (D) -There is no single way to approach analysis of qualitative data.

(A) -They are not highly naturalistic.

Which of the following is NOT a limitation of a focus group? (A) -They are not highly naturalistic. (B) -Participants may demonstrate conformity to group opinions. (C) -There is a problem with guaranteeing confidentiality of the responses. (D) -They are difficult to manage.

(C) Low levels of ecological validity.

Which of the following is NOT a limitation of a naturalistic observation? (A) Participants may show reactivity if they know that they are being observed. (B) There are ethical concerns about observing people without their consent. (C) Low levels of ecological validity. (D) It is difficult to replicate the sample and the procedure is not highly standardized.

B - They are easily replicated.

Which of the following is NOT an advantage of field experiments? (A) -Consent is often not required. (B) -They are easily replicated. (C) -The studies have high ecological validity. (D) -They are naturalistic.

(D) -Taking results of a study back to the participants and asking for their feedback.

Which of the following is NOT an example of triangulation? (A) -Having a social worker, a psychologist and a biologist look at data from a study of the role of stress on health. (B) -Using both interviews and observations to see how young teachers deal with problematic student behaviour. (C) -Having a team of researchers all carry out an observation of free time behaviour in an urban public high school and comparing their data. (D) -Taking results of a study back to the participants and asking for their feedback.

A - All ethical considerations must be met

Which of the following is NOT essential for a study to be a "true" experiment? (A) -All ethical considerations must be met. (B) -Random allocation to conditions. (C) -One or more independent variables are manipulated and the effect on the dependent variable is measured. (D) -Extraneous variables are controlled.

(D) -They are highly controlled in order to avoid researcher bias.

Which of the following is NOT true of a case study? (A) -They make use of method triangulation. (B) -They are more holistic than simple experiments. (C) -They are usually longitudinal. (D) -They are highly controlled in order to avoid researcher bias.

(D) There are ethical concerns about deceiving the participants.

Which of the following is a limitation of a covert observation? (A) They are more likely to produce researcher bias. (B) They have low ecological validity. (C) They result in high levels of demand characteristics. (D) There are ethical concerns about deceiving the participants.

D - There will be no significant difference in the scores of on a test for depressive symptoms among 16-year-old female participants who run on a treadmill for 30 minutes and those that do not exercise.

Which of the following is a null hypothesis for a study of the role of aerobic exercise on one's mood? (A) -None of the 16-year-old female participants who run on a treadmill for 30 minutes will have depression, according to their scores on a test for depressive symptoms. (B) -16-year-old female participants who run on a treadmill for 30 minutes will score either higher or lower on a test for depressive symptoms than those that do not exercise. (C) -16-year-old female participants who run on a treadmill for 30 minutes will score lower on a test for depressive symptoms than those that do not exercise. (D) -There will be no significant difference in the scores of on a test for depressive symptoms among 16-year-old female participants who run on a treadmill for 30 minutes and those that do not exercise.

(C) It is a control for researcher bias.

Which of the following is a strength of a participant observation? (A) It controls for demand characteristics in the participants. (B) It is less time consuming than other observational methods. (C) It is a control for researcher bias. (D) It is easy to collect and analyse data.

(B) -Social desirability effect: participants give responses that are "socially acceptable."

Which of the following is not an order effect? (A) -Practice effect - participants get better at the skill being studied, just because they keep doing it during the experiment. (B) -Social desirability effect: participants give responses that are "socially acceptable." (C) -Boredom with the study (D) -Fatigue

(A) -Participants are less likely to show demand characteristics than in an independent samples design.

Which of the following is not true of a repeated measures design? (A) -Participants are less likely to show demand characteristics than in an independent samples design. (B) -Fewer participants are needed than for an independent samples design. (C) -Participants are more likely to show order effects - such as improvement of a skill through practice - than in an independent samples design. (D) -Participant variables are controlled.

B -The IV in both is not manipulated - but in a quasi experiment the IV is a trait of the individual and in a natural experiment it is an environmental factor.

Which of the following is the best explanation of the difference between a quasi-experiment and a natural experiment? (A) -Quasi experiments are done in a lab; natural experiments are done in the field. (B) -The IV in both is not manipulated - but in a quasi experiment the IV is a trait of the individual and in a natural experiment it is an environmental factor. (C) -All quasi experiments are natural experiments, but not all natural experiments are quasi experiments. (D) -Natural experiments randomly allocate participants to conditions; quasi-experiments do not.

(C) Researchers analyse the data to see what ideas "emerge" from their notes in order to decide what is important about the study.

Which of the following is true of an inductive approach to carrying out observations? (A) A hypothesis is being investigated. (B) The results may be generalized to a more global population. (C) Researchers analyse the data to see what ideas "emerge" from their notes in order to decide what is important about the study. (D) Checklists of behaviours are decided in advance and teams are trained in order to establish inter-rater reliability.

