Human Development

Gottfredson's Theory of Circumscription and Compromise:

-A Rejoinder to Super and Early Adulthood As stated previously in this chapter, the ontology of many early developmental theories found them held hostage by the time in which they were developed. Most often, this resulted in the perpetuation of White male norms at the expense of historically marginalized groups such as women and persons of color. Just as relational cultural theory was presented as a counterweight to this phenomenon in Erikson's theory and Gilligan was Kohlberg's, we present Linda Gottfredson's (2005) theory of circumscription and compromise to compensate the privileges inherent in Super's theory. Like Super, Gottfredson (2005) believed that each person has a developmental trajectory that unfolds over time and that personal interest plays a key role in determining one's ultimate career path. Instead of seeing this trajectory being determined by human growth and flourishing, Gottfredson instead focused on the ways socialization and culture limit or eliminate career choices for individuals. Like self-concept, Gottfredson did identify a construct similar to self-identity but her assumption was that this social identity is formed as one interacts within four prime social domains: power, masculine-feminine expectations, personal interest, and prestige. Early in life, the concept of power is learned as children come to understand that large, powerful adults work, whereas children (and others without power) do not. This basic understanding of power lays a foundation over the early lifespan to include an understanding of gender while in elementary school (e.g., the types of jobs men do versus those that women do), an understanding of personal interest and aptitude in middle school, and an understanding of social prestige Part 6 Young Adulthood via workplace participation (e.g., my mother is a factory worker, and yours is a doctor) that is developed during adolescence. This social learning occurs before the early adulthood stage of development, and it has framed the zone of acceptable occupational choices of those making career decisions during this stage (Gottfredson, 1981). The creation of acceptable occupational choices is unique to each individual, derived from social learning experiences through two processes: circumscription and compromise. Circumscription occurs during developmental experiences in each of the four social domains. Early ideas about power and work are reinforced by socially and culturally bound messages about gender and work. This is often seen as the reason for gender and race/ethnicity gaps in the science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields (Charleston, George, Jackson, Berhanu, & Amechi, 2014; Smeding 2012; Szelenyi, Denson, & Kurotsuchi Inkelas, 2013). This has been found in many studies including a qualitative study about the experiences of African American women in the computing science field (Charleston et al., 2014). Several of the participants struggled with the stereotypes inflicted because of their intersectionality as Black woman along with feelings of isolation and subordination (Charleston et al., 2014). Personal interest is then influenced by these understanding of power and gender as they apply to the workplace. Finally, early adolescence brings increased social interest and perspectives on occupational prestige, particularly within the context of one's family of origin. All these factors provide the context for an ongoing process of compromise as young people and adults strive to place themselves into the optimal position within the world of work, as defined by the zone of acceptable occupational choices (Gottfredson, 2005).

* Sexual Activity

Adolescence is not the beginning of an individual's sexual exploration or the start of a sexual identity- in fact, very young children will often explore their own bodies and each other's as they discover similarities, differences, and pleasurable sensations. However, adolescence is generally the beginning of genuine sexual desire, which starts at or around the time of puberty. Changes in hormones and the emersexual activity, which may be expressed as masturbation, heterosexual sex play, homosexual sex play, intercourse, oral stimulation, or other sexual behaviors. The types of behaviors adolescents engage in vary widely and are influenced by social, moral, religious, and systemic factors. It is important for counselors working with adolescent clients to remember that sexuality is normative; however, it is also often frowned upon, discouraged, or forbidden by adults in the adolescent's life. As such, adolescents may not be entirely forthcoming about their sexual behaviors until they trust they will not be judged by the adult. Adolescents may become sexually active out of curiosity, pressure, or desire, but more often it is a combination of factors. Sexual activity may also be an aspect of romantic relationships in adolescents' lives, though this is not always the case. Still, even though the percentage of adolescents engaging in intercourse is relatively low in grade 9 (approximately 30%), it steadily climbs throughout high school years to over 60% by grade 12 (Eaton et al., 2012). Rates of sexual activity also vary with ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and religious engagement (Santrock, 2007). Still, one of the most significant influences on adolescent sexual activity is the peer network. Brakefield and colleagues, (2014) found that the peer group can influ- ence both sexual activity and the desire to be involved in intimate relationships. Adolescents may also be influenced by older siblings and friends, who can be valu- able resources for questions and advice (Secor-Turner, Sieving, Eisenberg, & Skay, 2011). As noted previously, adolescents may engage in a wide variety of sexual behav- iors depending on context and influences. Adolescence is a time of great explo- ration, and sexuality is no exception. Though many adolescents are aware of their sexual orientation, some are not; experimenting with pleasure of various types with partners of the same or opposite gender is fairly common. These behaviors do not necessarily indicate a fixed sexual orientation at this stage or later (Santrock, 2007). Furthermore, contrary to a common misconception, same-sex attractions and sexual intimacies do not spread across peer groups (Brakefield et al., 2014). Any appearance of such is likely due to the emotional and psychological intimacy between friends who are comfortable exploring their sexuality together. Adolescent sexual activity is often categorized as a risk behavior due mostly to the secondary issues that may be associated with the behavior. Sexual activity at any age can put people at risk for unintended pregnancy and for sexually transmitted infections and diseases. Understanding the influences on and incidences of adoles- cent sexual behavior are important elements to effectively supporting adolescent health and development. Another key consideration in understanding adolescent sexual activity is the potential relationship to other risk behaviors. Though some studies have found a direct correlation between early sexual debut and subsequent risk behavior (Armour & Haynie, 2007), others argue that the links between these are not that direct (Wheeler, 2010). It may be that peer norms, parental reactions or coping, religious and moral beliefs, and other factors mitigate the correlations between various types of risk behavior, including sexuality. Such potential influ- ences may also be important considerations in the desien and implementation of sex education program .

