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ch 13

Chapter 13 Psychoanalysis: The Beginnings Outline I. The Mommy Track A. A boy dreams of his mother being carried by bird-like creatures B. 30 years later the dream is still emotional to the dreamer, Sigmund Freud C. Freud analyzes the symbolic content 1. recalls a childhood friend who liked to talk about sex and used slang term "Vögeln", derives from word for bird 2. says dream represents his sexual longing for his mother II. The Development of Psychoanalysis A. Freud's place in history 1. "Psychoanalysis" and "Sigmund Freud": known all over world 2. Freud recognizable to general public 3. Cover of Time magazine: 3 times, once 60 years after death 4. Recently revered on 150th anniversary of his birth (2006) 5. Pivotal person in history of civilization 6. Changed the way we think of ourselves B. Three great shocks to the collective human ego (Freud, 1917) 1. Copernicus: earth not center of universe 2. Darwin: humans not a distinctive species 3. Freud: unconscious forces rather than rational thought govern our lives C. Chronological overlap with other schools of thought 1. 1895 a. formal beginning of psychoanalysis b. Wundt: age 63 c. Titchener: age 28 d. functionalism: beginning to thrive in U.S. e. Watson: age 17 f. Wertheimer: age 15 2. 1939 a. Freud's death b. Wundtian psychology, structuralism, and functionalism were past c. Gestalt psychology: in the process of transplantation d. behaviorism was dominant D. Schools other than psychoanalysis 1. shared an academic heritage 2. owed much to Wundt 3. concepts and methods refined in laboratories, libraries, and lecture halls 4. concerned with topics such as sensation, perception, and learning 5. attempted to maintain a pure science E. Psychoanalysis 1. not a school of thought directly comparable to the others 2. distinct from mainstream 3. not a true science 4. arose from medicine and psychiatry 5. subject matter is abnormal behavior 6. primary method is clinical observation 7. deals with the unconscious F. Idea of the unconscious forces 1. not accepted by Wundt and Titchener a. not amenable to study using introspection b. cannot be reduced to sensory elements 2. functionalists disregarded it a. although James acknowledged unconscious processes b. 1904: Angell devoted a mere 2 pages to topic in text c. 1921: Woodworth dealt with subject as postscript 3. Watson: no use for either the unconscious or consciousness G. Freud: brought concept of the unconscious to psychology III. Antecedent Influences on Psychoanalysis A. Theories of the unconscious mind: philosophical speculations 1. Leibnitz's (1646-1716) monadology: "theory of psychic entities, called monads, which are similar to perceptions" a. the monads (1) individual elements of all reality (not physical atoms) (2) not composed wholly of matter (3) each is an unextended psychic entity (4) each, while mental, has some properties of physical matter (5) when enough are grouped together, an extension (expansion) results (6) similar to perceptions b. mental events: the activity of the monads (1) have different degrees of consciousness: from completely unconscious to completely conscious (a) petites perceptions (i) smaller amount of consciousness, (a) e.g., individual drops of water (b) each drop not consciously perceived (ii) conscious realization of petites perceptions = apperception (a) e.g., sound of waves breaking on the beach (b) enough drops collected = apperception 2. Johann Friedrich Herbart (1776-1841) a. Unconscious (Leibnitz) sharpened to idea of threshold of consciousness (Herbart) b. ideas influence each other in terms of the mechanics of forces (1) ideas below = unconscious (a) to rise above the limen (i) an idea must be compatible with ideas already in consciousness (b) include inhibited ideas (i) ideas forced out of consciousness due to incompatibility with other conscious ideas (ii) exist below threshold (iii) result in conflict as they fight to become conscious (c) Herbart used mathematical formulas to explain the mechanical movement of ideas into and out of consciousness (2) ideas above = conscious (a) when idea rises to consciousness, it is apperceived 3. Gustav Fechner a. also used threshold concept b. mind: iceberg analogy (1) much of mind is unconscious (concealed below surface of water) (2) is influenced by unobservable forces c. 1860: Elements of Psychophysics (1) influenced psychoanalysis as well as experimental psychology (2) Freud quoted from Fechner (3) Freud took ideas from Fechner (a) pleasure principle (b) psychic energy (c) importance of aggression 4. 1880's Europe: ideas about the unconscious a. a part of the intellectual climate b. a fashionable topic of conversation c. book called Philosophy of the Unconscious: 9 editions attest to its popularity 5. Freud claimed did not originate the unconscious, only a way to scientifically study it B. Early ideas about psychopathology 1. provide understanding of what Freud revolted against 2. history of treatment of mental disorders a. 2000 B.C. Babylonians: mental illness = possession by demons (1) treated humanely (2) used magic and prayer b. Hebrew cultures: mental illness = punishment for sin (1) used magic and prayer to treat it c. Greek philosophers: mental illness = disordered thought processes (1) used persuasive, healing power of words to treat it d. 4th century Christianity: mental illness = possession by evil spirits (1) treatment for next 1000 years: torture and execution (2) 15th century + next 300 years: Inquisition (a) rigorously hunted for heresy and witchcraft (b) searched out symptoms of mental disorder (c) severely punished any symptoms of mental disorder e. 18th century view: mental illness = irrational behavior (1) confined mentally ill in institutions comparable to jails (2) no longer put to death (3) no treatment offered (4) patients sometimes displayed in public like zoo animals (5) some chained, restrained, hooked on a wall (6) their "prisons" called lunatic asylums 3. More humane treatments a. Juan Luis Vives (1492-1540) (1) Spanish scholar (2) called for sensitive and caring treatment (3) language and geographic obstacles restricted his sympathetic views to Spain b. Philippe Pinel (1745-1826) (1) mental illness is a biological phenomenon to be treated by natural-science methods (2) freed patients from chains (3) paid attention to their problems (4) maintained precise case histories (5) maintained careful records of cure rates (6) number of "cured" patients increased c. concomitant changes in United States and Europe (1) chains removed from patients (2) mental illness became a research topic (3) patients as machines that need to be fixed when broken. (4) instruments used to aid "repair" of patients d. Dorothea Dix (1802-1887) (1) leading reformer of U.S. insane asylums (2) very religious (3) depressed (4) actively worked to establish Pinel's reforms all over U.S. (5) self-described advocate of the mentally ill e. Benjamin Rush (1745-1813) (1) 1st practicing psychiatrist in