Human Communication Final Exam

leaders of political partied to express their opinions through newspapers known to be biased towards their particular viewpoints, circulation of these newspapers was small, no reading, writing nor voting

1790s to 1830s

people can read. switch from hand-crafted to steam powered printing press

1830s

practice of mobilizing voters using the internet

e-campaigning

using the internet to mobilize like-minded individuals

e-mobilization

online petition used s a tool to garner support for a position or cause

e-petition

attaching yourself to your idea, feeling personally attacked with someone disagrees, self esteem is enhanced when others applaud our knowledge and thoughtfulness, to our irrationality

egos (causes of illogic)

illusion of invulnerability, collective rationalization, illusion of morality, excessive stereotyping, pressure for conformity, self-censorship, illusion of unanimity, mindguards

eight warning signs of groupthink

it is easier for candidates to access and campaign to voters, but it also makes it easier to enemies of the state of other countries to campaign to these voters as well, algorithms

election infiltration

cellphones contribute to a greater consumption of news and more time-sensitive information

cellphones

occurs when interested people are focused on arguments and respond with favorable thoughts (focusing on arguments, strong and compelling, hard to counter argue) and more explicit and therefore changes opinions quickly

central route

relies on audience motivation and interest in topic (when people are thinking carefully, they rely on the strength of the appeal as well as their response, deep thinking = more likely to persist and influence behavior, logos)

central route

we do not argue OVER facts, but we can argue ABOUT facts, historians might debate about the significance of a historical event, or minute details about an event, but not that the event didn't happen, scientists might argue over how to classify a fossil or whether that fossil indicates an animal has feathers, but not that the animal didn't exist, claims of fact can be about future events claim: the United States will win the most gold medals at the 2016 Olympics. claim: I will get and A on tomorrow's psychology test.

claims of fact

assertions about what should or should not happen, how best to solve problems, often closely tied to judgements of morality or political philosophy, claims need to be feasible, based on thoughtful consideration of the real world and complexities of public policy claim: college newspapers should not be controlled in any way by college authorities claim: states should not have laws allowing people to carry concealed weapons claim: The United States must provide more aid to African countries where 25% or more of the citizens have tested positive for HIV.

claims of policy

moral, ethical and aesthetic judgements (i.e. good or bad, better or worse, right or wrong), demand relevant evidence, careful reasoning and awareness of the assumptions one is making, support for claims of value often include other values statements (i.e. abortion is wrong because life is good) claim: Roger Federer is a better tennis player than Andy Roddick. claim: Adventures of Huckleberry Finn is one of the most significant Am. novels. claim: Cheating hurts others and the cheater too. claim: Abortion is wrong.

claims of value

based on the ability to punish (i.e. writing a team member up for doing something wrong, judge is unable to fine or imprison you, punishment has to be sufficient, if the worst a dean would do were to send an email to your parents, you would feel less obligated to not cheat)

coercive power

"explaining away" ideas contrary to groups position

collective rationalization

place greater emphasis reaching a group consensus

collectivistic cultures

more lifelike the medium, the more persuasive its message (i.e. live (face to face), videotaped, audiotaped, written), written messages are less persuasive but more comprehended and recalled describes

comparing media

British philosopher, adds onto Aristotle, focus attention on basis of argument itself

Stephen Toulmin

opens communications market to telephone companies allowing competition, companies begin to offer suites; bundling telephone, cable and internet, increases control over media, raises concerns over whether this type of control will deter balanced reporting (i.e If a package with Fox News is cheaper than one with CNN, new media (i.e. facebook - a sole source of news for a lot of people), issues of responsibility

Telecommunications Act of 1996

______ enhance persuasion. They make faster, more impulsive decisions and rely more on peripheral cues. Unhappy people think before reacting and are going to be less swayed by weak arguments.

The effect of good feelings

True or False. Impact of a noncredible source may increase over time if people remember the message more

True

we want an answer - any answer to questions that concern us, having answers makes people feel in control, can lead to oversimplifying issues

a need for answers (causes of illogic)

written and visual appeals are both passive and relatively ineffective, more repetition can make things more believable (i.e. President Obama's Birth Certificate, Climate change Denial), retractions are ineffective, people remember original story not retraction, counteract a falsehood by providing an alternate story and repeating it several times describe what?

active experience or passive reception

personal experience more confident, more stable and less vulnerable to attack

active experiences

"after this, therefore because of it", refers to common error in arguments about cause, combat by opining out other plausible causes, "we should fire the principle of the school, since his appointing there have been more fights during lunch time."

ad hoc fallacy

appeals to emotion masquerading as arguments, means "to the man", "those crazy liberals at the ACLU want all criminals to go free", challenge with silence, don't acknowledge their emotional outburst or calmly assert those statements do not contribute to a meaningful debate

ad hominem

means "to the people", ignoring the issue to appeal to audiences presumed shared values and beliefs, politicians appealing to God, mother, apple pie and 'MERICA on the fourth of July, reject as illogical, does not contribute to a thoughtful debate

ad populum

guidelines for judging art, literature, music, or natural scenes (i.e. this sunrise was beautiful. the great Gatsby's structure, characters, and symbols are perfectly wedded to create the novel's vision of the American dream.

