HST 102 - Ch 13, 14, 15
What do sola fide and sola scripture mean?
"Only through faith" and "only through scripture"
What were politiques?
Were those in a position of power who put the success and well-being of their state above all else. During the Wars of Religion, this included moderates of both religious faiths (Huguenots and Catholics) who held that only the restoration of a strong monarchy could save France from total collapse, as rulers would often overlook religious differences in order to have a strong country. References to individuals as politique often had a pejorative connotation of moral or religious indifference. The concept gained great currency after 1568 with the appearance of the radical Catholic League calling for the eradication of Protestantism in France, and by 1588 the politiques were seen by detractors as an organized group and treated as worse than heretics.
How did the Protestant teachings of ULRICH ZWINGLI, JOHN CALVIN, and ANABAPTISTS differ from one another and from those of Luther?
Ulrich Zwingli: -Most theologically moderate form -Humanist-inspired study of the bible convinced him that catholic theology and practice conflicted with the Gospels -Condemn religious images and hierarchical authority within the church, didn't speak out publicly until Luther set a precedent -Differed from Luther on the theology of the Eucharist, Luther believed in the real presence of christ's body in the sacrament, Zwingli thought the Eucharist was simply a reminder and celebration of Christ's historical sacrifice Anabaptists: -First anabaptists were members of Zwingli's circle in Zurich, but they broke with him around 1525 on the issue of infant baptism; convinced that the sacrament of baptism was only effective if administered to willing adults who understood its significance, and so they required those who had been baptized as infants to be baptized again as adults (term Anabaptism means "rebaptism") -Tried to turn Munster into a new Jerusalem, John of Leyden assumed the title "king of the New Temple" and proclaimed himself the successor of the Hebrew king David, put to death when catholic forces besieged and captured the city; thereafter ,anabaptists throughout Europe were ruthlessly persecuted on all sides John Calvin: -Year after events in Munster, published the first version of his Institutes of the Christain Religion, most influential formulation of protestant theology ever written -became a protestant theologian and propagandist, eventually fleeing to the swiss city of Basel to escape persecution -Differed from Luther: Luther was emotionally volatile personality and a lover of controversy, he responded to theological problems as they arose or as the impulse struck him, he never attempted to systematize his beliefs; Calvin, however, had a coolly analytical legal mind and he was determined to set forth all the principles of Protestantism: comprehensively, logically and systematically -The entire universe depends utterly on the will of the Almighty, who created all things for his greater glory and who knows all things present and to come. All humans are sinners by nature, bound to an evil inheritance they cannot escape, yet god has predestined some for eternal salvation and damned all the rest to the torments of hell/ nothing that individual human may do can alter fate, all souls are stamped with gods blessing or condemnation before they are born; Christians cannot be indifferent to their conduct on earth; if they are among the elect ,god will implant in them the desire to live according to his laws; upright conduct is thus a sign that an individual has been chosen for future glory; membership in Calvins reformed church was another presumptive sign of election to salvation and Calvin charged his followers to work actively to fulfill god's commandments and stamp out sin not because this would lead to anyones salvation ,but because god's glory si diminished if sin is allowed t flourish
What were the main sources of instability in Europe during the sixteenth century? How did the PRICE REVOLUTION exacerbate these?
-Aggressive entrepreneurs profited from financial speculation, landholders from the rising prices of agricultural produce, and merchants from increasing demand for luxury goods. But laborers were caught in a vice, prices rising steeply, wages were not keeping pace. The cost of food staples rose, poor people had to spend an every greater percentage of their incomes on necessities Price Revolution: -Placed new pressures on the sovereign states of Europe -Inflation depressed the real value of money so fixed incomes derived from taxes and rents yielded less and less actual wealth -Governments were therefore forced to raise taxes merely to keep their revenues constant -Most states needed even more revenue than before, because they were engaging in more wars, and warfare was becoming increasingly expensive, only recourse was to raise taxes -Population growth and the flood of silver began to slow, the ensuing decades were a time of economic stagnation, laboring poor made no advances and were plundered by predatory tax collectors, looting soldiers, and sometimes both -This population of newly impoverished Europeans who became the indentured servants or deported criminals of the American colonies
What policies of England's CHARLES I were most detested by his subjects? Why was his execution so momentous?