*Depression In late adulthood

Although depression may increase as people age and have more physical illnesses and disabilities, it is a mistaken belief that aging inevitably results in depression. Many older adults are in fact quite resilient and cope with the increased challenges without experiencing serious depression. Moody and Sasser (2012) reported that major depression is less frequent among older adults than younger, but the rate of depression rises when older people require home health care or live in nursing homes or other types of care facilities. Fiske, Wetherell, and Gatz (2009) contended that depression during this stage of development is a public health problem because it is associated with increased risk of morbidity and suicide and with self-neglect and decreased social, physical, and cognitive functioning. Suicide is closely associated with depression, and according to Moody and Sasser (2012), older people are at higher risk for suicide than all other age groups. Part 8 Late Adulthood They noted that there are a number of predictors for suiciet it this age grong, including intolerable psychological or physical pain and a feeling of hopelesane, or helplessness. "Depression in later adulthood may be difficult to diagnose, in part becaure some of the changes associated with normal aging can be confused with depres sion. For example,; as people age they often withdraw from activities, have difficulry concentrating, or may experience insomnia or fatigue, all of which are symptom, of depression. Moody and Sasser (2012) suggested that late-life depression, com. moly referred to as late-onset depression, should be considered along a contin. um that looks at the number of symptoms experienced during a defined period of time. In fact, older adults may report higher levels of symptoms associated with depression than younger adults, but they are less likely to adhere to the criteria for clinical depression. Another factor that makes it difficult to diagnose depres- sion is that it may appear in conjunction with other problems, such as dementia., Furthermore, over half of adults presenting with late-onset depression have no previous history of depression, and this type of depression can be very different from early-onset depressive disorders. It is also important for health-care professionals to assess depression from a broad perspective, including looking at psychosocial factors such as sensory impairments, the inability to provide self-care, or functional impairments. Changes in cognition and personality should also be noted. Whithourne and Whitbourne (2011) reported that older adults are less likely than younger adults to identify with common psychological symptoms of depres- sion, including dysphoria, guilt, low self-esteem, and suicidal thoughts. Instead of seeking help for depression, they are more likely to present with physical symp- toms. Consequently, it is imperative that health-care professionals are trained in recognizing symptoms of depression in their older clients and refer them for coun- sling. Accessing help may be complicated because many insurance companies do not reimburse for psychological problems, although that has improved with new Medicare guidelines.

Eight Basic Emotional Skills (middle childhood)

1. Awareness of one's emotions 2. Ability to recognize others' emotions 3. Use of emotional vocabulary 4. Capacity for empathy and sympathy 5. Distinction between internal feelings and external expression 6. Adaptive coping through self-regulatory strategies 7. Awareness of the role of emotion in relationships 8. Emotional self-efficacy

Emerging adulthood

Emerging adulthood is defined by a distinct. Between adolescents and young adults usually 18 to 25

adolescence age

12-18 years old

Young adulthood:

20s-30s physical development involves biological factors such as height and weight and is fully attained by age 25 years

middle childhood age

6-12 years old

Spirituality X

Finally, let's take a look at the relationship between spirituality and middle adult- hood. The variety of meanings associated with the term spirituality contributes to the difficulties in understanding the relationship between religiousness and spiri- tuality. The terms religious dweller and spiritual seeker (Wuthnow, as cited in Dillon, Wink, & Fay, 2003) may offer some clarity. A religious dweller is someone who is willing to follow the doctrines of an established religion through the acts of prayer and communal worship. A spiritual seeker takes a more independent path through seeking a path outside of traditional religion. At times the spiritual seeker may even blend both Eastern and Western religious traditions (Dillon et al., 2003). From the results of a study spanning 60 years, Dillon et al. (2003) concluded that religiousness and spirituality were positively correlated with generativity. That means the more we were engaged in religious or spiritual conduct, the more we had concerns toward the welfare of the next generation. The association between spir- ituality and generativity remained stable during middle adulthood (Dillon et al., 2003). Interestingly, there were some differences within generative practice among the religious dwellers and spiritual seekers. Religiousness was more correlated with altruism and selfless giving, which the authors viewed as communally oriented. Spirituality was correlated with impact on others and the legacy this sample of people will leave behind (Dillon et al., 2003). There is debate among sociologists about the influence of recent cultural transformations on generative practice as people move away from communal and traditional centered religious practices to more private, seeker-oriented individual spirituality. The concern is whether or not such changes will replace socially responsible individualism with a more self-centered and narcissistic individualism (Dillon et al., 2003). Part 7 Middle Adulthood Some psychological theories suggest that spiritual growth leads to self. actualization. Similarly, developmental theories also associate spiritual gromi with maturation. For instance, during middle adulthood, developmentally we have concerns with generativity according to Erikson, Havighurst, Vaillant, and others. Erikson described middle adulthood as the stage to develop the legag for the next generation, Havighurst considered it a time for reaching out to help aging parents, and Vaillant suggested that middle adulthood is a period in which there is a drive to unselfishly give to others. All these behaviors could be associated with our current spiritual practices. In essence, there is a reasonable hypothesis that spirituality or an awareness and sense of connectedness to all others will lead to generative performance. Let's focus our attention on the case study of Abdulla. Abdulla was raised in a traditional Muslim family. When growing up, he went to mosque every Friday and attended to the rituals of the varying worship days and holidays of his faith. At 53 years of age, Abdulla finds himself questioning his beliefs, behaviors, and tradi- tions. He has neither attended mosque in the past month nor engaged in his daily prayers. Aside from the change in his behavior related to his religious traditions, Abdulla's behavior seems normal. He still maintains his employment of 17 years and other professional practices. He takes care of his family. He attends family functions. He maintains friendships. He is saving money to send his children to college. What do you think is happening with Abdulla in respect to his sense of spirituality? Is Abdulla moving away from being a religious dweller and becoming a spiritual seeker? Is Abdulla becoming a more self-centered individual? Is he hav- ing a religious or spiritual crisis? How would you, as a counselor, conceptualize the internal turbulence Abdulla faces?