U.S. (2) signed Declaration of Independence (3) started 1st psychiatric hospital (4) mechanistic forms of treatment (a) hypothesis: some irrational symptoms due to excess or deficit of blood (b) solution: drain or infuse with blood (5) devised revolving chair: rapidly rotate patients at high speed (6) used type of shock treatment: plunged patients into ice water (7) first tranquilizing technique: restrained in a chair; pressure to head via wooden blocks held by vise (8) methods appear extreme to us but were used to relieve sickness rather than merely institutionalizing patients and ignoring them or worse f. two major schools of thought in psychiatry (1) somatic: causes of abnormal behavior are physical, e.g., brain lesions or "understimulated" or "tight" nerves (a) dominant view (b) supported by Kant (2) psychic: causes of abnormal behavior are emotional or psychological g. psychoanalysis: a revolt against the somatic orientation C. The Emmanuel Movement 1. Emmanuel Church Healing Movement 2. fostered drift to psychic approach in U.S. 3. advocated psychotherapy 4. focus on talk therapy increased salience of psychological causes of mental illness to both general public and therapeutic community 5. originator: Elwood Worcester a. rector of Emmanuel Church, Boston, Massachusetts (1) Ph.D. in philosophy and psychology from University of Leipzig (2) studied under Wundt b. height of movement: 1906-1910 6. talk therapy sessions a. both individual and group b. led by religious leaders from different denominations c. methods: power of suggestion and moral authority d. goal: appropriate course of patient behavior 7. outcome of movement a. widespread popularity b. magazine articles c. best-selling book on "scientific psychotherapy": Religion and Medicine: the Moral Control of Nervous Disorders (Worcester and 2 co-authors). d. opposition to ministers as psychotherapists: medical community + Witmer and Münsterberg e. warm welcome for Freud/psychoanalysis in 1906 U.S. visit f. talk therapy = part of zeitgiest D. Hypnosis 1. advanced emerging focus on psychological causes of mental illness 2. Franz Anton Mesmer (1734-1815) a. Viennese physician b. scientist c. dramatic promoter d. central concept: animal magnetism (1) "mysterious, murky force" (2) origin: magnetic energy in body (3) process: penetrate objects and influence them from afar (4) effects: include healing of mental disorders through re-establishing equilibrium between magnetic levels of patient and the environment (5) development of methodology (a) patient grips metal bars, reverses illness (b) transfer to Mesmer's magnetism to patients by his touch or stroke (6) verdict of medical community: he's a quack (7) exotic group therapy sessions in Paris (8) as a result of investigations, Mesmer escaped to Switzerland (9) mesmerism became very popular in U.S. 3. James Braid (1795-1860) a. called trancelike conditions neurohypnology, later known as hypnosis b. meticulous work c. contempt for overstated claims d. impact: lent scientific respectability to study of hypnosis 4. Jean Martin Charcot (1825-1893) a. French physician b. worked with insane women at Salpêtrière, a Paris hospital c. found hypnosis an effective treatment of hysterical patients d. used medical terminology in descriptions of symptoms and use of hypnosis e. work primarily neurological, not psychological 5. Pierre Janet (1859-1947) a. Charcot's student b. director of psychological laboratory at Salpêtrière c. rejected conception of hysteria as somatic d. hypothesized that mental phenomena (e.g., memory problems or unconscious forces) are causes e. used hypnosis as the method of treatment f. influenced Freud g. significance of Charcot's and Janet's work with the mentally ill (1) psychiatrists began changing from somatic to psychic point of view (2) treatment of emotional disturbances: focus on mind, not body (3) in U.S. and Europe, psychotherapy was a common practice by time of Freud's 1st book E. The influence of Charles Darwin 1. 1979: Freud: Biologist of the Mind by Frank J. Sulloway a. studied books in Freud's library, including those by Darwin b. all Darwin's works read by Freud, who made marginal notes c. enormous influence on Freud 2. ideas from Darwin a. unconscious mental processes b. unconscious mental conflicts c. the significance of dreams d. the hidden symbolism of certain behavioral symptoms e. the importance of sexual arousal f. notion of continuity in emotional behavior from childhood to adulthood g. humans are driven by biological forces of love and hunger 3. ideas from Romanes a. elaboration on developmental continuity in emotional expression from childhood to adulthood b. idea that sex drive appears as young as 7 weeks 4. ideas from Krafft-Ebing a. sexual gratification and self-preservation the only human instincts 5. cumulative effect: in adhere to Darwin's leadership, scientists acknowledged sex as a fundamental human drive F. Additional influences 1. from Freud's university training a. mechanistic orientation of Ernst Brücke, his major professor b. prevailing determinist attitude reflected in Freud's concept of psychic determinism 2. from zeitgeist a. 19th century Viennese attitude toward sex (1) generally permissive (2) Freud and neurotic upper-middle-class women: more sexually inhibited (3) Victorian England and Puritan U.S.: not as stereotypically prim, proper, and inhibited as sometimes portrayed (4) 1880s-1890s: from sublimation of sex to overt expression b. sexual interest evident in everyday life and prior research (1) sexual pathologies (2) infantile sexuality (3) the suppression of sexual impulses and its consequences (4) sex drive is present in children as young as 3 (a) Adolf Patze, Germany: 1845 (b) Henry Maudsley, Great Britain: 1867 (5) Psychopathia Sexualis (Krafft-Ebing, 1886) (6) Albert Moll (1897) (a) Viennese physician (b) childhood sexuality (c) the child's love for the parent of the opposite sex (7) Moritz Benedickt (a) Viennese neurologist and colleague of Freud (b) cures with hysterical women (i) patients talked about their sex lives (8) Alfred Binet: published on sexual perversions (9) libido: a term already in use 3. receptive zeitgeist led to interest in Freud's concepts 4. catharsis a. already a popular concept b. 1890: more than 140 publications on topic in German 5. Freud's concepts about dreams a. anticipated in the literature of philosophy and physiology b. already studied by Charcot, Janet, and Krafft-Ebing 6. Freud's genius: his ability to weave the threads of ideas and trends into a tapestry of a coherent system IV. Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) and the Development of Psychoanalysis A. Background 1. born in Freiburg, Moravia (now Pribor, Czech Republic) 2. moved to Vienna when four; lived there approximately 80 years 3. much of his theory is autobiographical a. father 20 years older than mother (1) strict, authoritarian (2) both feared and loved by Freud b. mother (1) protective, loving (2) Freud emotionally attached to her (3) she was enormously proud of him c. Oedipus complex (1) fear of father (2) sexual attraction to mother 4. as a young student a. early signs of intellectual ability b. accordingly given special treatment and privileges c. entered high school a year early and preformed brilliantly 5. university career a. Darwin's theory: elicited an interest in science b. 1873: began study of medicine at University of Vienna (1) goal: research, not practice (2) eight years to get his degree: took courses outside of medical curriculum, e.g., philosophy (3) initially concentrated on biology: eel testicle morphology (a) inconclusive findings (b) sexually related topic (4) moved to physiology: the spinal cord of the fish (a) 6 years in physiological institute (5) experimented with cocaine (a) not illegal (b) use: for self, friends and family, medical patients (c) enthusiastically maintained it ameliorated his depression and indigestion (d) called it a miracle drug; thought it would lead to his fame (e) Carl Koller, a colleague, learned of drug through Freud; used it to anesthetize eye during surgery (f) Freud's article on cocaine benefits in part responsible for its widespread use in U.S. and Europe until 1920s (i) for rest of career downplayed his initial approval (ii) used it himself until middle age (6) wished for appointment in academic research lab (a) Brücke, his professor and director of the physiological lab where Freud trained, dissuaded him (i) used financial grounds (ii) would take years to obtain professorship (iii) Freud too poor to provide for himself in interim (7) taking Brücke's advice, Freud took medical exams for private practice 6. 1881: earned MD and started clinical neurology practice a. did not like his work b. money kept him going c. engaged to Martha Bernays (1) several wedding dates postponed due to finances (2) when did marry, Freud pawned watches and borrowed money to pay costs d. 4 year engagement to Martha (1) highly jealous of her (2) wanted to be center of her affection (3) would prefer she renounce her family (4) spent little time with her or their children (5) vacationed alone or with sister-in-law Minna (6) said Martha could not keep up with him while hiking and sightseeing B. The case of Anna O. 1. Josef Breuer (1842-1935) a. famous for study of respiration b. discovered the functioning of the semicircular canals c. make friends with the younger Freud d. successful, experienced father figure who lent money and gave advice to Freud e. discussed patient cases with Freud, including Anna O. 2. Anna O. a. her case crucial to development of psychoanalysis b. 21 years old c. intelligent, attractive d. wide range of hysterical symptoms e. symptoms first manifested while nursing her dying father with whom she was very close f. Breuer began with hypnosis (1) when Anna talked about symptoms connected with specific experiences, symptoms abated (2) daily sessions for 1 year (3) Anna's terms for symptom relief: "chimney sweeping" and "the talking cure" (4) repulsive acts recalled under hypnosis (5) reliving the experiences under hypnosis ameliorated the symptoms g. positive transference (1) Breuer's wife jealous of emotional bonds connecting her husband and Anna (2) Anna transferring her love for her father to love for her therapist h. a threatened Breuer terminated the therapy i. distorted data of history: the false pregnancy myth (1) hours after learning that her therapy had ended, Anna felt labor pains from hysterical childbirth (2) Breuer ended the pregnancy through hypnosis (3) for a type of second honeymoon, Breuer took wife to Venice (4) Breuer's wife becomes pregnant j. known fact: none of Breuer children was conceived at alleged time k. Anna O. (Bertha Pappenheim) not cured by Breuer (1) institutionalized (2) spend hours under portrait of father, talking about visiting his grave (3) exhibited a myriad of symptoms (4) addicted to the morphine prescribed by Breuer for facial pain (5) Breuer described Anna as deranged to Freud; wished for her death to end her suffering l. Bertha Pappenheim's (Anna O's) later life (1) somehow overcame emotional problems (2) social worker (3) feminist (4) proponent of education for women (5) published short stories and women's rights play (6) honored on German postage stamp m. Anna O. case introduced Freud to the method of catharsis, the talking cure C. The sexual basis of neurosis 1. 1885: Freud received a mini-grant to study with Charcot a. trained in hypnosis to treat hysteria b. Charcot became his father-figure c. attracted to Charcot's daughter; imagined career advancement through marriage with her d. informed by Charcot of the function of sex in hysteria e. upon return to Vienna, Rudolph Chrobak, gynecologist, reinforced possible link between sex and emotional problems 2. Freud became dissatisfied with hypnosis a. a long-term cure not effected b. patients vary in ability to be hypnotized c. retained catharsis as a treatment method d. developed the method of free association (intrusion, evasion) 3. free association: "a psychotherapeutic technique in which the patient says whatever comes to mind." a. goal of psychoanalysis: bring repressed memories into conscious awareness b. repressed memories: the source of abnormal behavior 4. free association material a. not random b. the experiences recalled are predetermined c. cannot be consciously censored d. the nature of the conflict forces the material out to be articulated to therapist e. its roots were in early childhood f. much of it concerned sexual matters g. 1898: "...the most significant causes of neurotic illness are to be found in factors arising from sexual life" D. Studies on hysteria 1. 1895: Studies on Hysteria written by Breuer and Freud a. the formal beginning of psychoanalysis (term 1st used by Freud one year later) b. contained papers by both authors plus case histories, including that of Anna O. c. mostly favorable reviews throughout Europe 2. conflicts between Breuer and Freud a. Breuer reluctant to publish b. not convinced, as was Freud, that sex is the sole cause of neurosis c. Breuer felt Freud had insufficient evidence d. disagreement between them led to estrangement 3. Freud's position a. believed he was right; therefore no need for additional data b. concerned that delay in publication might result in others laying claim to same ideas c. may reveal Freud's ambition 4. Breuer concerned with Freud's dogmatic attitudes a. complete break between the two within a few years b. Freud resentful c. but gave Breuer written credit as a pioneer in hysteria treatment d. upon Breuer's death in 1925, a considerably mellowed Freud wrote a perceptive obituary and sent a sympathy letter to Breuer's son E. The childhood seduction controversy 1. Freud viewed sex as the key cause of neurosis 2. believed a normal sex life precludes neuroses 3. 1896: based on free-association data, reported in a paper that patients exposed childhood seduction traumas often caused by the father or other older family member 4. his conclusion: seduction traumas c

ch 14