aesthetic judgements

encourage group members to piggyback on one another's ideas

allow piggybacking

arguments based on comparison, if A and B are alike in one way, they may be alike in another way as well, clever and imaginative analogies are often moving but is not as logical as an induction or a deduction, points of comparison must be fundamental to the two items being compared to be convincing grounds: A has characteristics 1, 2, 3, and 4. B has characteristics 1, 2, and 3. claim: B has characteristic 4 ( as well.) assumption (warrant): If B has three characteristics in common with A, it must have the key fourth characteristic as well.

analogies

if we are developing an argument that cats should have leash laws, we might use them in an analogy with dogs (i.e cats are pets, just like dogs, cats live in residential communities, just like dogs, cats can mess up other people's yards, just like dogs, cats, if allowed to run free, can disturb the peace (fighting, making noise at night), just like dogs. Analogy has legitimate similarities but cats and dogs differ fundamentally in terms of their personalities. Dogs can be leashed trained while most cats cannot. The issues are no the similarities help support the conclusion that cats need a leash law. Best way to combat an analogy is the point out fundamental differences in the items being compared.

analogies

College newspapers should not be under the supervision or control of a faculty sponsor. Fortunately, no governmental sponsor controls The New York Times, or we would no longer have a free press in this country. We need a free college press, too, one that can criticize college policies when they are wrong.

analyzing analogies

consists of evidence and/or reasons presented in support of an assertion or claim that is either stated or implies - claim and grounds (support for our claim) - suggests that parts of an argument are more complex claim: we should not go skiing today grounds: because it is too cold. grounds: because some laws are unjust. claim: civil disobediences is sometimes justified. grounds: it's only fair and right for academic institutions to claim: accept students only on academic merit.

argument

claims are declarative statements (i.e. the sky is blue), claims can be objective or subjective, making a statement, claims are debatable assertations, support for our claims are in facts, opinions based on facts

Claims

FCC Founded in 1934 by Congress to regulate international and interstate communications by media, most rules control ownership, corporate monopolies on media, some pertain to content

FCC

monitors actions of Americans on U.S. soil, phone communications, email traffic and internet communications (i.e. cookies, cell phone tracking, emails and online chats, multiplayer video games, social med, etc.)

NSA

calls for group members to generate their initial ideas silently and independently, which can be comfortable for those in the group who are shy, encourages group members to combine their ideas and consider them as a group, encourages participation from members who might be uncomfortable contributing their ideas aloud (i.e. identifying the question, generate ideas silently and a facilitator asks the member to read his or her ideas around, facilitator can also compile on his or her own, so no one knows who came up with each idea, when list is done, the group considers the merits of each idea, discards some, combines others, goal is to select the best one)

Nominal Group Technique (NGT)

"United States Government confirms it has proof of Alien Existence" (i.e The New York Times, The Daily Mail, My Neighbor Dan, Some guy on the train) is an example of what?

Same headline, different source

ex. this marble from the bag is black. that marble from the bag is black. a third marble from the bag is black. therefore all the marbles in the bag are black.

induction

process by which we reach inferences, moves from particular to general, from support to assertion, from grounds to claim, presented facts, then given a claim evidence: there is the dead body of smith. smith was shot in his bedroom between the course of 11 pm and 2 am, according to the coroner. smith was shot by a 32 caliber pistol. the pistol left in the bedroom contains Jone's fingerprints. Jone was seen, by a neighbor, entering the Smith home at around 11 the night of smiths death. a coworker heard smith and jones arguing in smiths office the morning the day smith died. claim: jones killed smith.

induction

opinions based on facts, conclusions we draw from analysis of facts (i.e. fact - apples are red, inference - this purple fruit you gave me is not an apple), inferences vary in their closeness to the facts supporting them (i.e. "the sun will rise tomorrow" is an inference. But it is not a fact, we could on it happening as if it is a fact based on a history of sun behavior), inferences can function off assumptions

inferences

don't say anything (i.e. yummy vs healthy) is example of?

influence of adults on children

constant availability of news information to the point of excess, information overload contributes to media consumers ignoring, dismissing or failing to see the significance of certain events, in an attempt to keep viewers attention, more and more entertainment is injected into news

information overload

ability to control access to information (i.e. socialists and communists governments exercise informational power by controlling all forms of media, dependent on their government for information, greatest when the information is valuable and cannot be obtained elsewhere)

informational power

hybrid of information and entertainment. describes shows that combine information and entertainment (i.e. Saturday night lives "weekend update", the daily show, etc.), we can see infotainment in politics where a celebrity brand attracts attention

infotainment

antismoking, anti-drug campaigns, "chicken" for not smoking, counter arguing "I'd be a real chicken if I smoked to impress you," 8th graders who learned to counter argue were half as likely to begin smoking are examples of?

inoculating children against peer pressure to smoke

immunizing children against the effects of television commercials (i.e have trouble distinguishing commercials from programs and trust television advertisement), developing media resistance skills, policing areas where advertisements are available

inoculating children against the influence of advertising

deductive arguments (syllogisms) that are missing a premise, missing premises do not make arguments incorrect or invalid, its common to use enthymemes. implied premise., critical thinking helps combat enthymemes by listening to what someone says. without it you can be manipulated into agreeing with something you don't support. major premise: (all) dogs make good pets conclusion: fido will make a good pet missing premise (minor premise): fido is a dog

enthymemes

overstatement, hasty or faulty generalization, error in the inductive pattern of an argument, inferences in generalizations are unwarranted because they are too broad or because they are draw from incomplete - or incorrect - evidence

errors in generalizing (fallacies that result from oversimplifying)

guidelines for group or social behavior (i.e. lawyers should not advertise. it is discourteous to talk during a film or lecture)