-Alarmed protestant subjects by marrying the Catholic sister of France's Louis XIII, launched a new war with Spain, straining his already slender financial resources. Parliament refused to grant him funds, he d amended forced loans from his subjects and punished those who refused by lodging soldiers in their homes, others were imprisoned without trial. Parliament imposed the Petition of Rights in 16278, declared that taxes not condoned by Parliament were illegal, condemned arbitrary imprisonment, and prohibited the quartering of soldiers in private houses -Charles then tried ruling England without parliament, ran into trouble with Calvinist subjects in scotland because he began to favor the most catholic leaning elements in the english church; scots rebelled and marched into England to demand the withdrawal of Charle's "catholicizing" measures -Parliament mustered a separate military force and open warfare had erupted -King put on trial, found guilty of treason against his own subjects; first time in history that a reigning king had been legally deposed an executed
How did LOUIS XIV deal with those who resisted their attempts to impose absolutist rule?
-Convinced noble sto cede political authority and recruited the upper bourgeoisie as royal intendants -Easily crushed local revolts of peasants -By removing the provincial nobility to Versailles, Louis cut regional opposition off from their local sources of power and influence. -To restrict the powers of regional parliaments, Louis decreed that members of any parliament who refused to approve and enforce his laws would be summarily exiled
What decisions were made at the COUNCIL OF TRENT?
-Decisions taken at Trent: -Provided the foundations on which a new Roman Catholic Church would be erected; reaffirming all of the tenets challenged by protestant critics "good works" were affirmed as necessary for salvation, and all seven sacraments were declared indispensable means of grace, without which salvation was impossible -Transubstantiation, purgatory, the invocation of saints, and the rule of celibacy for the clergy were all confirmed as dogmas (essential elements) of the catholic faith -The bible and the tradition of apostolic teaching were held to be of equal authority as sources of Christian truth -Papal supremacy over every bishop and priest was expressively maintained, and the supremacy of the pope over any church council was taken for granted, signaling a final defeat of the still active conciliar movement -Reaffirmed the doctrine of indulgences that had touched off the Lutheran revolt, although it condemned the worst abuses connected with their sale -Bishops and priests were forbidden to hold more than one spiritual office -Theological seminary was to be established in every diocese, also suppressed a variety of local religious practices and saints' cults, replacing them with new cults authorized and approved by Rome -Censor or suppress dangerous book -Congregation of the index set up to revise list of book forbidden to faithful Catholics
How did the REFORMATION alter the status and lives of women in Europe? Why did it strengthen male authority in the family?
-Didn't promote a new view of women's spiritual potential, nor did it elevate their social and political status; Luther regarded women as more sexually driven than men and less capable of controlling their lusts; it was impossible for women to remain chaste so sequestering them simply made illicit behavior inevitable; to prevent sin, it was necessary that all women should be married, preferably at at young age, and so placed under the governance of a godly husband -Protestant town governments were happy to cooperate in shutting down female monasteries. The convent's property went to the town; -Protestant governments reinforced the control of individual men over their own households by emphasizing the family as the basic unit of religious education; in place of a priest, an all powerful father figure was expected to assume responsibility for his household -New religious idea for women: no longer was virginal nun the exemplar of female holiness; in her place now stood the the married and obedient protestant "goodwife"; "those who bear children please God better than all the monks and nuns singing and praying -By declaring the holiness of marital sex, Protestantism relieved the tensions between piety and sexuality that had long characterized Christian teachings
How did European monarchies use the economic theory known as MERCANTILISM to strengthen the power and wealth of their kingdoms, and how did this theory influence FRENCH COLONIALISM?