Chapter 14 Psychoanalysis: After the Founding Outline I. When Life hands you Lemons... A. A lonely boy brings home stray kittens, mother kills them B. Boy is Abraham Maslow, hated mother, not loved her as Oedipus complex predicts C. Maslow has nightmarish childhood: "it's a wonder I'm not a psychotic" D. No friends, father was aloof, drank, womanized E. Mother openly rejected Maslow F. Maslow did not go to mother's funeral G. All Maslow's work "has its roots in a hatred for and revulsion against everything she stood for" H. As a teen, felt inferior because of big nose, scrawny build I. Immersed himself in books J. As adult received adoration and admiration II. Competing Factions A. Splintered movement 1. within 20 years of its founding 2. Freud never again spoke to the rebels B. Three major groups of subsequent theorists 1. Neo-Freudians who elaborated on Freud: Anna Freud, Melanie Klein, and Heinz Kohut 2. Orthodox Freudians who became dissenters: Carl Jung, Alfred Adler and Karen Horney 3. Protesters against both psychoanalysis and behaviorism: Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers III. The Neo-Freudian and Ego Psychology A. In general 1. adhered to Freud's central premises 2. modified selected aspects B. Major change: expansion of the concept of the ego 1. more independent of the id 2. has its own energy 3. has functions separate from the id 4. is free of the conflict produced by id pressures C. Influences on Freudian personality theory 1. de-emphasize biological forces 2. emphasize social and psychological forces 3. minimize the import of infantile sexuality 4. minimize the import of the Oedipus complex IV. Anna Freud (1895-1982) A. Her life 1. The youngest of Freud's six children; not a welcomed child 2. least preferred daughter, lonely and unhappy childhood 3. became her father's favorite child 4. early interest in her father's work a. attended meetings of the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society from the age of 14 5. age 22: began four-year analysis with her father 6. age 29: read her first scholarly paper to the Society a. "Beating fantasies and daydreams" (1924) (1) not, as presented, a case history but in reality about herself (2) gained her admission into the Society 7. unmarried 8. nursed her father when he developed cancer 9. pioneered psychoanalysis of children B. Child Analysis 1. 1927: Introduction to the Technique of Child Analysis a. considered children's relative immaturity b. considered children's lack of verbal skills c. innovative methods (1) the use of play materials (2) the observation of the child in the home 2. London a. opened a clinic b. established a training center 3. 1936: The Ego and the Mechanisms of Defense a. elaborated and clarified the use of defense mechanisms b. remains a core work in ego psychology 4. 1945: publication of first of eight volumes of The Psychoanalytic Study of the Child 5. substantially revised orthodox psychoanalytic theory 6. expanded the role of the ego C. Comment 1. 1940s: ego psychology became the primary American form of psychoanalysis 2. neo-Freudians a. translated, simplified, and operationally defined concepts b. encouraged experimental investigation of the hypotheses c. modified psychoanalytic psychotherapy (Steele, 1985) 3. fostered a conciliatory relationship with academic psychology V. Object Relations Theories A. Object: Freud's term "to refer to any person, object, or activity than can satisfy an instinct" 1. mother's breast: 1st object infant's world to gratify an instinct 2. mother herself comes to be an instinct-gratifying object 3. later, other people also become such objects B. Theory focus: interpersonal relationships with objects 1. contrasts with Freud's focus on the actual instinctual drives 2. highlighted social and environmental effects within the mother-child relationship 3. personality created early in infancy 4. most crucial concern in personality development: ability and need of child to establish an independent identity apart from the mother and to develop relationships with other objects (persons) C. Melanie Klein (1882-1960) 1. unwanted child 2. depressed throughout life from feelings of rejection 3. alienated by her own analyst daughter 4. theory focuses on the deep, emotional mother-infant bond 5. describes that bond in social-cognitive, not sexual, terms 6. breast becomes a good or bad part-object depending on its degree of id gratification 7. whole objects, including 1st the mother, are similarly defined as satisfying or hostile 8. nature of infant-mother social bond in the first 6 months of life generalizes to all child-object relationships D. Heinz Kohut (1913-1981) 1. central focus: nuclear self as base for developing an independent personality a. develops from "self-objects" or vital people in child's life b. such people are believed by infant to be part of his/herself 2. mother usually infant's primary self-object 3. needs to satisfy both physical and psychological needs 4. psychological satisfactions accomplished through mirroring, reflecting back to infant his/her positive significance 5. shame or guilt results from rejection—mirroring of sense of unimportance 6. adult self-concept thus dependent on nature of the original bond with the primary self-object (mother) VI. Carl Jung (1875-1961) A. For a brief time served as Freud's surrogate son and heir to the psychoanalytic throne B. As a result of split with Freud developed own approach called analytical psychology C. Jung's life 1. unhappy, lonely childhood 2. father: temperamental, clergyman who lost faith 3. mother: emotionally unstable with history of family mental illness 4. Jung: lack of trust in others 5. at critical times, decisions based on a. what his unconscious told him b. dreams 6. 1900: MD from University of Basel a. interested in psychiatry b. first job with Eugen Bleuler, working with schizophrenics 7. 1905: appointed lecturer in psychiatry at University of Zurich a. resigned position to write, do research, and have a private practice 8. private practice a. patients faced him in comfortable chair rather than lying on couch b. occasional meetings on his sailboat c. sometimes sang to patients, at other times was rude d. professional reputation established before he met Freud 9. Interest in Freud's work a. 1900: read The Interpretation of Dreams b. 1906: began correspondence with Freud c. 1907: first meeting lasted 13 hours; 20 years difference in age d. 1909: lectures at Clark University with Freud e. 1911: first president of the International Psychoanalytic Association (1) Freud insisted (2) Viennese members opposed it (3) an issue: Jung was not Jewish f. 1912: The Psychology of the Unconscious (1) Jung had never been uncritical of Freud (2) however, tenets in this book differed in major ways from Freud (3) expected this book would strain his relationship with Freud (4) the relationship was terminated 10. 