Hormonal changes in late adult

Both males and females undergo changes in their hormone levels in later per (Lee et al, 2010), Changes in hormones can cause a reciprocal affect in the hon of a person'& immune system and can lead to other age-related inues aut menopause for women and testosterone and androgen deficiency in men (An et al, 2012; Hopervorst, 2013; Tait et al., 2012). These issues extend into la adulthood (Lee et al., 2010). Amore et al. (2012) found that as many as 30% c men over age 40 years have significantly deceased testosterone, or hypogonad and of chose individuals with hypogonadism, as many as 12% exhibited clinici symptoms such as depression. Research has indicated that low levels of teas terone, combined with high levels of gonadotropins, have been "associated with cognitive decline in dementia cases in men" (Verdilel et al., 2014, p. 70). Androgen has also been linked to quality of life and feelings of well-being for men (finas et al., 2006; Lee et al., 2010). Reduced androgen levels may lead to bouts of depression and physical inactivity (Finas et al., 2006; Lee et al., 2010). Androgen may also influence men'S perceptions regarding their physical healch and ability, particularly their perceptions of sexual performance and capability (Lee et al., 2010). Androgen has also been implicated in male cognitive functioning (Finas et al., 2006). Diminished levels of both estrogen and testosterone have been linked to dementia and Alzheimer's discase, although the manner in which this happens is not yet well understood (riogervorst, 2013). However, women have been found To be at greater risk for developing Alzheimer's than men (Hogervorst, 2013), We will discuss Alzheimer's disease in greater detail later in this chapter. Similarly, the change in estrogen and progestogens in women has also been associated with changes in mood and blood pressure (Harsh, Meltzer-Brody, Rubi- nOR; & Schmidt, 2009; Meisler, 2002). Estrogen plays a role in the regulation of the neurotransmitters of acetylcholine, serotonin, noradrenalin, dopamine, and glutamate, and some research indicates postmenopausal women have higher rates ofanxiety and depression than premenopausal women (Asthana et al., 2009, Harsh et al., 2009). Changes in estrogen level have also been linked to a change in the health of a woman's blood vessels, which creates a greater risk for postmenopausal women to develop hypertension (Meisler, 2002). Changes in estrogen level have also been associated with changes in women's perceptions, cognition, verbal learning, and memory, perhaps contributing to dementia, Alzheimer's disease, and osteoporosis (Asthana et al., 2009; Harsh et al., 2009; Hogervorst, 2013, Liu, Cai, Liu, Zhang, & Yang, 2015). However, more research is needed in this area as results have been mixed (Asthana et al. 2009; Harsh et al., 2009; Hogervorst, 2013). Asthana et al. (2009) reported a key finding relevant to the development of Alzheimer's disease, which is "the ability of estrogen to reduce formation of -amyloid," which is "a hallmark biochemical marker" of Alzheimer's disease (p. 201). Progestogens have been implicated in the function of neurons (Asthana et al., 2009). However, a meta-analysis conducted by Hogervorst (2013) found several studies with results supporting that high levels of estrogen in older women were more related to cognitive decline than were low levels. Therefore, results are still inconclusive

Assessments for middle adult

Career: buros mental measurement yearbook, self-directed search, kuder Relationship: relationship assessment skills, the parent child relationship inventory, parenting style questionnaire, parenting test Spiritualiy: spiritual well-being scale, index of course spiritual experiences and spiritual assessment inventory

OX 16.3 PERSONALITY IN MIDDLE ADULTHOOD. DO WE CHANGE AS WE AGE?

eading proponents of the five-factor model of personality (Costa & Macrae, 1976) believed that personality is biologically based and taft rimly established by around age 30 years. Recent evidence, however tuggests that personality is plastic and can be shaped by environmet: *al factors well into middle adulthood. For example, in a stucy or"enr 732.000 persons, Srivastava, John, Gosling, and Potter (2003) demon. stated that conscientiousness and agreeableness increase throughout eary and middle adulthood. Further, Srivastava et al. (2003) noted that neuroticism scores among women, but not among men, decreased as they aged into middle adulthood. Environmental correlates for person. ality change include support from life partners; significant life events, such as marriage and parenthood; and adaptation through social expe: hiences (Branje, Lieshout, & Gerris, 2007). Others have pointed to the ways adults make sense out of life events (stressful events in particular), and not the events in and of themselves, as contributing to middle adult personality changes (Sutin, Costa, Wethington, & Eaton, 2010). Discussion Questions 1. If the fixed-approach to personality is rooted in the view that per- sonality is biologically based, what consequences do these findings that environmental factors are associated with personality changes over time have on nature theory of personality development? 2. You have access to a large sample of 21-year-old monozygotic twins and a grant to support a longitudinal line of research. Design a research study to answer the following question: How does time influence personality structure? 3. A 25-year-old client presents in your office and reports that he is the "son and the heir of a shyness that is criminally vulgar" (Marr & Morrissey, 1985). He asks if he is forever doomed to live in the shad- ows or if there is any hope that he might grow out of it or benefit from counseling. What are your responses to this young man?

Hormonal Changes Leading Toward Social Changes in middle school

* Hormonal Changes Leading Toward Social Changes For those boys and girls who experience early-onset puberty toward the end of middle childhood, there are social ramifications to consider. The physical and also the psychological, social, and emotional changes in puberty are equally profound. It is during this stage that boys become interested in relations with theopposite sex, which leads toward the sudden importance of physical attractiveness. Unfortunately, this could cause significant severe emotional strain. For instance, some females may develop anorexia or bulimia as an attempt to attract males. Another aspect of puberty that is more stressful for females than males comes by way of girls who progress through puberty more rapidly than others. Girls who fall into this group are more vulnerable to becoming sexually active at an earlier age and to beginning to participate in activities, such as substance abuse, which contribute to difficulties later in life (Santrock. 2007). Children who do not dress as* Hormonal Changes Leading Toward Social Changes For those boys and girls who experience early-onset puberty toward the end of middle childhood, there are social ramifications to consider. The physical and also the psychological, social, and emotional changes in puberty are equally profound. It is during this stage that boys become interested in relations with the opposite sex, which leads toward the sudden importance of physical attractiveness, Unfortunately, this could cause significant severe emotional strain. For instance, some females may develop anorexia or bulimia as an attempt to attract males. Another aspect of puberty that is more stressful for females than males comes by way of girls who progress through puberty more rapidly than others. Girls who fall into this group are more vulnerable to becoming sexually active at an earlier age and to beginning to participate in activities, such as substance abuse, which contribute to difficulties later in life (Santrock, 2007). Children who do not dress asstylish, or who cannot afford nicer amenities, are more vulnerable to harassment by peers. This is also a period where the more popular children begin to tease the less popular ones. Due to such social pressures, the onset of depression, anxiety, and other psychological dysfunctions becomes more prevalent. The impact of treatment received by peers during this stage of life may ultimately result in behaviors and emotions that will last the rest of the individual's life.

chaie's Developmental Theory of Adult Cognitive * Adjustment and Early Adulthood

. Warner Schaie has studied how health, demographic, personality, and envi- ronmental factors influence individual differences in successful cognitive aging. Schaie's (2005) and Schaie and Willis's (2000) developmental theories divide the lifespan into several stages: acquisitive, achieving, responsibility and executive, reorganizational, reintegrative, and legacy leaving. These stages describe cogni- tive phases throughout the lifespan. Since this chapter focuses on early adulthood, let us discuss the stages falling within this phase of life. The achieving stage begins in early adulthood. This substage depicts early adulthood as the time when the individual uses cognitive skills to acquire success in life situations such as on the job, in marriage, and in raising children. Previously learned skills are strengthened and decisions are considered with regard to how they affect other life issues. The responsibility stage occurs once a family is established and decisions require a consideration of others. For example, the person in the responsibility stage must consider family needs and make decisions accordingly. Knowing that one's decisions affect others in the family or community creates a need for open mindedness and thoughtfulness in choices. The executive stage affects approximately 25% of early- and middle-aged adults. These adults are those who attain professional positions requiring high levels of leadership and who must make responsible executive decisions affecting numerous people's lives and careers (Schaie, Willis, & Caskie, 2014). People at this level must learn skills related to societal hierarchies, conflict resolution, diversity, and loyalty. As part of his studies on cognitive aging, Schaie also stated that four of six intellectual abilities (inductive, spatial, vocabulary, and verbal) are highest in the mid-40s to early 50s. Perceptual speed declines in the 20s and numerical ability falls in the 40s (Lyons et al., 2009). More studies are needed to determine exactly how intellectual and cognitive abilities decline after early adulthood. One thing that is certain, however, is that degeneration and memory loss are factors associated with aging.