ethical judgements

1. English will remain a required course 2. No additional classrooms are available for English classes

example of assumptions

there will not be enough desks in Room 110 for upcoming fall-semester classes

example of claim

there are 26 desks in Room 110

example of fact

there will be more first year students next year

example of inference

constructing negative stereotype of anyone who disagrees with them

excessive stereotyping

recommendations come from individuals who have expertise in a particular are, works on the principle that certain people have better judgement or more informed opinions on specific topics that enable them to make better decisions than nonexperts (i.e. if our team has an individual with a masters degree in marketing, we would ask them advice on which slogan to adopt), persuasion lies in being likable, "expert" can mean different things, you can be perceived to be an expert without actually being an expert and therefore your opinion will hold more weight

expert opinion

stems from having expertise in a particular area (i.e. musicians following instructions of conductor in an orchestra, we perceive it as in our best interest to comply with the direction of experts)

expert power

statements that are verifiable, refer to what can be counters or measured, confirmed by reasonable observers or trusted experts, facts can change but we do not argue about facts, point out the credibility of said fact, but arguing about said fact doesn't advance discussion

facts

required stations holding broadcast licensed to present controversial issues of public importance in a manner that was honest, fair and balanced

fairness doctrine

content posted to the internet is entirely unmonitored, misinformation can be compounded when trusted source the official POTUS twitter is spreading inaccurate information whether it is intentional or unintentional, none of these statements are factual

fakes news and the issue of accuracy

comparing two things without thinking of key factors in their differences (i.e. cats vs dog and leashing laws)

false analogy

an outcome where some members of a group say they support the unanimous decision even though they do not, usually discovered after the fact when group mates begin to express concerns about the decision, likelihood of a ____ is diminished if group members feel safe in expressing their opinions

false consensus

oversimplifies by asserting there are only two alternative when there are more than 2, either-or thinking can be effective if undetected, give only two choices and one is clearly unacceptable, pushing audience toward the preferred choice, the government has to cut medicaid or we will never pull out of the recession

false dilemma

statements that sound like facts but are incorrect

false facts

FDR's radio addresses to the country as president

fireside chats

tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request

foot-in-the-door phenomenon

error in inductive reasoning, your explanation is illogical because either sufficient evidence does not exist to draw a conclusion or the evidence can be explained more simply with a different hypothesis, often exists from not considering other explanations, discredit this by providing alternate conclusions from the same evidence, "Professor Reddings students received either an A or a B last semester. He must be an excellent teacher. Grades alone cannot support this conclusion. He could be an excellent teacher OR he could have excellent students that semester, OR he could be an easy grader OR the assignments could have been graded by completion

forced hypothesis (fallacies that result from oversimplifying)

anticipate the arguments your opponent might have and develop points to counter them, audience will be less likely to be persuaded by them

forewarned is forearmed

setting a context that helps people understand important events and matters of shared interest (i.e. we might frame a conversation about gun control around the idea of school shootings)

framing

guidelines for judging how something or someone works or could work (ie. tiger woods is the best golfer to play the game. antismoking advertising will reduce the number of smokers.)

functional judgements

attitudes do not change, older people largely hold onto attitudes adopted when they were young (i.e. young adults more susceptible to joining cults, political attitudes form at 18, choose social influences, groups joined and media carefully)

generational explanation

term to describe political efforts that start at a local level

grassroots

reasons and evidence provided in support of a claim, data and evidence can be used, but grounds is a general term because it includes reason and logic, grounds can be determined by asking, "why do you think that?" or "how do you know that?", use the "because clause" claim: smoking should be banned in restaurants because ground: secondhand smoke is a serious health hazard claim: Federer is a better tennis player than Roddick because grounds: 1. he was ranked number one longer, 2. he won more tournaments than Roddick, and 3. he won more major tournaments than Roddick.

grounds (data or evidence)

a situation in which group members seek unanimous agreement despite their individual doubts

groupthink

authorized or unauthorized use of destruction of electronic files in pursuit of a political or social goal Anonymous-DDOS attacks - overload servers 2015 - French members of anonymous announced hacking ISIS Also cripples the mail servers of Monsanto - biotech giant that supplied Agent Orange to US and produces genetically modified seeds

hacktivism

argue from insufficient evidence or ignores relevant evidence - "political life must lead to excessive drinking" - five members of congress either confessed to alcoholism or have been arrested on DUI charges and have made it to the papers - five is not a large enough sample number to generalize every politician - making it to the papers does not make them a representative sample - "florida is the craziest state"

hasty or faulty generalizations (fallacies that result from oversimplifying)

western cultures associate height with domininance (i.e. 29/44 U.S. Presidents have been taller than average. Since 1990, the taller candidate has won the popular vote 66% of the time)

height

authority rule or expert opinion

high-power distance cultures

more social media advertising, more funds specifically aimed at manipulating social media environments in favor of a particular candidate, smartwatches and smaller, perhaps even implantable, devices will transform social and political lives even more, black mirror, imagine a candidate running for president and immediately knowing everything about their life via a social media profile

how technology will continue to transform the political landscape

an idea generating process in which members independently list their own ideas an the systematically evaluate one another's ideas before they are considered by the group, helps each idea receive proper consideration, least collaborative method because members work individually as opposed to in a group, privacy can help shield group members from the feelings of resentment or defensiveness that might arise in the public process