1914: Jung resigned from International Psychoanalytic Association 11. age 38: severe emotional problems for 3-year period a. thought he was losing his mind b. unable to conduct any type of intellectual work c. suicidal; kept gun next to bed d. continued treating patients e. like Freud's crisis (1) at midlife (2) explored his unconscious (3) dreams used among other stimuli, not analyzed systematically a la Freud (4) a time of immense creativity f. led to the development of his personality theory 12. 1920's: field trips to Africa spurred by interest in mythology 13. 1932-1942: professor at Federal Polytechnic University in Zurich 14. one year as chair of medical psychology at the University of Basel 15. ill health forced him to resign 16. 1942-1961 active, well published researcher and writer D. Analytical psychology 1. autobiographical influences, particularly with regard to views of about sex a. Oedipus complex not relevant to his childhood experience b. no major adult sexual hang-ups c. preferred company of women d. had affairs e. isolation as child reflected in his theoretical focus on inner growth rather than social relationships f. sex plays a minimal role in explaining human motivation 2. libido a. major difference with Freud's theory b. for Jung, is a generalized life energy rather than the sexual energy depicted by Freud c. the energy expresses itself in growth, reproduction, and other critical processes and events 3. Oedipus complex a. rejected by Jung b. child's attachment to its mother is a necessary dependency c. libidinal energy takes a heterosexual form after puberty 4. forces that influence personality a. Freud: people are victims of their childhoods b. Jung: (1) one is shaped by aspirations for the future as well as the past (2) personality can be changed throughout life rather than be shaped during the first 5 years of life 5. unconscious mind a. Jung probed deeper than did Freud b. added the component of the collective unconscious E. The collective unconscious 1. personal unconscious: "The reservoir of material that once was conscious but has been forgotten or suppressed." a. comprised all suppressed or forgotten experiences b. not a deep level of unconscious c. unconscious experiences can easily be brought into awareness 2. complexes a. groups of experiences in the personal unconscious b. are manifested by a preoccupation with some idea c. the preoccupation/idea influences behavior d. is a smaller personality formed within the whole 3. collective unconscious: "The deepest level of the psyche; it contains inherited experiences of human and prehuman species." a. deeper level than the personal unconscious b. unknown to the person c. contains cumulative experiences of prior generations and animal ancestors d. consists of universal evolutionary experiences e. forms the basis of personality F. Archetypes: "Inherited tendencies within the collective unconscious that dispose a person to behave similarly to ancestors who confronted similar situations." 1. inherited tendencies within the collective unconscious 2. innate determinants of mental life 3. predispose one to behave in a manner like one's ancestors 4. are associated with a. strong emotions b. significant life events c. stages of life d. reactions to extreme danger 5. four common archetypes a. persona (1) social mask (2) characterizes what we want others to think of us (3) may not correspond to our actual personality b. anima/animus (1) each person has some of the characteristics of the opposite sex (2) comes through association with the opposite sex throughout history (3) anima: feminine characteristics in men (4) animus: masculine characteristics in women c. shadow (1) our darker side (2) all immoral, passionate, and unacceptable desires (3) pushes us to behave in ways we ordinarily find unacceptable (4) source of spontaneity, creativity, insight, and deep emotion d. self (1) most important archetype (2) provides unity and stability to the personality (3) like a drive or force toward self-actualization (harmony and completeness) (4) self-actualization can not occur prior to middle age (35-40) e. midlife crucial to personality development (a) a natural time of transition (b) personality undergoes necessary and beneficial changes G. Introversion and extraversion (attitudes) 1. extravert a. libido directed outside the self b. strongly influenced by forces in the environment c. is sociable and self-confident 2. introvert a. libido directed inward b. resistant to external influences c. is contemplative, introspective, less confident in relations with others and the external world, less sociable 3. opposing attitudes a. exist in all of us to some degree b. no one is a total extravert or total introvert c. dominant attitude at a given moment can be influenced by experience H. Psychological types: The functions and attitudes 1. four functions of personality: thinking, feeling, sensing, intuiting a. rational modes or pairs: involve reason and judgment in decision-making (1) thinking: provides meaning and understanding (2) feeling: process of weighing and valuing b. nonrational modes or pairs: ways of perceiving the world (1) sensing: conscious perception of physical objects (2) intuiting: perceiving in an unconscious way 2. functions represent ways in which one orients one's self a. to the external objective world b. to one's internal subjective world 3. for each pair of functions, only one can be dominant 4. eight psychological types a. combinations of dominant functions and attitudes b. examples include "extraverted thinking type" or "introverted intuiting type" I. Comment 1. Jung's influenced and was influenced by diverse fields 2. Jung's analytical psychology ignored by scientific psychology a. many of his books had no English translation until 1960s b. writing was "convoluted" and organization unclear c. his disregard for scientific methods and research designs repulsed experimentalists (1) Jung's mystical and seemingly theological ideas even less acceptable than Freudian concepts (2) reliance on observation and interpretation was similar to Freud's and less acceptable than controlled studies in the lab 3. measurement of Jung's ideas a. the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (1) personality test assessing the psychological types (2) widely used for research and application in counseling and personnel settings b. Eysenck's Maudsley Personality Inventory (1) assesses the attitudes of introversion and extraversion c. research using both tests has given empirical support for the Jungian concepts underlying them d. other concepts such as the collective unconscious have been more difficult to operationalize and study scientifically 4. concept of self-actualization anticipated humanistic psychology 5. middle age as crucial stage anticipated Maslow and others 6. contributions have had little effect on mainstream psychology 7. still possible to receive formal training as a Jungian analyst 8. avenues for formal communication among Jungians a. Society of Analytical Psychology b. Journal of Analytical Psychology VII. Social Psychological Theories: The Zeitgeist Strikes Again A. Revised conception of human nature 1. de-emphasis of biological factors 2. emphasis on social and environmental influences 3. Adler and Horney are two Freudian dissenters who turned their attention to the effects of childhood interpersonal relationships on personality formation and human behavior VIII. Alfred Adler (1870-1937) A. Most salient facts 1. broke with Freud in 1911 2. thought to be the 1st advocate of taking a social psychological view within psychoanalysis 3. social interest a key concept in his theory 4. a string quartet was named for him B. His life 1. wealthy Viennese family 2. childhood marked by illness, sibling rivalry, rejection by mother, feelings of inadequateness and unattractiveness, and learning difficulties a. no experience of an Oedipus complex 3. worked diligently to become popular and do well in school a. core of his system: inferiority feelings and compensating for weaknesses are autobiographical in nature, as he himself noted 4. 