Eriksons ninth stage in late adult

n late adulthood. Trust Versus Mistrust and Mistrust Versus Trust During infancy, a critical task during the first year of life is to develop trust that our infanté basie needs will be satisfied. Generally this bond develops with parents or primary caretakers, If children are raised in a warm, supportve manner, they will develop trust, but if those primary caretakers are angry and aloof infants will learn to mistrust (Vernon & Clemente, 2005). In late adulthood, this first stage now becomes mistrust versus trust, According to Joan Erikson (Gutsky, 2012), as older adults become more aware of things they cannot, do they may become distrustful. The major task, then, is to revert to trust and forgive the weaknesses such as a failing memory or decreased mobility, Autonomy Versus Share and Doubt and Shame and Doubt Versus Autonomy During this second stage of development, children ages 2-3 years need to learn how to become more self-sufficient. It is important for parents to allow them to do some things independently so that they learn to develop self-confidence in their abilities (Vernon & Clemente, 2005). As older adults reach the point of not being able to care for themselves, they lose their autonomy and feel ashamed that they have to rely on others to care for them. Initiative Versus Guilt and Guilt Versus Initiative The third stage, which oceurs for children between ages 4 and 5 years is when they need to develop a sense of self by initiating activities and learning to be responsible for their actions. If they are punished when they take initiative, they feel guilty (Vernon & Clemente, 2005). For older adults, the process is reversed. For example, many older adults want to take on new challenges or projects but underestimate their physical or mental abilities to do this, Guilt results as they realize they should not have attempted this in the first place. Industry Versus Inferiority and Inferiority Versus Industry Between ages 6 and 12 years, young children's worlds expand as school becomes a primary place to develop a sense of self-worth, as they learn new things, and as they interact more with peers. If they are compared with others and criticized for their shortcomings, they develop a sense of inferiority. During late adulthood, this stage becomes inferiority versus industry as older adults are able to do less and less a regult. Intimacy Versus Isolation and Isolation Versus Intimacy During carly adulthood, ages 19-25 years, individuals who have developed a strong sense of self are then able to form intimate relationships with others, not depend- ing on others to help them find their identity. Those who are not able to experience intimate relationships are more isolated and lonely because their relationships are more superficial (Bjorklund, 2011). In old age, isolation becomes more and more prevalent as friends and relatives with whom they may have had intimate relationships die or move to be cared for. Generativity Versus Stagnation and Stagnation Versus Generativity This seventh stage of development, ages 25-65 years, revolves around establishing the next generation through childrearing. In addition, it involves being produc- tive and creative, mentoring younger colleagues, and being a vital part of society. Adults who are not able to accomplish these tasks become self-absorbed and stag- nate. Joan Erikson stressed that in this stage older adults need to ask themselves, "How far do you go along with the stereotype of yourself as an old lady or an old man?" (Gusky, 2012, p. 60). Furthermore, they need to determine how much longer then wish to be productive human beings who continue to contribute to society or at what point do they give this up. Much of this depends on how able they are but also the extent to which they have successfully moved through previ- ous stages and are not prone to giving into old age and stagnating. At some point, however, they will experience more stagnation than generativity, but preferably not until later adulthood. Ego Integrity Versus Despair and Despair Versus Ego Integrity This is the eighth stage, for those over ages 65 years, individuals look back on their lives and determine whether they led productive lives that held meaning for them. According to Erikson's theory (Gusky, 2012), if they hadn't resolved previ- ous conflicts, their lives may not have been as fulfilling and they may feel more despair, not only with regard to the past but also the future. Ultimately, adults in late adulthood have a diminishing life cycle and need to be prepared to deal with death. Counselors can be an important source of support and encouragement for Chapter 18 Late Adulthood: Emotional and Social Development elderly adults dealing with the last years of their lives. They can help them review their strengths and focus on how to help them live their final years with integrity, Joan Erikson, who remained productive almost until the end of her life, believed that personality and identity continue to evolve until advanced stages of life (Gusky, 2012), but in the ninth stage older adults begin to look at things from the other point of view as emphasized in the aforementioned discussion. She revised Erikson's 1997 book, The Life Cycle Completed, focusing on the concept of gerotranscendence, a term developed by a Swedish sociologist. In essence, this term redefines consciousness in old age as well as self in relationship to others and offers a new understanding of several existential questions. Specifically, during late adulthood, there is decreased interest in material things and superficial social interaction, a redefinition of time and space, and a different way of perceiving life and death, with decreased fear of death. Clearly counselors need to help older adults explore their beliefs and feelings about aging, death, and dying and encourage clients to keep on becoming, which was Joan Erikson's advice to older adults (Gusky, 2012).

Piaget's Concrete Operations

A Mental operations in Piaget's concrete operations stage are essentially the beginnings of more complex thought. "A mental operation," according to Oswalt and Dombeck (2015), "is the ability to accurately imagine the consequences of something happening without it actually needing to happen" (para. 2). As such, thoughts become more proactive than reactive. Children in middle childhood may think through and make predictions regarding events and scenarios that are yet to occur. The defining feature of concrete operations is that children's logic is bound to what is concrete, or tangible. That is, thoughts are specific to persons, places, and things they may have seen, touched, smelled, heard, or tasted (Piaget, 1936). These children may understand how not brushing their teeth may lead to cavities but struggle to think about all of the other consequences that may occur if their teeth go untreated and are lost (e.g., social implications, dietary complications, concerns about self-image). Unless they have directly experienced or witnessed someone else experience all of these negative consequences, they struggle to comprehend them. It is not until adolescence that they develop the ability to abstract formal operations representative of intangible and abstract persons, places, or things (Oswalt & Dombeck, 2015).