ideawriting

lack of knowledge on the subject, the younger you are the less you know about complex issues, doesn't excuse not knowing about a complex or technical issue if you choose to debate it as a topic, select topics you are knowledgeable about or are willing to research before writing

ignorance (causes of illogic)

being over confident in their position and ignoring obvious problems

illusion of invulnerability

believing decisions made are morally correct and ignoring arguments to the contrary

illusion of morality

falsely perceiving that everyone agrees because no one is offering counter arguments

illusion of unanimity

best way to build resisting to brainwashing is not stronger indoctrination into one's current beliefs, but learning how to counter persuasive appeals

implications of attitude inoculation

relatively unimportant decisions may be best made by authority or minority rule because they are efficient, more important decisions - unanimous consensus, majority rule or expert opinions because these methods often entail a closer, more critical consideration of options

importance of the decision itself

individualistic cultures are taught that primary responsibilities to themselves and are more likely to encourage members to voice opinions on decisions, even if opinions differ (i.e "worry about yourself," competition, self-reliance and individual achievement are valued), collectivistic cultures believe their primary responsibility is to their families, communities and employers (i.e value harmony, collaboration and solidarity rather than competition and individual achievement)

individualism

identifying the question, each member of the group creates a list of three to four ideas including the reasons each ideas has merit then list goes into a pie, each member chooses a list from the pile that is not theirs, working along alone members read all the ideas and reasons on the list they select and add their own comments about strengths and weaknesses of each idea then return that list to the pile and select another one, members retrieve their original idea, and responds in writing to the feedback/criticism, members come together and create a master list of ideas they think are worthy of addition

methods of idea writing

use datelining techniques to track individual voter preferences, this allows creating a list of potential supporters based on online profiles (i.e. want facebook asks you if you like Rock, they are improving your profile but also improving their algorithm, they are also selling that data for music companies looking to advertise Rock concerts)

microtarget

actively preventing the group from hearing arguments or evidence against the group position

mindguards

a small number of members make the decision on behalf of the group (i.e. marketing team, micromanagement, saves team's time for discussing more important decisions, excludes the input of most members of the group and rarely good option for making decisions that are controversial or consequential)

minority rule

care about time efficiency (majority rule or authority rule)

monochronic

guideline of right and wrong for judging individuals and for establishing legal principles (i.e. taking another person's life is wrong. equal rights under the law should not be desired on the basis of race or gender.)

moral judgements

circulates e-petitions, endorses candidates and uses traditional advertising to sway public opinion

moveon.org

criticism and expose's of corruption in government and industry by journalists (i.e. Upton Sinclair exposing meat-processing industry in 1906 novel the jungle, leading to passed of the pure food and drug act, later establishing the FDA)

muckraking

practice of aiming political content at specific segment of the public (political ideology, party affiliation, economic interest)

narrowcasting

raises the comfort level of people who demand choice and have interest in niche markets

narrowcasting

the idea that internet traffic should be available without interference or discrimination by those who own or run the pipeline, should broadbands be able to control information and favor certain clines?, xfinititys app to compete with Netflix. should they be allowed to intentionally block or slow don Netflix for their subscribers?

net neutrality

term to describe net-centered political efforts

netroots

blogs establish readers and form a community of regular contributors, commenters, and readers

new forms of community

internet related media, digital/technological media (i.e. websites, social media, blogs, websites, video sharing sharing platforms, apps)

new media

services that compile news from various outlets in one location, allows selecting and searching for specific information

news aggregators

with one click you can influence how someone thinks about a political leader, sending an email about your opponent as a newsletter

news campaign strategies and modes of political participation

literally means "it does not follow", reserved for arguments in which the conclusions are not logically connected to the reasons, no recognizable connection because whatever connection that is seen is not made clear to others or evidence or reasons offered are irrelevant to the conclusion, "Donna will surely get a good grade in physics; she earned an A in her biology class." doing well in one course, even a science course, isn't an indicator for a completely separate course

non sequitur (fallacies that result from oversimplifying)

if your audience will be exposed to opposing views, offer a two-sided appeal. They make you seem more honest. (i.e. recycling can be inconvenient, but it is important) is an example of what?

one-sided vs two-sided appeals

leaders are more likely to be outgoing and expressive rather than shy and withdrawn, extroverted vs introverted

outgoingness

occurs when an arguments assertion (or claim) is unqualified and thus refers to all member of a category, all members of a category, results from stereotyping and giving same traits to everyone in a group, signaled by words such as "all, every, always, never and none", doesn't need to include these words as statements that do not qualify are assumed to be absolute (i.e. truck drivers speed)

overstatement (fallacies that result from oversimplifying)

newspapers sold for a penny

penny press

someone whose conclusions support their own preexisting values and views, being seen as knowledgeable on the topic

perceived expertise

more willing to listen to a communicator we trust (i.e more willing to listen to a communicator we trust, amazon reviews seem more trustworthy of they are negative or critical, more willing to believe when we believe the communicator is not trying to persuade us, part of persuasion is informing, humor is effective in breaking distrust)

perceived trustworthiness

occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues such as speaker's attractiveness (familiar statements more persuasive than novel statements like "don't put all your eggs in one basket") and more implicit and changes attitudes through repeated association

peripheral route

relies on snap judgements when audience isn't invested in a topic (i.e. "trust the experts," credibility, authenticity, emotional appeals more affective across a variety of mediums)

peripheral route

major influence on us is not media but contact with other people, word-of-mouth, Harry Potter was not expected to be a best seller but kids talking to other kids made it so, social media influencers describes

personal vs media influence

masculine looking leaders are judged more confident than leaders with feminine-looking faces (wide, square jaw and small eyes = halo effect)

physical appearance

halo effect and social media influencers are examples of?