1895: MD from University of Vienna a. specialty in ophthalmology; practiced general medicine b. later went into psychiatry 5. 1902: joined Freud's weekly discussion group a. openly criticized the emphasis on sexual factors b. 1910: named president of the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society by Freud in an attempt to reconcile their differences 6. 1911: relationship with Freud terminated with bitterness 7. 1914-1918: World War I army physician 8. postwar: organized child guidance clinics 9. 1920's: developed his system called individual psychology a. individual psychology: "Adler's theory of personality; it incorporates social as well as biological factors." b. attracted many to his system 10. numerous visits to United States a. professor of medical psychology at the Long Island College of Medicine in New York b. extremely popular as a person, a writer, and a speaker 11. 1934: professor of medical psychology at Long Island College of Medicine 12. 1937: died in Scotland during a demanding speaking tour a. Freud remained bitter about him C. Individual psychology 1. social forces, not biological instincts, are the central causes of human behavior 2. social interest: "Adler's conception of an innate potential to cooperate with other people to achieve personal and societal goals." a. develops through learning experiences in infancy 3. personality determinants a. minimizes the role of sex in personality development b. focuses on conscious rather than unconscious determinants c. future goals have greater effect than past events 4. stressed wholeness and uniformity of personality a. single driving force b. toward one overriding goal: superiority 5. striving for superiority (meaning perfection) permeates the personality a. a dominant life goal b. exemplifies total self-realization c. innate, vigorous, and universal d. evident in every aspect of the personality 6. women no different than men in terms of real or imagined inferiority a. alleged inferiority of women (a la Freud) a male self-interested myth b. social forces, not innate predispositions, contribute to any inferiority feelings of women c. champion of equal rights for women D. Inferiority feelings 1. generalized sense of inferiority motivates compensatory behavior a. originally conceived as stemming from physical imperfection b. extended to involve any real or imagined handicap of any type 2. infant's smallness and helplessness arouse sense of inferiority 3. lifelong push-pull between inferiority feelings and striving for superiority 4. lead to achievements 5. inferiority complex: "A condition that develops when a person is unable to compensate for normal inferiority feelings." E. Style of life 1. represents the different and unique ways each person strives for superiority (perfection) 2. involves behaviors uses by the person to compensates for actual or perceived inferiority 3. set at ages 4 to 5 4. resistant to change thereafter 5. serves as perspective through which subsequent experiences are viewed 6. person can consciously construct a life style of choice F. The creative power of the self 1. person has ability to fashion his/her personality in a manner consistent with his/her unique style of life 2. similar to soul: human essence which is dynamic and productive 3. person can actively and consciously use inherited and learned abilities and experiences to form an attitude toward his/her life and fate G. Birth order: the different social experiences of the oldest, youngest, and middle children result in different personalities and coping mechanisms 1. oldest: insecure and hostile 2. middle: ambitious, rebellious, and jealous 3. youngest: likely to be spoiled and predisposed toward behavior problems H. Comment 1. In contrast to Freud, Adler presents an optimistic picture of humans who can shape their own destinies no matter what genetic or childhood obstacles they face 2. criticisms a. superficial b. common sense concepts (others found same ideas "shrewd and insightful") c. system is too simple (simplicity viewed by Adler and others as a virtue) d. experimental psychologists have same concerns with Adlerian methods as they do with those of Freud and Jung (1) observations of patients neither replicable nor verifiable (a) not obtained under controlled conditions (b) not systematic (c) patients' reports not corroborated (2) did not explain methods of analysis and conclusion 3. contributions a. research on his birth order concept b. effects of early memories on adult style of life c. influence on ego psychology (1) emphasis on social forces; also influenced Horney (2) focus on unity of personality d. creative power of self: influenced Maslow e. stress on social variables: influenced Rotter f. attention to social and cognitive variables in tune with contemporary psychology g. continuation of published research (1) Adlerian journal Individual Psychology (2) Other, European journals h. existence of Adlerian training institutes world-wide i. current use of his theory in counseling and parenting IX. Karen Horney (1885-1952) A. Overview 1. one of 1st feminists 2. trained as a Freudian analyst 3. intended to extend Freud's work, not replace it B. Horney's life 1. born in Hamburg, Germany 2. childhood experiences influenced her system a. father (1) religious, gloomy (2) captain of a ship (3) much older than Horney's mother (4) disparaged Karen's attractiveness and intelligence b. mother (1) liberal (2) full of life (3) hated husband (4) married to avoid spinsterhood (5) rejected Karen (6) treated brother as special c. lack of parental love autobiographical impetus for her concept of basic anxiety: "Horney's conception of pervasive loneliness and helplessness, feelings that are the foundation of neuroses." 3. adolescence: crushes and fervent pursuit of love and acceptance 4. 1913: MD from University of Berlin, despite father's opposition 5. 1914-1918: orthodox psychoanalytic training 6. married 7. 3 daughters (2 analyzed by Melanie Klein) 8. progressively more depressed 9. marital difficulties, ph