HELPING CHILDREN MANAGE ANXIETY

A good place to start is by teaching children how to eliminate those unnecessary persons, places, and things that lead toward stress. Second, children may attempt to alter those stressful situations they cannot avoid. Third, figure out what they can do to change things so the problem doesn't present itself in the future. Fourth, if children cannot change the stressor, they may try changing their cognitions or behaviors in some healthy way.

Parenting Styles and Adolescents

A key task of adolescent development is internalizing a locus of control and derel- oping an individual identity (see chapter 11). Parents play a significant rolein this process as they mentor, manage, and monitor their adolescent's behaviors and rela- tionships. More specifically, the quality and type of parenting behaviors can have lasting impact on adolescents. Based on Baumrind's (1991) identification of four distinct parenting styles, the following is summary of these parenting behaviors as applied to adolescents: 1. Authoritative parenting: encourages adolescent input on decisions and pro- cesses, taking a democratic approach to rules and boundaries; supports indi- vidual development and identity; exemplified by high warmth and responsive- ness. Supports adolescents' social competence and responsibility. 2. Authoritarian parenting: discourages adolescent input on decisions and processes; discourages individual identity, emphasizing strict adherence to parental rules; display low levels of warmth or responsiveness. Often leads to adolescent insecurity and poor social interaction. 3. Neglectful parenting: neither encouraging nor discouraging of adolescentinput on decisions or processes, as style is marked by lack of parental involvement; displays low levels of warmth or responsiveness; lack of both rules and mon- itoring. Often leads to poor self-regulation and impulse control, as well as lower self-esteem. Part 5 Adolescence 4. Indulgent parenting: encourages adolescent input on decisions and processes; high levels of parental involvement, though lacking in rules and boundaries; high in warmth and responsiveness. Often leads to poor self-control and per- sistent egocentricity, with adverse effects in relationships. Authoritative parenting is generally considered to be the best approach to child development throughout adolescence, and its relative efficacy has been researched across a wide range of cultures and contexts (Steinberg & Silk, 2002). Adolescents raised by authoritative parenting tend to develop autonomy and independence and higher degrees of social competence. However, it is also important to note that while authoritative parenting is associated with positive outcomes, the reverse is not necessarily as predictable. Some researchers have found positive outcomes associated with aspects of authoritarian style within a specific cultural context. For example, while the vast majority of Asian American child-rearing practices would fit under the categor of authoritarian based on Baumrind's categories, the predicted poor outcomes are the exception, not the rule (Choi, Kim, Kim, & Park, 2013). One explanation for this discrepancy may be found in the parenting in contest that is, behavide that are labeled conrolling in the Euroce Pate wieg pl viewed as mining in the context of Acin

* Impact of Divorce in middle school

A mere 40-50 years ago divorce was considered shameful; today most people would find these families as typical as any other. With over 45% of all first marriages in the United States ending in divorce, it is a special topic in family therapy that war. rants attention (Hecker & Wetchler, 2003, p. 454). "Although divorce is a common event in today's families, it is an unscheduled transition that alters the traditional family life cycle and interrupts developmental tasks" (p. 456). The reality is that despite individual differences and reasons for divorce, "most divorcing families must address common issues and each spouse must face challenges" (p. 456). Addi- tionally, if children are involved, they may get caught in the middle of this trau- matic life event that may result in relatively severe repercussions if not addressed properly. The best results generally occur when the parents "focus on how to deal with the children's perceptions and responses, interpreting what is happening to them, and helping them express their fears, feelings, and hopes" (p. 460). Failure to consider children may lead to devastating results that may actually impact the individual for a lifetime.

Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development

According to Kohlberg, there are three levels of moral development, with two stages within each level. Moral development is a process that occurs over the lifespan, and not all individuals will reach the highest levels. Level 1 is the pre- conventional level and is marked by complete externalization of beliefs. Motivation is based on rewards and punishment; there is no internalization of constructs at this stage. Level 2 is the conventional level and is marked by the beginning of internal- ization. At this level, behavior is influenced by rewards and punishment, but with a deeper level of understanding-_-individuals now understand why they must follow certain rules, both for personal and societal benefit. Also at this level comes the emergence of internalized constructs such as trust, concern, honesty, loyalty, and similar concepts essential to the development of personal ideas and beliefs. How- ever, most decision making is still motivated by conformity and duty. Level 3 is the postconventional level and is marked by complete internalization of constructs and ideals. At this level, decisions are made based on core beliefs of right and wrong regardless of existing laws and rules. Although individuals at this level do understand and respect authority, they also recognize its fallible structure and take action based on their individual consciences. As with other areas of devel- opment, progression through these levels and their substages does not occur at exactly the same times for everyone. However--as a rule- progression is always in a forward direction and is influenced by biological and environmental influences (Eisenberg & Morris, 2004).

middle childhood special discussion

As counselors, it is significantly important to pay attention to the potential irregularities present within our clients. The earlier appearance of secondary sexual characteristics presents concern inasmuch as it causes parents to discuss sexual development earlier than previously thought. Counselors must conceptualize and prepare for specific ways support can be given to families during this time (Finkelstein, 2000). Early menarche (8 years or younger) has been linked to familial conflict, stressful home life, paternal absences, and poor attachment (Boynton-Jarrett et al., 2013).

Etiology of Bullying in middle school

According to Olweus (1993), bullying is defined as being "exposed, repeatedly and over time, to negative actions on the part of one or more other students" (p. 9). Within this framework, two types of bullying develop. First, direct bully- ing involves verbal and physical aggression, such as hitting, kicking, pushing, and name-calling (Klein & Kuiper, 2006). Second, indirect bullying involves discrete instances, such as starting rumors or forms of cyberbullying (e.g., social media; Klein & Kuiper, 2006). Eslea and Rees (2001) suggested that bullying is at its peak (33%) between the ages of 11 and 13 years. To understand bullying, counselors must be aware of the differences between successful social development and unsuccessful social development. Successful social development is characterized by peer acceptance (e.g., the general sense of inclusion and belonging). This successful progression sets the stage for better communication skills; the greater capacity for sharing, helping, and cooperating; and the development of an easygoing temperament, greater sociability, and stronger self-control (Klein & Kuiper, 2006). The unsuccessful navigation through social development produces social isolation, social rejection, peer victimization, bullying, aggression, lack of communication skills, and the inability to construct appropriate responses in social situntions (Klein & Kuiper, 2006). Several factors should be considered in the social development of middle child- hood, and these can have either a positive or negative impact: relationships with parents and caregivers and peers, attachment model (e.g., secure or insecure), education, temperament, and social learning (Camodeca, Goossens, Schuengel, & Meerum Tèrwogt, 2003). The positive interaction with these factors allows the middle child to successfully navigate life, whereas the negative interaction with these factors has the potential to produce either the aggressor or the victim.