physical attractiveness

time is fluid (unanimous consensus)

polychronic

leaders only have power in relation to other people (i.e. no one person has absolute power, all of us exercise some form of power over other, your manager may have power over you, but not your neighbors or family, "you're not the boss of me!")

power is relative

the spread of false beliefs, attitudes around equality, climate change skepticism, promotion healthier living

power of persuasion

powerful people only have power their followers recognize in them (i.e. a charismatic cult leader may have referential power over their followers, but not to those who do not share their followers desire to please or gain approval, recognizing power does not equal giving consent to be governed, we don't always enjoy having others tell us what to do, even though we may still recognize their right to do so, a police officer stopping you, you recognize the power but don't want to be subject to it)

power requires recognition

prejudices and biases we carry around form family, community and upbringing are sources of irrationality, political views on ethnic, religious or sexist stereotypes that are adopted without critical analyses, if it's printed, it must be true, democrats are bleeding hearts and Republicans are rich snobs, seeing the world through a distorted lens makes it harder to assess facts and reason logically

prejudices (causes of illogic)

feeling pressure to conform to the group's decision and being branded as disloyal if you don't

pressure for conformity

information presented early is most persuasive, first impression are important, earlier information colors interpretation of later information (i.e. John is intelligent, studious and stubborn. Vs John is stubborn, intelligent and studious)

primacy effect

using coverage to bring particular policies on issues to the public agenda (i.e. we might prime a conversation about legalizing marijuana by discussing it and making it a topic of public agenda, 60 minutes exposes)

priming

targeted advertising based on whom users follow or who follows a user on twitter

promoted tweets

characteristics of one's personality and ways of relating to other, enduring and not easily changed

psychosocial traits

public issues that most demand the attention of government officials

public agenda

some arguments can be stated without qualifications (i.e. younger vs older brother), these are absolute arguments, unqualified statements are understood by audience to be absolute, even if they are not intended to be, most need some qualification or precise limitations, probably, possible, sometimes, most, some people, etc., use qualified to avoid sweeping generalizations (i.e. "Gun control is wrong because it restricts individual rights", all form of gun control?) qualified: adults without a criminal record should not be restricted in the claim: purchase of guns * amount of guns process for purchasing

qualifiers

anticipating a way your opponent will challenge argument, counter arguing, prepare an argument and prepare the defense of your argument, ignoring role of rebuttals will reduce efficacy of your claim

rebuttals

information presented last sometimes has the most influence, less common primacy

recency effect

people feel obliged to repay in kind what they've received (be generous with your time and resources)

reciprocity

introducing a side issue that is not relevant to the debate, "the senator is an honest women, she loves her children and gives to charities", does donating to charity and loving your children make you honest? does it demonstrate honesty?

red herring

derives from attraction to the leader (i.e. we tend to comply with requests made by people we like, admire or find attractive, you would work harder for a leader you like vs one you dislike, persuasion to buy products endorsed by celebrities we find attractive)

referent power

targeting political ads based on cookies a user dropped on other websites (i.e. if you visit Ted Cruz's website and then read Houston Chronicle Online, you might see an ad for Ted Cruz on Houston Chronicle online, you're more likely to contribute or support causes you have an interest in based on your online behavior)

remarketing

based on leaders ability to reward another for doing what the leader says (i.e. getting paid and promoting you. if a leader loses access to this reward mechanism, they also loses power over team members)

reward power

people prize what is scarce (highlight genuinely exclusive information or opportunities)

scarcity

not speaking up when having a dissenting view

self-censorship

a person's subjective evaluation of his or her value and worth. ___ gives us confidence in ourselves and people tend to be better leaders high self esteem than low, improves how we view ourselves, not how others view us

self-esteem

our awareness of our own behavior and its effects on others, high self-monitors are able to perceive the needs of others in a group and adapt to those needs, related to strong leader emergence in groups

self-monitoring

women perceived less favorable as potential leaders than men, read gestures, facial expressions more negatively

sex

more likely to believe people who act and think like us

similarity

delayed impact of a message that occurs when an initially discounted message becomes effective (i.e. remembering the message but not the source/reason we discounted it in the first place)

sleeper effect

asserts we should not process with or permit A because if we do, the terrible consequences of X, Y, and Z will occur, it assumes without evidence and usually ignores historic examples, existing laws or any logic, rests on the believe that people will not want Z to occur, not a stance on Z, but does not provide a sufficient reason for avoiding A EX: Gun control debate - if we make people register guns then the government will know what to take away and it will create a police state or a world in which only the bad guys have guns. Gay marriage - if we allow people of the same sex to marry, then we will allow marrying animals, or objects Discredit slippery slope by offering reasons it won't happen, the u.s. has checks and balances that prevent a police state, citizens have registered cars, boats and planes for years without threat

slippery slope (fallacies that result from oversimplifying)

enables users to construct a profile, specify connections and view others' connections, we spend so much time on the internet because we can, enormous implications for politics and how political discussion or even campaigns are shaped by online interaction, at some point we will have a president that had a youtube channel when they were 15

social networking sites

people allow the example of others to validate how to think, feel and act (use "peer power" and have respected others lead the way)