ch 15

Chapter 15 Contemporary Developments in Psychology Outline I. Chess champion capitulates to cunning computer A. Garry Kasparov was acknowledged as the greatest chess player in history B. undefeated C. in a rematch, the usual unflappable Kasparov begins to break down emotionally D. he wins first game E. second and third games end in draw F. fourth won by opponent G. Kasparov resigns the fifth game, shocks onlookers II. Schools of Thought in Perspective A. Earlier schools (except psychoanalysis) absorbed into mainstream B. Structuralism 1. established science of psychology 2. obtained its independence from philosophy C. Functionalism 1. permeates modern American psychology D. Gestalt: influenced 1. traditional areas: learning, perception, thinking 2. applied areas: clinical and social E. Behaviorism 1. profound impact 2. maintained its identity despite factions F. Psychoanalysis 1. profound impact 2. maintained its identity despite factions G. Behaviorism and psychoanalysis firmly opposed 1. in definitions of problems 2. in approaches to problems H. Humanistic and cognitive: renewed focus on consciousness III. The Cognitive Movement in Psychology A. History 1. 1913: Watson demanded the rejection of all references to consciousness 2. 1976: McKeachie's APA presidential address: psychology's image of human nature was becoming human and refocusing on consciousness 3. 1978: article called "Consciousness (Natsoulas) published in American Psychologist 4. 1979: "Behaviorism and the Mind: A (Limited) Call for a Return to Introspection" (Lieberman) published in American Psychologist 5. textbooks revised and courses offered to reflect these changes 6. psychology has moved beyond Watson and Skinner B. Antecedent influences on cognitive psychology 1. ancient interest in consciousness: Plato and Aristotle 2. more modern influence: British empiricists and associationists 3. Wundt: perhaps the forerunner of cognitive psychology 4. structuralism and functionalism: elements and functions of consciousness 5. behaviorism: outright dismissal of consciousness for 50 years 6. neobehaviorists a. Guthrie at end of career: decried mechanism and reductionism; stimuli must be described perceptually or cognitively (1959) b. Tolman: his purposive psychology acknowledged importance of cognitive and intervening variables; play a part in the weakening of the S-R approach 7. 1956: Carnap and Bridgman suggested restoration of introspection 8. Gestalt psychology: kept interest in consciousness alive 9. Piaget: work on cognitive stages of development in children C. The changing Zeitgeist in physics 1. rejection of the mechanistic model of the universe 2. attempts to bridge the gap between observer and observed 3. shift of focus of scientific investigation a. from an independent and objectively knowable universe b. to one's own observation of that universe 4. modern scientists: participant observers 5. modern physics: objective knowledge is really subjective 6. restoration of the role of conscious experience in acquiring knowledge 7. scientific psychology resisted the new physics for at least 50 years D. The founding of cognitive psychology 1. change was slow 2. no "flashpoint" in contrast to Watson's paper 3. no single founder 4. two scholars contributed groundbreaking work: George Miller and Ulric Neisser IV. George Miller (1920- ) A. His life 1. majored in speech and English 2. as a graduate student, taught 16 sections of introductory psychology 3. 1941: master's in speech from University of Alabama 4. 1946: PhD from Harvard, began studying psycholinguistics 5. 1951: Language and Communication 6. behaviorism a. Miller accepted it as the primary school (had no choice) b. mid-1950s: determined behaviorism was inadequate 7. 1956: classic article "The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two: Some Limits on our Capacity for Processing Information" B. The Center for Cognitive Studies 1. purpose: to investigate the human mind 2. cognition defined by what it was not (not behaviorism) 3. cognitive psychology: an accretion rather than a revolution a. evolutionary b. a return to commonsense psychology 4. wide range of topics investigated: "language, memory, perception, concept formation, thinking, and developmental psychology." 5. 1969: American Psychological Association president 6. APA Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award 7. 1991: National Medal of Science V. Ulric Neisser (1928- ) A. His life 1. born in Kiel, Germany; came to the United States at age 3 2. at Harvard University: a physics major, switched to psychology 3. influenced by Miller and by Koffka's Principles of Gestalt Psychology (1935) 4. 1950: bachelor's from Harvard 5. master's at Swarthmore with Köhler 6. 1956: PhD from Harvard 7. behaviorist (had no choice) 8. first position at Brandeis, with Maslow as department head a. opportunity to pursue his interest in cognitive psychology b. claimed cognitive psychology is the "third force" (rather than humanism) 9. 1967: Cognitive Psychology, which becomes landmark book 10. 1976: Cognition and Reality a. dissatisfied with (1) the narrowing of the cognitive position (2) the reliance on artificial laboratory situations for data b. conclusion: cognitive psychology could contribute little 11. became a vocal critic of cognitive psychology VI. The Computer Metaphor A. Computer replaced clock as the model of the mind B. Focus on the program (software), not the hardware (computer) C. Of interest to cognitive psychologists 1. focus: how the mind processes information 2. goal: the discovery of patterns of thinking (programs) D. Computer, like the clock, is a machine VII. The Development of the Modern Computer A. Antecedents: work of Charles Babbage and Henry Hollerith in developing machines that could think B. Goal: to develop a machine capable of the rapid calculations, based on mathematical tables, need to accurately fire cannons and other artillery C. Result: Electronic Numerical Integrator And Calculator (ENIAC) VIII. Artificial Intelligence A. Is the intelligence of the computer the same as that of the human? B. Initially, idea eagerly accepted C. 1950 Turing test: Can a subject interacting with a computer be persuaded that he/she is communicating instead with a human? D. Objection to Turing Test: John Searle's Chinese Room problem 1. whether or not one understands Chinese, rote following of instructions, not thinking, is involved 2. computer programs that appear to "think" do not understand to any greater degree than subjects in the Chinese Room problem E. Garry Kasparov (world chess champion) lost chess match to Deep Blue (gigantic IBM computer) IX. The Nature of Cognitive Psychology A. Cognitive factors a consideration in nearly every area B. Differs from behaviorism 1. focus on the process of knowing a. important factors: mental processes and events b. emphasizes mind, not behavior c. behaviors are sources for inferences 2. interest in how the mind structures or organizes experience 3. the person actively and creatively arranges the stimuli received from the environment C. Cognitive Neuroscience 1. 