Piaget and Formal Operations

According to Piaget's theory of cognitive development, adolescents are in the developmental stage of formal operations. In this stage of intellectual development, individuals acquire the ability to think abstractly and hypothetically. This stage is qualitatively different from the previous one--concrete operations--which lasts through late childhood. In the concrete operational stage, children are able to think logically about concrete objects and to understand conservation. Ther are limited, however, by time and abstraction and struggle to fully understand future or hypothetical ideas. As they transition into the formal operational stage, adolescents develop the ability to consider what-ifs and can use their new hypothetical thinking abilities to support developing deductive reasoning skills. The latter is a particularly significant sign of more mature cognition, as from deductive reasoning emerges more complex problem-solving and logic skills. The transition from concrete to formal operations is not a sudden one, but rather occurs over time concurrently with brain development. As children in the concrete stage become more adept at organizing thought and environmental stim- uli, they begin to recognize relationships between information in a more complex manner than they had previously. In doing so, they are also able to begin to under- stand the potential holes in the concrete world--the what-ifs, maybes, and what about that had previously eluded them. Herein lies the beginning of the transition to abstract and hypothetical thought that is the hallmark of the formal operational stage. It also is important to note that because this stage progression is dependent upon both neurological advances in the brain and experiential input which moves the developmental process forward, environment can affect both aspects of cognitive development. For example, poverty-_which may adversely influence children's nutrition, health care, and education-can potentially interfere with both healthy neurological development and the stimuli needed for continued cognitive development. A counselor working with an adolescent client needs to consider not only the cognitive stage of the client but also the influences, such as cultural, which may be hindering or supporting continued development. For example, Kuwabara and Smith (2012) suggested that cognitive differences exist between Eastern and Western cultures in terms of relational and object attention. Whereas classical developmental theory tends to suggest development is universal across cultures, growing evidence suggests cross-cultural differences in development do exist (Kuwabara, & Smith, 2012; Saxe, 1999; Steinberg, 2005; Varnum, Grossman, Kitayama, & Nisbett, 2010).

The Aggressor (Proactive Aggression)

Aggressors are not typically unregulated or overly emotional but display an organized behavior through which calculated aggression is used to strategically achieve intended goals, including peer domination (Camodeca et al., 2003; Schwartz, Dodge, Pettit, & Bates, 1997).

Implications of the adolescent brain

Although impulsivity and risk taking in adolescents are often attributed to hor- monal changes, it seems evident that these behaviors are far more directly linked to developmental changes occurring in the brain. The question then becomes, how much responsibility should adolescents have for their behavior and decision mak- ing? Noted experts in adolescent development have long supported the notion that the developing adolescent needs to be considered in context-_to include develop- mental and environmental considerations (Albert & Steinberg, 201 1; Blakemore& Robbins, 2012; Smith, Chein, & Steinberg, 2013). The impact of adolescent impulsivity and risk taking within the context of developmental and environ- mental considerations on education, public policy, and health care is an ongoing discussion and beyond the scope of this chapter. For counselors, it is important to approach this topic from both a psychoeducational and a wellness perspective, encouraging responsibility and supporting proactive decision making, while also helping the adolescent client and family better understand the influences on the period of rapid development and change. For example, counselors can provide parents and adolescents with valuable awareness, knowledge, and skills regarding the myriad developmental changes, including neurological and hormonal, that teens experience during the adolescent years that influence decision-making and problem-solving abilities. Gaining an understanding of the general realities of adolescence could ease the storm and strife that families and adolescents experi- ences as they maneuver this stage of development (Spear, 2000a). Walsh (2014) emphasizes that with the amount of research continuing to emerge on brain development during adolescence, we are in a much better position to select par- enting and prevention strategies that facilitate adolescent development instead of hinder it.

Dating and Social Development

Although there is not a great body of research focusing on the developmental purpose of dating practices in adolescents, some consistent themes have emerged from the extant literature. Grounded in developmental theory of Erikson, Sullivan, and Bowlby, adolescent romantic relationships can serve important developmen- tal functions as teenagers explore identity, intimacy, and attachment (Steinberg, 2013). For example, the experiential elements of dating and intimacy may facil- itate identity development by providing reflective opportunities; adolescents can learn more about themselves, who they are, and what they want through romantic relationships. In addition, dating practices can help lay the foundation for adult intimacy as adolescents explore a new dimension to interpersonal connections beyond the developmental catalysts offered by peer relationships (Santrock,2007). Learned patterns in interpersonal relating and attachment are operationalized in adolescent dating and may offer an opportunity for deeper emotional exploration and can highlight potential concerns that could carry over into adulthood (Riggs, Cusimano, & Benson, 2011). Dating in adolescence may also serve the purpose of mate selection, though in contemporary U.S. society, it is rare for adolescents to select a permanent lifetime partner. In fact, one of the criticisms of adolescent dating from a developmental perspective lies in the often transient nature of coupling combined with emotional cognitive immaturity that categorizes adolescence.

Carol gillgan losing voice

Another important consideration regarding gender identity development is the concept of losing voice. Gilligan has focused almost exclusively on the personality and behavioral changes that girls experience during adolescence. She described girls as silencing their different voices as they struggle against the influences of a male dominated society.

The Storm and Stress Debate

Another important consideration regarding gender identity development is the concept of losing voice. Gilligan has focused almost exclusively on the personality and behavioral changes that girls experience during adolescence. She described girls as silencing their different voices as they struggle against the influences of a male dominated society.