social proof

_____ _____ diminishes as the source is dissociated from the message

source credibility

speaking confidently and fluently, energetic, charismatic (i.e. used car salesman)

speaking style

an outcome where members' opinions are so sharply divided that consensus is impossible to achieve

stalemate

attributes to opponents incorrect and usually ridiculous views that they do not hold so that their position can be easily attacked, challenged this by demonstrating not holding those views or demanding evidence they do, "those who favor gun control just want to take all the guns away from responsible citizens and put them in the hands of criminals" (inaccurate position of their argument and perhaps the opposite of what gun control proponents want)

straw men

format featuring conversations and interviews about topics of interest, along with call-ins from listener, AM station owners switch to an all-talk format, music programming migrated to FM ban

talk radio

younger audiences are more interested in political news, even if they lack the depth of knowledge about the subject (i.e. via Youtube, Instagram, Facebook, News websites, blogs, etc.)

technology increases the mount of political information available

looking good on TV

telegenic

monopolies in technologgy, companies have a responsibility (i.e. amazon, facebook, google), greater reliance on technology, harder to say no and/or function without it, bargaining power

the dominance of tech

The more frightened and vulnerable people fear, the more they respond (i.e. medical images on cigarette boxes), message leads people not only to fear but also a perceived solution

the effect of arousing fear

balancing the right of free speech with someone's reputation or value of life, parts of Europe Hate speech on the internet is carefully regulated, a large number of hate sites register domains in the U.S.

the internet and free speech

What is the goal in persuasion?

to change a behavior (i.e. buy a product, studying more effectively, change in attitude)

defining characteristics of a person that are often relatively enduring and not easily changeable

traits

people we trust get their ideas from somewhere; from media to opinion leaders to everyone

two-step-flow of communication

uncontested support for a decision - sometimes the only option in a group's decision-making process (i.e. jury hearing for a criminal case), everyone has to agree on the slogan

unanimous consensus

stimulating thinking makes strong messages more persuasive and weak messages less persuasive

uninvolved audiences use peripheral cues

don't allow one or two group members to run the show, everyone should have a chance to get their ideas added to the list

urge everyone to contribute

online networks of friends, fans and groups where individuals perform as leaders, social media sources increase civic engagement and participation in the real world, online groups many of the same positive civic functions as offline or RL groups, helps spur activism, encourage conversation and debate, facilitated the formation of many communities by enabling people in disparate places to communicate, LGBT movement for Gay Rights, Virtual communities for Disabilities

virtual communities

video vlogs, furnishes an unprecedented amount and variety of on-demand data concerning candidate and elections, standard practice for candidates to have their own Youtube Channel, 80% of Youtube views come from outside of the United States

vlogs

principles or assumptions that allow us to assert our reason (or ground) support our claim, ability to analyze the arguments of others, some arguments are stronger than others because of language and logic claim: we should not go skiing today. ground: it is too cold. warrants: when it is too cold, skiing is not fun; the activity is not sufficient to keep one from becoming uncomfortable AND too cold is what is too cold for me.

warrants

why should we believe you grounds support your claim? why is your evidence actually evidence? sometimes it resides in language itself (i.e. if I am younger than my brother, my brother must be older than I am) claim: Federer is a better tennis player than Roddick because ground: 1. he was ranked number one longer, 2. he won more tournaments than Roddick, and 3. he won more major tournaments than Roddick. Warrant: it is appropriate to judge and rank tennis players on these kinds of statists. that is, the better player is one who has held the number-one ranking for the longest time, has won the most tournaments, and also has won the most major tournaments

warrants

irresponsible, sensationalist approach to news reporting

yellow journalism

newspapers heavily competing with one another for greater shares of readership, publishers found that stories about, gore, violence and corruption sold more papers faster than reports about school budgets and daily life

yellow journalism and muckraking

information has always flowed from the media, but in a one-way tradition, newspapers, radio news, television programming the internet has increased this communication in a way no other medium has (i.e. blogs, forums/discussion boards, comments on a news article, comment section on social media), video sharing sites have allowed for smaller news organizations and individual news oriented people to communicate their views and set their own agenda

media provides a forum for conversations about politics

braking down of media in general accordance to specific target audiences (Fox News vs CNN, BET, Telemundo, HGTV, Lifestyle, logo, MTV, Food Network, etc.), segmentation allows advertisers to hone their advertising to targeted markets, segmentation can be blamed for decline of television networks, more and more Americans relying on digital news sources and digital news sources and digital sources of entertainment

media segmentation

limits the exposure of many people to new ideas

media segmentation

for children, infotainment is key, children use television for both entertainment and socialization, Sesame Street, mr. rogers neighborhood, bill nye the science guy, spongebob episode where Patrick runs for president, the voice, survivor, real world, road rules, these shows may not directly spur political behavior, but they reinforce and legitimize democratic values, and support the value of participating in civic societies

media socializes children to political culture

depends on the audience, well educated audiences are more responsive to rational appeals, audiences that have time to think through an issue use the central route where uninterested audiences travel the peripheral route, when audience attitudes are formed peripherally, they are more persuaded by later peripheral, emotional appeals (i.e people who distrust vaccines and developed based on emotions will also need to be persuaded by emotions)

message content (reason vs emotion)

invention of television put a damper on the idea of radio, 1970s and 1980s radio renaissance

...

Does the situation require expert knowledge?