-Eliminating wherever possible the practice of tax farming (which permitted collection agents to retain for themselves a percentage of the taxes they gathered for king) -State sold public offices, including judgeships and mayoralties, and guilds purchased the right to enforce trade regulations -Increase the nation's income by controlling and regulating roe gin trade -Theory that aimed to increase the wealth of the absolutist state by reading imports and increasing exports -Imposed tariffs on foreign goods imported into france and used state money to promote the domestic manufacture of formerly imported goods, such as silk, lace, tapestries, and glass -Improve francés roads, bridge,s and waterways -Trade led to increase in wealth in France
Why did Luther's condemnation of the DIET OF WORMS not lead to his execution on charges of heresy?
-Frederick the Wise intervened and arranged for Luther to be "kidnapped" and hidden for a year at the castle of the Wartburg -Charles V left Germany in order to conduct a war with France, and then in 1522, Luther returned
What was the catholic league?
-Hardline, opposed political settlement Under the leadership of Henry I, Duke of Guise, the Catholic confraternities and leagues were united as the Catholic League. Guise used the League not only to defend the Catholic cause but also as a political tool in an attempt to usurp the French throne.[2][3] The Catholic League aimed to preempt any seizure of power by the Huguenots and to protect French Catholics' right to worship. The Catholic League's cause was fueled by the doctrine Extra Ecclesiam Nulla Salus. Catholic Leaguers saw their fight against Calvinism (the primary branch of Protestantism in France) as a Crusade against heresy. The League's pamphleteers also blamed any natural disaster that occurred in France at the time as God's way of punishing France for tolerating the existence of the Calvinist heresy.[citation needed] After a series of bloody clashes, the French Wars of Religion (1562-1598), between Catholics and Protestants, the Catholic League formed in an attempt to break the power of the Calvinist gentry once and for all. The Catholic League saw the French throne under Henry III as too conciliatory towards the Huguenots. The League, similar to hardline Calvinists, disapproved of Henry III's attempts to mediate any coexistence between the Huguenots and Catholics. The Catholic League also saw moderate French Catholics, known as Politiques, as a serious threat. The Politiques were tired of the many tit for tat killings and were willing to negotiate peaceful coexistence rather than escalating the war.
How did the policies of CARDINAL RICHELIEU strengthen the power of the French monarchy?
-Henry's son Louis XIII had come to the throne at the age of nine, Richelieu was his chief advisor, dominated his reign; aim was to centralize royal bureaucracy while exploiting opportunities to foster French influence -Amended the Edict of Nantes so that it no longer supported the political rights of the Huguenots -Prohibited French Protestants from settling in Quebec -Imposed direct taxation on powerful provinces that had retained their financial autonomy up to that point -To make sure taxes were efficiently collected, he instituted a new system of local government which empowered royal officials to put down provincial resistance -These policies made the French royal government more powerful than any in Europe, doubled the crown's income, allowing France to engage in the Thirty Year's War, which in turn extended its power on the continent
Why did HENRY VIII break with Rome? How did the CHURCH OF ENGLAND differ from other Protestant churches in Europe?
-His wife, Catherine of Aragon and his offspring, besides one daughter, had died in infancy, she was past the age of childbearing; henry needed a male heir, and had become infatuated with a lady-in-waiting, Anne Boleyn -The Church of England differed from other protestant churches in Europe by priests being permitted to marry, English services replace latin ones, veneration of images was discouraged, and the images themselves were defaced or destroyed; prays for the dead were declared useless, and endowments for such prayers were confiscated; and new articles of belief were drawn up, repudiating all sacraments except baptism and communion and affirming the protestant creed of justification by faith alone; "The Book of Common Prayer", was published to define precisely how the new English language services of the church were to be conducted
What was the CONTRACT THEORY OF GOVERNMENT according to the English political thinker JOHN LOCKE?