Anxiety in late adulthood

As Cavanaugh and Blanchard-Fields (201 1) reported, anxiety disorders are espe- cially prevalent in older adults as they increasingly experience losses. As health issues become more prevalent for this population, as they become more depen- dent on caregivers, as they lose their independence or become more isolated as a result of relocating to an assisted living or nursing facility, the stress associated with these changes increases the likelihood of an anxiety disorder, described as intense anxiety, worry, or apprehension (Whithourne & Whitbourne, 2011). According to Biorklund (2011), anxiety disorders, including phobias, posttraumatic stress sun- drome, and obsessive-compulsive disorder are the most typical anxiety disorders, and more women than men experience them. Anxiety is often associated with fear of the unknown and is about what-if thinking. When my (first author) mother was hospitalized for severe cardiovas- cular problems, her what-if thoughts were: What if these medications don't work? What if I won't get better? What if I have to be bedridden for the rest of my life? What if I recover enough to go home? Where will I live and how will I manage? Cavanaugh and Blanchard-Fields 2011 made an important point, which is that anxiety may be an appropriate response given the circumstances. As older adults lose control or mastery and feel more helpless, wouldn't it seem normal to worry about falling, forgetting, or dying? These scholars noted that because many older adults who have an anxiety disorder may have underlying health problems, those health problems may be responsible for the symptoms of anxiety. They listed physical changes associated with anxiety, including dry mouth, dizziness, sweating, insomnia, upset stomach or diarrhea, chest pain, choking, and headaches as common physical changes that can negatively impact social functioning. Although anxiety disorders can be treated with medication, Cavanaugh and Blanchard-Fields (2011) cautioned that although drugs such as Valium or Paxil may be somewhat effective, the potential for side effects in this population is sig- nificant because they can't take high doses. Counseling is a much better alternative, with an emphasis on relaxation training, stress management, and rational think- ing. However, it is often difficult for elderly people to access counseling services due to negative stereotypes about what counseling is and how it can help and lack of finances or transportation. Furthermore, hearing loss may make it diffi- cult for them to benefit from counseling, which makes it imperative for counselors working with this population to use expressive arts techniques, which have been shown to be more effective than relying solely on verbal approaches (Vernon & Barry, 2014). Cavanaugh and Blanchard-Fields (201 1) discussed the concept of death anxiety, which is by no means restricted to the elderly. In fact, according to Thorson and Powell (2000, cited in Cavanaugh & Blanchard-Fields, 2011), older adults tend to have less death anxiety than younger adults, especially if they are realistic about this stage of life or are religious. Those older adults who experience more death anxiety also have greater physical and psychological problems. Interestingly, men have more death anxiety than women, but there were few differences across ethnic levels. Some contend that death anxiety may in fact be a good thing because if people are afraid to die, they may put more effort into practices that enhance their lives and keep them safe. Regardless, counselors working with older adults who experience this will want to help them guard against focusing on this type of anxiety that might interfere with their normal functioning. Instead, helping clients reduce anxiety about death by providing death education that includes factual information as well as emotional awareness and experiential activities can be very beneficial. Some clients may want assistance writing their own obituaries or planning their funerals or celebrations of life.

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT OF ADOLESCENCE

As discussed previously, adolescence is marked by a period of substantial phys- ical development, including significant changes in brain structure and function. Concurrent to these physical changes are substantial advances in cognition, as evidenced by increasing complexity in thought and moral decision making. Ado- lescents begin this developmental stage with predominantly concrete thinking pro- cesses and high egocentricity; they end this period with abstract thinking skills and improved social perception and insight.

Advanced Problem Solving in adolescences

As they move through this developmental stage, adolescents acquire more complex problem-solving skills. These result from both continued neurological advances and life experience. Also in this stage, adolescents showed marked improvements in attention, processing speed, and memory and can organize ideas and topics in new and complex ways. Because they become more aware of the interrelation- ships between constructs and gain an ability to think more abstractly, they show significant advances in problem solving. They are able to effectively use scientific method--that is, they can identify patterns in information, create a hypothesis based on these patterns, test the hypothesis by gathering additional data, and mod- ify the original hypothesis based on the new information. This is a significant advance in cognitive thought processes, as adolescents are able to consider multiple possibilities and abstractions and identify relationships between these. This important cognitive advance influences educational and social realms for the adolescent. It informs academic programming and testing, as well as provides perspective for benchmarks and expectations. Further, this new pattern of thinking gives birth to the adolescent philosopher-_the emerging aspect of adolescent iden- tity that questions the status quo and rarely hesitates to propose improvements. It could also be argued that this cognitive development is an essential piece of what is often dismissed as a behavioral challenge: adolescent rebellion. Perhaps what adults perceive as a push back against rules and social policies is merely a process of evaluation, critique, and hypothesis testing from the adolescent's point of view. Therefore, adolescent "rebellion," so to speak, may be an essential aspect of the individuation process of development.

Adolescent Risk Behaviors

As was discussed in chapter 11, adolescent risk-taking behaviors result from multiple infuences, including neural development and egocentrism. It is alm important to note that risk-taking behaviors are strongly influenced by social ant emotional development. Adults often trivialize such influences as peer pressure and encourage adolescents to make more proactive decisions. Whereas the later is good advice, the former misses the point of the behavior. First, it is important to remember that younger adolescents in particular often lack the self-regulatory skills necessary to reason through and consider their decisions; instead, they tend to be far more impulsive than older adolescents and young adults (Dahl, 2004. In addition, neurological changes during this stage predispose adolescents to increased thrill-seeking behavior (Steinberg, 2007). Furthermore, adolescents may associate risk-taking behaviors with independence and personal control (Broderick & Blewitt, 2015; Santrock, 2007). In fact, adolescents often do not view these behaviors as "risky" at all, but rather integrate their choices into a narrative of personal development and locus of control. For example, although pregnancy may be an unintended outcome of sexual activity, an adolescent may view the experience as a hallmark of adulthood and embrace the situation as proof of maturity. Similarly, adolescents may believe that the choice to consume alcohol or use drugs shows that they are in charge of their lives and make their own decisions. These are important considerations when adolescents are straddling the gap between being controlled by parents and being independent adults-iris very possible that the risk behavior is actually serving an important developmental purpose (Broderick & Blewitt, 2015), Counselors working with adolescents need to take a broad view of risk and understand not only the perceived function of the behaviors in the adolescent's life but also as the environmental, systemic, and social influences at hand. Many of the most concerning adolescent risk behaviors such as substance use, pregnancy, and sexual transmission of discases- have been on the decline in recent years (CDC, 2011b, 2011c, 2011d). Such trends are likely due to increased education and access to preventive health services, both of which support ado- lescents making informed, healthy decisions. However, one very concerning risk behavior that appears to be increasing is bullying. Great strides have been made in recent years to combat environmental and institutionally based bullying, and electronic victimization has increased considerably (CDC, 201 1a). In fact, recent research has found that almost all you have experienced some form of cyberbully- ing (Mitchell, Finkelhor, Wolak, Ybarra, & Turner, 2010). This is a sobering con- sideration, as contemporary adolescents are firmly entrenched in social media and electronic communication. The ubiquity of electronic media makes cyberbullying easily accessible to many adolescents, and the anonymity and emotional dissocia- tion make the impact seem less severe. In reality, the effects of electronic aggression Can be detrimental if not more so than those experienced in real time interactions.