If so, expert opinion is often best method of making a decision. Authority rule can also be effective if the leader has authority because their expertise (i.e. fire commander, teacher, doctor, etc.)

is a conversation with a goal, be aware of the ways that the issue has been debated by others and seek to advance the conversation (i.e now we have a movie time set, moving onto say who is driving and not just rehashing the movie time), takes a stand on an arguable issue, do not argue facts, do not argue about personal preferences as they are personal (i.e. a debate about the safety of football with a declaration that you prefer tennis is not advancing the conversation), uses reasons and evidence (i.e. we need more than an array of facts to shape or form a conclusion, critically thinking, analyzing the issue and weighing evidence is important, avoid temptation to argue from emotion, avoid thinking that stating an opinion is the same thing as building an argument), incorporates values (i.e. arguments can also be based on beliefs and values considered relevant to argument, saying boxing is violent vs "we should not want to live in a society " in which deliberate brutality is legally authorized and publicly applauded", saying boxing is exciting vs "boxing is a sport because the world has not yet become a place in which the qualities that go into excellence in boxing [endurance, agility, courage] have no value"

argument

false reasoning results from oversimplifying the issue, sound arguments begin with an understanding that most issues are terribly complicated, approaching ethical concerns with an understanding there are many philosophical, moral and political issues that complicate discussions is a far better argument, leads us to the understanding there might be more than one "right" position, respect the view of others, seeking common ground and often choosing compromise

argument (recognize the topic's complexity)

the glue that connects the support to the claim

arguments have a third part

exposing people to weak attacks upon their attitudes so that when stronger attacks come, they will have refutation available

attitude inoculation

we are more likely to respond to those we like, Girl Scout cookies and middle aged men, candy and kids in baseball uniforms, having a short conversation with someone, pre-established positive interaction are examples of what?

attractiveness and liking

people were to credible experts (establish your expertise)

authority

the leader of the group makes the decisions (i.e in a class or workshop, the teacher makes the decision about group and class activities and others adapt to the decision, best when someone in the group has legitimate authority and responsibility over other members, beneficial in instances where time a of great importance (i.e. firefighters, commanders, control towers, etc.), problematic when in groups that have no legitimate authority figure if someone in your group said to choose the second slogan, the group would resent their attempt to exercise authority over the team)

authority rule

How quickly the decision must be made

authority rule is fastest, unanimous consensus is most time-intensive

leaders have both authority and responsibility to take action on a group's behalf (i.e. leader setting the schedule, leader taking charge of meetings. making decisions without asking others what they want. delegating tasks instead of soliciting volunteers, leaders consider themselves to be the most important member of the group)

autocratic style

answers the question "how do we know that your evidence is good evidence?", credibility of our sources, explaining in detail methodology of experiments (i.e. DNA testing in a murder trial. defense wants jury to question quality of evidence, Prosecution might use backing to illustrate how valid the DNA testing is.) Ask: is my audience likely to share my values, religious beliefs or scientific approach? (i.e. vaccines and backing up the process might not work to a group of anti-vaccinators. likewise, topics on abortion to a religious group might use more religious backing)

backing

aka common practice, "everyone is doing it", defending an action on ethical ground because everyone else does it (i.e. there is nothing wrong with fudging a bit on your income taxes. the super rich don't pay any taxes. the government expect everyone to cheat a little

bandwagon

amount of data that can travel through a transmission medium in a given period of time, as bandwidth increases, so does the sophistication of web content

bandwidth

assuming part of your argument is true without supporting it, passing off your argument as proof statements using phrases like: "the fact is," "obviously" and "as we can see", "clearly, lowering grading standards would be bad for students, so a pass/fail system should not be adopted" (do we know for sure if a pass/fail system lower standards?)

begging the question

large data sets collected from numerous sources, candidates rely on this information while constructing a campaign

big data

community of bloggers, as the number of blogs have multiplied, so has their variety and credibility, crossover between blogs and traditional media outlets

biogosphere

blogs are important in political conversation, but typically subjective, authors less likely to adhere to journalistic standards, citizen journalism shaping the agenda of traditional media establishment

blogs

allows group members to freely offer any ideas they wish and create a list of all the proposed ideas before any are evaluated (i.e when people feel free to think in unorthodox ways without fear of being ridiculed, they may generate better and more creative ideas, identifying the question, group members are encouraged to pos ideas, no matter how outlandish they might seem, when all new ideas are given, the group considers the merits of each idea, discards some, combines others, goal is to select the best one or more)

brainstorming

people tend to honor their public commitments ("will you call if you change your plans?")

consistency

phenomenon of large corporations buying smaller ones. leaves fewer and fewer companies' products available As our expectations of media and news has increased, so have the sources of our information, newspaper routes, social media, corporations likely to be universal providers of digital content (i.e. apple wants more control over user experience, owns Siri, voice recognition platform, facebook owns what's app and instagram, google owns Youtube, consolidation centralizes control of media to few large companies

consolidation

when comparing arguments you should be able to defend the truth of your premise, readers or listeners will have no alternative but to agree with your conclusion in this case, if you disagree with an argument you have to show why it is not true, counterarguments will seek to discredit one or more of your premises major premise: (all) dogs make good pets minor premise: fido is a dog conclusion: fido will make a good pet We can discredit this argument by showing examples of dogs that have not made good pets

counter arguing deductive arguments

reasons why a persuasive message might be wrong (i.e the fake news there is no consensus on global warming), (helping audiences ___ fake news by being warned that politically motivated groups uses misleading tactics for that claim. more likely to not be persuaded by fake news.)