-Humans had originally lived in a state of nutter characterized by absolute freedom and equality, with no government of any kind -Only law was law of nature -Condemned absolutism -Denounced absolute monarchy -No political authority could infringe natural rights of life liberty and property
Who was Oliver Cromwell?
-Leader of protestant dissenters; a minority of puritans insisted on religious freedom for themselves and other protestant dissenters; -Charle's son and supporters fled to France, Cromwell and his faction then abolished Parliaments hereditary house of lords and declared England a commonwealth -Executive powers were given to Cromwell as Lord Protector, and his office was made hereditary -Cromwell's Puritan military dictatorship was growing unpopular, because it prohibited people public recreation on Sundays and closed London's theaters
What was Fronde?
-One more immediate response to Richelieu's policies was a series of uncoordinated revolts known collectively as the Fronde (from the French word for a sling used to hurl stones); These revolts haunted Louis XIV, resolved never to let aristocracy or their provinces get out of hand
Why did many German principalities and cities rally to Luther's cause?
-Ruler had long sought to control appointments to church offices in their own realms, to restrict the flow of money to Rome and to limit the independence of ecclesiastical princes courts -Luther encouraged princes to confiscate the wealth of the church as an incentive; when some princes realized Luther had enormous public support and that Charles V could not act swiftly enough to stop them, several moved to introduce Lutheranism into their territories -Personal religious conviction, power and wealth -Self-proclaimed "protestant" princes could consolidate authority by naming their own religious officials, stopping the payment of fees to Rome, and curtailing the jurisdiction of church courts; guarantee that the political and religious boundaries of their territories would now coincide, no longer would a rival ecclesiastical prince (bishop or abbot) be able to use his spiritual position to undermine a secular prince's sovereignty -Free cities adopted it to act independently of any prince, and establish themselves as the supreme governing authorities with their jurisdictions, cutting out local bishops or powerful monasteries
How did MARTIN LUTHER'S attack on INDULGENCES tap into more widespread criticism of papacy? What role did the printing press and the German vernacular play in the dissemination of his ideas?
-Tapped into criticism of papacy by attacking indulgences and showing how corrupt the selling of them was, only allowed church to make money and put people's souls at risk -Printing press allowed Luther's criticism to be spread across the continent
In what ways did the WITCH CRAZE of early modern Europe reveal the religious and social tensions of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries?
-The hunt for witches resulted in part, from fears that traditional religious remediates were no longer adequate to guard against the evils of the world -Reflects that European's growing conviction that only the state had the power to protect them -In most Protestant countries, the entire process of detecting, prosecuting, and punishing suspected witches was carried out under state supervision
What factors made some of Europe's territories more receptive to PROTESTANTISM than others? What was the meaning of the principle CUIUS REGIO, EIUS RELIGION (Peace of Augsburg), established by the Peace of Augsburg?
-Took place in free towns of Germany ,Switzerland, and the Netherlands, spread westward to North America; Protestant emphasis on the depravity of the human will, and the consequent need for discipline, resonated powerfully with guilds and town governments which were anxious to maintain and increase the control exercised by urban elites (merchants and master craftsmen) over the apprentices and journeymen who made up the majority of the male population . Bu eliminating the competing jurisdictional authority of the Roman Church, Protestantism allowed town governments to consolidate all authority within the city into their own hands -"as the ruler, so the religion"; meant that, in those principalities where Lutherans ruled, Lutheranism would be the sole state religion, but where Catholic princes ruled, the people of their territories would also be Catholic -Catholic rulers were forced to acknowledge the legality of Protestantism, established the principle that no sovereign state can tolerate religious diversity; excluded Calvinism entirely and spurred german Calvinists to become aggressive opponents of the status quo
What innovations did PETER THE GREAT bring to Russia?