(B) -Convenience (opportunity) sampling

Which of the following sampling techniques describes a sample taken from an office of accountants all working at Mercedes Benz? (A) -Purposive sampling (B) -Convenience (opportunity) sampling (C) -Stratified sampling (D) -Snowball sampling

(B) -Providing rich data about the context of the study

Which of the following strategies increases the generalizabilty of a single case study? (A) -Using method triangulation (B) -Providing rich data about the context of the study (C) -Having several researchers interpret the data. (D) -Take the results back to the participant and ask him/her if it reflects their understanding of the study.

(A) The reliability of the data would be strong.

Which of the following would be true if all members of the team record a similar level of aggressive play on a playground while watching the same group of children? (A) The reliability of the data would be strong. (B) The sample of the observation was too homogeneous - that is, they shared too many common traits and were not representative of a wider population. (C) The study could be generalized to a wider population. (D) It is a clear example of confirmation bias.

Purposive sampling

Which qualitative sampling technique targets a particular group of people based on certain criteria, such as socio-economic characteristics (e.g. living below the poverty line), specific experiences (e.g. childhood abuse), occupation (e.g. nurse), or social roles (e.g. mother?)

snowball sampling

Which qualitative sampling technique uses the approach where the researcher asks participants in the study if they know other potential participants?

case studies

Which research method describes psychological processes and events, and the contexts in which they occurred?

case studies

Which research method enables the researcher to explore and describe the nature of processes, which occur over time?

case studies

Which research method has the advantage of being able to contradict established psychological theories?

case studies

Which research method has the advantage of being so rich in information, they can give insight into phenomena, which we could not gain in any other way?

case studies

Which research method has the advantage of giving psychological researchers the possibility to investigate cases, which could not possibly be engineered in research laboratories?

case studies

Which research method has the advantage of highlighting extraordinary behaviour, which can stimulate new research?

case studies

Which research method has the disadvantage of being limited for generalisability due to the uniqueness of data, meaning that the findings are only valid for one person?

case studies

Which research method has the disadvantage of being retrospective, not prospective?

case studies

Which research method has the disadvantage of limited generalisability to a general population group?

case studies

Which research method has the disadvantage of researcher bias on the collection and interpretation of data?

case studies

Which research method has the disadvantage of the data being effected by social-desirability effect?

case studies

Which research method has the disadvantage of the data being subject to memory distortions?

case study

Which research method is described as holistic and is concerned with descriptions of people's experiences, feelings, or thoughts about a topic under investigation (qualitative data), but it may also include measurements, such as blood testing, IQ scores, or survey data (quantitative data)?

case studies

Which research method offers a description of only a single individual or group?

case studies

Which research method regards all data as valid data for analysis, and as a basis for inferences?

case studies

Which research method uses a holistic approach to the study of an individual, known as an idiographic method?

laboratory experiments

Which research methods has the goal of determining whether a cause-and-effect relationship exists between two variables?

Quasi experiments Natural experiments

Which two types of experiments are not able to show direct causation, but they are able to imply a causal relationship between an IV and a DV? 1.__________________________________________________________________________________ 2.

natural experiment

Which type of experiment refers to an investigation into an independent variable that is environmental in nature and outside of the control of the researcher?

natural experiment

Which type of experiment uses a pre-test, post-test design - that is, the naturally occurring behaviour is measured both before and after the variable was introduced?

control of the characteristics of the individuals influencing the results.

Why do lab experiments use random allocation of participants?

overcome the weakness or intrinsic biases and the problems from single method, single-observer, single-theory studies.

Why do researcher's used triangulation?

(A) -To allow the reader of the report to recognize any potential biases in the research, based on the researcher's beliefs or past experience.

Why is it important for a researcher to include reflexivity in a research report? (A) -To allow the reader of the report to recognize any potential biases in the research, based on the researcher's beliefs or past experience. (B) -It allows the participants to confirm the findings of the study. (C) -Having more researchers involved allows for inter-rater reliability to be established. (D) -It is important to be flexible in the interpretation of the data since there is no one "right answer."

people do not always tell the truth

Why is self-reported data biased?

it is sometimes impossible to explain to the unwary participants what has just happened

Why is the ethical consideration of debriefing challenging when completing field experiments?

it is not practical to get informed consent (The general rule is that people may be observed in public spaces where they would expect to be observed by others)

Why is the ethical consideration of informed consent challenging when completing field experiments?

(B) -To control for participant variability within a sample.

Why would a researcher use a matched pairs design? (A) -To make sure that the order in which the experiment is done does not affect the results. (B) -To control for participant variability within a sample. (C) -So that each participant experiences both conditions of an experiment. (D) -To make sure that there are equal numbers of participants in each group.

(A) -Researchers don't know if using facebook causes depression or whether people who are depressed use Facebook more.

You read in the newspaper that a study of the amount of time people spend on Facebook and one's level of depression showed a strong correlation, but that issues of bidirectional ambiguity could not be resolved. What does this mean? (A) -Researchers don't know if using facebook causes depression or whether people who are depressed use Facebook more. (B) -The sample was not representative. (C) -Researchers are not able to control all the variables to determine a cause and effect relationship. (D) -Depression is poorly defined, so the results are not clear - they are ambiguous.