counterarguments

encourage all ideas, ideas may have merit even if they sound unworkable or crazy

creative

occurs when an electronic document "goes viral" or becomes widely distrusted digitally, we can use sights like snopes.com or politifact.com to find the accuracy of an email, statement or thought published online

cyber cascade

doing intentional damage to technological of financial structures, hackers stole $81 million from Bangladesh's central bank, attempted attacks on banks in Costa Rica, Ethiopia, Indonesia, Iraq, Poland, Taiwan, and more

cyber threats

our deductive argument (our conclusion from the process of deduction) is only valid if our two premises are correctly and logically constructed, this does not mean the conclusion is true, or a fact, but that the conclusion of logical and easy to accept, our deduction can also be negative and qualified assertions, when we make deductions we have to make sure our conclusion follows from our premises premise: no cowards can be great leaders premise: Falstaff was a coward conclusion: Falstaff was not a great leader

deduction

reasoning process that draws a conclusion from the logical relationship of two assertions, deductive arguments are also called syllogisms, usually one broad judgement and on specific assertion, these two assertions are called premises, major premise and a minor premise, expressed to make it clear inferences are being made major premise: all people who perform with courage and a clear purpose in a crisis are great leaders minor premise: Lincoln was a person who performed with courage and a clear purpose in a crisis conclusion: Lincoln was a great leader

deduction

i.e if taking a person's life is wrong, why is not wrong in war? or is it?

defining criteria but also values and beliefs

every member of a group has the right to participate in decision making (i.e. listening to everyone, counting everyone's opinions and votes as equal, leader is seen as merely a facilitator)

democratic style

unequal access to computer technology, historically largest source of divide is income, less likely to have access to technology, less likely to have internet or constant internet access, age, other demographics play a role (i.e. region, edu., race, income, etc.), some people solely access the internet from their phone, they don't have computers, some people have disabilities that prevent them from using technology in the same way, effects how political participation occurs, how governments govern and how information is communicated

digital divide

practice of limiting access to a website unless users pay a fee or purchase a subscription

digital paywall

find an exception to disprove the assertion (i.e. truck drivers speed), a truck driver who never speeds, never received a ticket, etc., "all children love clowns" find a child who hates clowns.

discrediting overstatements

distraction disarms counterarguing

distracted participants are less likely to counterargue

after someone first turns down a large request, counteroffer with a more reasonable request (i.e will you be a 2 year volunteer? or take underprivileged children to the zoo one day?)

door-in-the-face technique

bias has emerged as a result of corporate structures that dominate the news industry, the desire to attract, keep and please an audience provides skewed programming, profits influence media to cover stories viewers and readers want, "if it bleeds, it leads", first 15 minutes of broadcast reserved for fires, political, sports and sex scandals. celebrity heavy news.

issue of corporate bias

practice of gathering and reporting events - flourished as circulation increased and news needed to be found, advent of advertising in newspapers boosts profits

journalism

opinions based on values, beliefs or philosophical concepts, concern right or wrong, good or bad, better or worse, placing qualifiers like "I believe" or "I think" does not free you from the need to support that claim, opinions still need to be supported by facts (i.e. no more than 26 students should be enrolled in any English class. cigarette advertising should be eliminated, and the federal government should develop an antismoking campaign)

judgements

i.e. how are we comparing golfers? by average, by winnings? by number of tournaments they've entered?

judgements that require defining key terms and establishing criteria for judging or ranking

leaders offer minimal supervision (i.e. leader believes team members should work independently with little direction of personal involvement, rarely interacts and gives little feedback, only involves self when absolutely necessary, police chief and police officers, not an indication of importance of team members or leader, but rather an idea that the team functions best with minimal supervision)

laissez-faire

leader's status or position gives them the right to make requests with with others must comply (i.e. president of the use meets with cabinet members, granted by a position no longer effective when they lose their position, duties of your job)

legitimate power

readers responding to a newspaper story in the hopes it might be published in the next paper, the advent of talk radio gave listeners a first regular opportunity for two-way communication

letter to the editor

attitudes change as people grow older

life cycle explanation

people respond more affirmatively to those they like (create bonds based on similar interests)

liking

errors in reasoning that undermine the logic of our argument, nonsensical arguments and why people offer them

logical fallacies

majority rule treats everyone's vote as equal

low power distance cultures

people who agree to an initial request will still often comply when the requester ups the ante (i.e. getting a used car, agreeing to a price and coming out with a slightly more expensive car)

lowball technique

#metoo movement, #blacklivesmatter, examples of the power of social media to foster macro-protests, social movements, cancel culture

macroprotesting

follows the will of the majority (i.e. voting systems, each team member is allowed to case a vote, but the jail break that receives the most votes wins by the majority rule, operates on the democratic principle that decisions should reflect what most people want, by default it ensures that most people support the decision, people raised in democratic societies are used to majority rule and will accept under most circumstances or the outcome of these votes, when votes are close (8 to 7) it can feel arbitrary and those who lost might feel as through the vote was unfair because the margin of loss was so small, problematic in groups that have an even numbers of members because of the possibility of a tied vote)

majority rule

tools used to store and deliver information or data, differentiate between media outlets that distribute unverifiable or opinion based information and those that distribute verifiable (i.e. traditional media, newspapers, radio, magazines), steady source of information to readers, viewers and listeners

media

news organizations don't just report information, they help people comprehend and interpret matters of public interest, panels of "experts," shows with talking points

media interprets matters of public interest and sets public agenda