-Westernized Russia; imposed a series of social and cultural reforms on the traditional Russian nobility; ordering noblemen to cut off their long bears and flowing sleeves -Publishing a book of manners that forbade spitting on the floor and eating with one's fingers, encouraging polite conversation between the sexes, and requiring noblewomen to appear, tighter with men, in western garb at weddings, banquets, and the republic occasions -Children of Russian nobles were sent to western european courts for their education -Thousands of western european experts were broth to Russia to staff the new schools and academic peter built to design the new buildings he constructed and to serve in the army navy and administration
What was the French War of Religion?
As the fragile monarchies of Europe began to strengthen and congeal, they demanded more taxes from their subjects as well as religious uniformity in their realms and both of these contributed to the causes of wars The peace of Augsburg of 1555 had imposed religious conformity on an increasingly religiously diverse Europe The religious battles first broke out in France where, by 1562, Calvinists comprised 10 to 20 percent of the population of France The concentration of the Huguenots in southern France reflected regional hostilities Henry of Navarre (Protestant) was to marry the Catholic sister of the king but queen mother Catherine de Medici panicked and plotted with the Catholic Guise faction to kill all Huguenot leaders During the Saint Bartholomew's Day Massacre (August 24, 1572) two to three thousand Parisian Protestants were slaughtered (ten thousand more across France) Henry and his wife escaped and the skirmishes between the Catholics and Huguenots continued for more than two decades In 1589 Henry renounced Protestantism, converted to Catholicism and became the French king Henry IV In 1598 he issued the Edict of Nantes establishing Catholicism as the official religion while allowing the Huguenots to worship, attend universities, and serve as public officials and reinforcing the regional autonomy of southwestern France All of this religious turmoil is one reason why France joined the effort to gain Atlantic colonies relatively late in the seventeenth century
What was different about the attempts by rulers in Habsburg Austria and Brandenburg-Prussia to impose ABSOLUTISM in central Europe?
Brandenburg-Prussia: Frederick William: Theater of absolutism was not the palace but the office, where he personally supervised his army and the growing bureaucracy that sustained it BOTH: -The divided nature of the respective realms and the entrenched strength of local nobilities forced the rulers in each case to grant significant concessions to noble landowners in exchange for incremental increases in the power for he centralized state
What was the Edict of Nantes
Establishing Catholicism as the official religion while allowing the Huguenots to worship, attend universities, and serve as public officials and reinforcing the regional autonomy of southwestern France
What limits to royal power were recognized in Great Britain as a result of the GLORIOUS REVOLUTION?
Following the Invasion of England by William and Mary, James fled the country and William and Mary claimed the throne The Bill of Rights (1689) reaffirming traditional English civil liberties such as trial by jury, habeas corpus, and the right to petition Parliament was passed by Parliament and accepted by William and Mary Act of Toleration (1689) was passed as well and it granted dissenters the right to worship freely, but they could not hold political office Act of Succession (1701) ordained that every future English monarch must be a member of the Church of England These events have come to be known as the Glorious Revolution as it was largely bloodless and they established England as a mixed monarchy governed by "the King in Parliament" In reality 1688 consolidated the position of large property-holders affirming the status quo in favor of the wealthy and contributed to the misery of Catholics in Scotland and Ireland at the hands of the Protestant ascendancy The Glorious Revolution also created a climate that favored the English commercial classes and the Whigs increasingly became the political expression of the trading interests in government
What were the founding principles of IGNATIUS LOYOLA'S SOCIETY OF JESUS, and what was its role in the COUNTER-REFORMATION of the CATHOLIC CHURCH?
Founding Principles: -Foundation of the Society of Jesus, known as the Jesuits -Young Spanish noble, wounded in battle, while recuperating, he turned from the reading of chivalric romances to a romantic retelling of the life of Jesus and the impact of this experience convinced him to become a spiritual soldier of Christ -Live as a hermit in a cave where he experienced ecstatic visions and worked out the principles of his Spiritual Exercises -Society of Jesus spread the word of Christ across the continent, set up schools and colleges, without the determined efforts of this group, catholicism would not have swept over the globe during the 17th ad 18th centuries or reemerged in Europe as a vigorous spiritual force
How did HENRY IV of France and PHILIP II of Spain deal differently with the religious conflict that beset Europe during these years?