18th & 19th Centuries: Gall, Flourens, Broca map brain functions 2. cognitive neuroscience = today's equivalent 3. amalgam of cognitive psychology and neurosciences 4. goals: effects of brain functions on mental activity and correlations between types of information processing and specified brain regions 5. tools: advanced imaging systems a. electroencephalogram (EEG): measure electrical activity in parts of brain b. computerized axial tomography (CAT) scans: comprehensive brain cross-sections c. magnetic resonance imagery (MRI): 3-D brain images d. positron emission topography (PET): scan: live pictures of cognitive activities 6. new research (2006): 25-year-old paralyzed man a. electronic sensors placed into motor cortex b. sensors interfaced with a computer c. he was able to control computer, a television, a robot with his thoughts d. could move computer's cursor (1) open email (2) move objects with robotic arm (3) play simple video game (4) draw crude circle on screen e. this new field called neuroprosthetics D. The role of introspection 1. attempts to quantify introspective reports a. increase objectivity and ability to do statistical analyses b. retrospective phenomenological assessment 2. Wilson (2003): conscious states revealed by introspection "often good predictors of people's behavior" 3. Some form of introspection "most frequently used research method in contemporary psychology", still has limitations a. Social desirability influencing reports b. Some thoughts are not available: in unconscious E. Unconscious cognition 1. cognitive psychologists agree: unconscious does more than we thought it did a. most of our thinking and information processing b. operates more quickly and efficiently than conscious mind 2. the new unconscious or nonconscious a. not the same as Freud's concept b. different than being unaware, sleep, or comatose 3. studies of unconscious thought (deliberation-without-attention) a. purchasing decisions more creative and diverse b. led to more satisfying purchases than did conscious deliberation 4. subliminal perception and subliminal activation a. stimulation presented below conscious awareness b. stimuli "activate conscious processes" c. shows we are influenced by things we can't see or hear F. Animal cognition 1. cognitive revolution returned consciousness to animals 2. since 1970's, how animals "encode, transform, compute, and manipulate" information 3. focus: information processing 4. animal memory is complex and flexible 5. some processing shown to be similar to humans 6. studies use a wide variety of animals 7. animals can form cognitive maps, sense others' motives, plan by taking past experiences into account, understand numbers, and problem solve using reason 8. criticisms a. some say cannot yet compare human to animal mind b. behavioral psychologists continue to reject the notion G. Animal personality 1. early 1990's, two psychologists study 44 red octopuses a. keepers saw different personalities in them b. psychologists observed using 3 experimental situations c. found 3 factors: activity, reactivity, avoidance d. they said this was personality 2. since then other studies have shown support for animal personality a. variety: "fish, spiders, farm animals, hyenas, chimps, and dogs" b. example: mice, chimps, elephants, and dolphins showed empathy 3. evidence of more similarity between humans and animals X. Current Status A. Cognitive psychology is a success 1. 8 journals since 1970 for just cognitive research 2. Jerome Bruner and Roger Sperry speak to the profound impact of cognitive psychology 3. its impact is felt by most areas of psychology B. "Cognitive science" 1. a combination of diverse fields 2. some psychology departments have been renamed cognitive science departments C. Criticisms 1. opposed by behaviorists 2. lack of agreement on concepts 3. considerable confusion about terminology and definitions 4. overemphasis on cognition a. ignoring other influences such motivation and emotion b. becoming fixated on thought processes D. Contributions and status of cognitive psychology 1. widely accepted in psychology today 2. recent analysis shows the "primacy of cognitive psychology" 3. has achieved some features of a school of thought a. multiple journals b. laboratories c. professional organizations and meetings d. body of research and terminology e. convinced followers 4. can speak of cognitivism E. Evolutionary psychology 1. as biological animals, humans have been programmed (wired) through evolution to behave and process information in a manner that increases the likelihood of survival and reproduction 2. survival of the fittest 3. biology influences human development as much as and perhaps more than learning and social and cultural forces 4. four fundamental questions a. How did the human mind evolve? b. How is it designed and organized? c. What are its functions? d. How does it interact with environmental stimuli to effect behavior? 5. wide-ranging field that encompasses many disciplines 6. antecedent influences on evolutionary psychology a. Charles Darwin b. Herbert Spencer and his survival of the fittest concept c. William James 1st to use term in The Principles of Psychology d. genetic determinants anathema to orthodox behaviorists e. evidence supporting such determinants found in research by the Brelands and Harlow f. Seligman demonstrates it is easier to condition people to fear naturally dangerous stimuli than to fear neutral ones: called this fact biological preparedness g. cognitive psychology: mind, like the computer, needs to be programmed h. evolutionary psychology specified ways in which the design of the mind led to survival and reproduction 7. the influence of sociobiology a. 1975: biologist Edward O. Wilson published the seminal book Sociobiology: A New Synthesis (1) defined sociobiology as "the systematic study of the biological basis of all social behavior." (2) controversy erupted because of several implications (a) humans are not created equal (b) genetic, not cultural, influences may determine behavior (c) suggests unchangeable nature of human behavior (d) division of labor based on sex, ethical behavior, tribalism, male dominance, territorial aggression, etc., defined as elements of human nature (3) Sociobiology became extremely negative term (4) to avoid stigma, association of proponents called themselves the Human Behavior and Evolution Society (5) in psychology, the term evolutionary psychology sidestepped the negativity 8. current status of evolutionary psychology a. socially acceptable and popular b. drawn substantial criticism, particularly (1) from environmentalists (2) from those who say the breadth of the field make it difficult to form and test meaningful hypotheses F. Comment 1. cognitive and evolutionary psychologies, as with all schools of thought, have supporters and detractors 2. due to relative newness, they have not reached the point to determine final impact and value