Henry IV: -Issued the Edict of Nantes, which recognized Catholicism as the official religion of the realm but enabled Protestants to practice their religion in specified places; important step toward a policy of religious tolerance, and because the religious divide and regional component, the edict also reinforced a tradition of regional autonomy in southwestern France Philip II: -Defender of Catholic faith -Dispatched an army of 10,00 Spanish soldiers to wipe out Protestantism in his Dutch territories after crowds began ransacking and desecrating Catholic Churches throughout the country -Reign of terror ensued, which further catalyzed the Protestant opposition
Compare the religious policies of LOUIS XIV of France with the religious policies of the English Stuart Kings CHARLES II and JAMES II. In what way did religious disagreements limit their ability to rule effectively?
LOUIS XIV: -Determined to impose religious unity one France, regardless of the economic and social costs -Had support for the Jesuits and their efforts to create a counter-reformation catholic church in france; -Waged unrelenting war against protestant huguenots, protestants schools and churches were destroyed; revoked the edict of nantes; 200,000 protestants fled to england, holland, germany, and america Charles II: -Affinity for catholicism by bringing bishops back to the church of England; also declared limited religious toleration for Protestant "dissenters"; comforted members of parliament by promising to observe the Manga Carta and he accepted legalization statin that England thus emerged from its civil war as a limited monarchy; with power excessed the "king in parliament" -Began to openly model his kingship on the absolutism of Louis XIV; England's powerful elite became divided between Charle's supporters, known as "tories" and opponents called "whigs"; both sides feared both absolutism and the prospect of renewed civil war -Charles known sympathy for Roman Catholicism and his claim that he had the right to ignore parliamentary legislation worked toe he advantage of his whig opponents, who won a series of parliamentary elections, Charles responded by moving aggressively against the whig leadership, executing several on charges of treason JAMES: Charle's brother; - Admiration of the French monarchy's Gallican Catholicism led him to seek ways of furthering the work of the Church by connecting it to the power of an absolutist state, -His commitment to absolutism also led him to build up the English army and navy; -For the whigs, James' policies were all that they had feared; -The tories, meanwhile, remained loyal to the church of England and were alienated by James's Catholicism -Unexpected son born and was announced that he was to be raised a catholic, delegation of whigs and tories crossed the channel to holland to invite james's much older protestant daughter Mary stuart and her protestant husband, to cross to England with a invading army to preserve english Protestantism and english liberties by summoning a new parliament
What were the origins of the THIRTY YEAR'S WAR? Was it primarily a religious conflict?
Origins: -Outlet for tensions that had been building up since the Peace of Augsburg in 1555 -Grew out of even longer-standing disputed among rulers and territories -1618, Habsburg (Catholic) prince of Austria, Ferdinand, who ruled Hungary and Poland, named heir to the throne of Protestant Bohemia; prompted a rebellion among the Bohemian aristocracy -A year later, complex dynastic politics result in Ferdinand's election as Holy Roman Emperor, gave him access to an imperial (catholic) army, which he sent in to crush the Protestant revolt; Bohemians were bolstered by the support of some Austrian elites, any of whom were also protestant and who saw in the rebellion a way to recover power from the Habsburg ruling family -Ottoman empire threw its support behind the Protestants, touched off a war with the catholic kingdom of Poland, whose borders the Muslim army would need to cross in order to get to Prague, poles won and the ottomans retreated -Ferdinand Habsburg cousin, the Spanish king and emperor Philip IV had renewed hostility with the Protestant Dutch Republic so an alliance between the two Habsburg rulers made sense -Led to a major pitched battle between united protestant forces and a Spanish-led catholic army just outside of Prague; Habsburgs were victorious, and bohemia was forced to accept Ferdinand's catholic rule