Gender Identity

As was discussed previously, puberty generally signifies the onset of adolescence. With this change comes the development of primary and secondary sexual traits, which serve to significantly separate the genders. Prior to puberty, boys and girls although certainly aware of their gender identities- assign less meaning to these differences however as puberty progresses the gender differences become more prominent and meaningful

Authentic Self A

Authenticity is the ability to form relationships where one can share one's true self with others, including personal values, beliefs, interests, and experiences (emo- tional, cognitive, and physical; Jordan, 2010; Miller & Stiver, 1997). Exercising authenticity in relationships becomes even more salient when discussing voices that are often silenced such as the voices and experiences of people of color Cordan, 1997). Our lived experiences are influenced by how others interact with us based on our personal identities as well as how effectively we are able to find fit within social groups while still holding true to our self-identities (Azmitia et al., 2013; Ellemers, Spears, & Doosje, 2002). Along with acknowledging the influences our identities have in our interpersonal experiences, it is important to understand that identities can come with both privileges and marginalization. Layering of multiple identities is called intersectionality and is the reason for the existence of diverse experiences even amongst groups of individuals with similar cultural backgrounds. For example, two people can witness the same event but are affected in extremely different ways. Intersectionality is important to understand if empathy is to exist within a relationship, and empathy can become a determining factor as to whether relational connections or disconnections occur Cordan, 2010). Empathy, as defined by RCT theorists, is the acceptance of Part 6 Young Adulthood differences and acknowledgment that one can never fully understand another's experience. Like Ivan, identifying as a person of color influences the way people interact authentically within relationships, find their niche social group, and navigate chal- lenges created by racism along with other oppressive ideologies that manifest in both external as well as intrinsic ways, at both institutional and interpersonal levels Caret & Reitzes, 2009; Kiang, Yip, & Fuligini, 2008; Neblett, Banks, Cooper, & Smalls-Glover, 2013). Daily harms such as micro aggressions, covered in chapter 4, can negatively affect self-concept, especially if the individual is struggling to find a social group to connect with where he or she feels accepted and understood. When experiences are silenced by microaggressions and other -isms, individuals are left to toil with the images of those interactions and determine whether it is good to take a risk, to be one's authentic self with others, or to remain silent to stay safe Jordan, 1997).

parenting styles and resulting child qualities

Authoritative Parenting • Lively and happy disposition • Self-confident about ability to master tasks • Well-developed emotion regulation • Developed social skills • Less rigid about gender-typed traits (examples: sensitivity in boys and independence in girls) Authoritarian Parenting • Anxious, withdrawn, and unhappy disposition • Poor reactions to frustration (girls are particularly likely to give up and boys become extremely hostile) • Do well in school (studies may show authoritative parenting is compa- rable) • Not likely to engage in antisocial activities (examples: drug and alcohol abuse, vandalism, gangs) Permissive Parenting • Poor emotion regulation (underregulated) • Rebellious and defiant when desires are challenged • Low persistence to challenging tasks • Antisocial behaviors

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy

Childhood PTSD generally occurs from a very traumatic experience that may entail abuse, parental drug use, bullying, rape, or neglect. To treat such severe trauma, it is important to respond in a comprehensive manner. Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) involves the "concepts and methods for understanding and treating individual and relationship problems in terms of behavioral patterns, individual's cognitions about themselves and other people, and emotional responses associated with those behaviors and cognitions" (Hecker & Wetchler, 2003, p. 243). By treating the cognitive pathology, the child may refocus on appro- priate behavior and may resocialize with family, friends, and others (James, 2008).

THE FAMILY SYSTEM in middle school

Children are raised in one of any variety of family systems. The concept of the traditional two-parent, heterosexual household is no longer the standard of the "normal" family. Contemporary family systems involve much greater variety. Although there is no one family system better than another, some still receive unwarranted criticism by less accepting members of society. Modern family systems include a two-parent, heterosexual household; a two-parent, gay, lesbian, bisexual, or transgender (GLBT) household; a single-parent household; a single- or divorced-parent household; an adoptive family household; a foster family household; and an extended family household. Despite all of these recent variations, the defining characteristics of family still remain intact. According to Thomlison (2007), the defining characteristics of family include (a) sharing a sense of history; (b) having some degree of emotional bonding, and (c) engaging in direction and goals for the future. Of important note is that they do not necessarily have to have legal ties or be biologically related. These characteristics, then, allow for much differentiation within the family demographic. As such, no two children experience an identical family dynamic during middle childhood or any other stage of development. It is also important to note how children living within the same household also share varied experiences. More important than the actual makeup of members in the family is the parental style. As explained by Baumrind (1967), the actual parental style of the parent bares significant weight on the child's development. She described three opes of parenting styles: authoritative parenting, authoritarian parenting, and permissive parenting. Though there are individual differences from one child b be next, the corresponding child qualities to parenting styles bear significant weight. Parents and caregivers are the primary authority figures over the child

*Bronfenbrenner and Middle Childhood

Children live and interact within multiple environmental systems. According to Bronfenbrenner (1979), there are five environmental systems by which indi- viduals are influenced: microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem. Significant influences during middle childhood most often occur within the microsystem and include family, school, and peers. As they progress through middle childhood, mass media and the attitudes and ideologies of culture increase in importance. Beyond these traditional systems is the Internet-a relatively new influence in relation to traditional ecological systems theory. Given the influence of contemporary technology on society, it is important to note its impact on social development. Johnson (2010) explored the concept of the techno-subsystem Johnson & Puplampu, 2008)- a newer concept that adds an addi- tonal layer to Bronfenbrenner's ecological system theory. The techno-subsystem is "a dimension of the microsystem which includes child interactions with both human (e.g., communicator) and nonhuman (e.g., hardware) elements of informa- ton, communication, and recreation digital technologies" Johnson, 2010, p. 34). Accordingly, interactions with the Internet ultimately affect the child's microsys- tem. This virtual environment, in many respects, meets the experimental condi- tions upon which the classic developmental literature was built (Bandura, 1977; Erikson, 1968; Piaget, 1936; Vygotsky, 1978).

BOX 13.6 Assessment OF CHRONIC PAIN

Chronic pain is any type of pain that lasts months or longer. Pain can create additional problems for adults, including depression and offer emotional distress. It also can create severe fatigue if the pain interferes with sleep. Assessing pain levels in adults is imperative to their overall diagnosis and treatment. The mental status examination is particularly important in recognizing pain. Counselors should pay attention to the client's appearance (poor hygiene or inappropriate dress could be a result of problems with movement), gait (steady or unsteady, or requiring assistance such as a cane or wheelchair), and observed discomfort in sitting, standing, or moving. Counselors should assess mood and affect, particularly if the client's affect contains wincing or strained expressions when moving. Other considerations are substance abuse (both prescribed medications and illicit drugs) as well as feelings of hopelessness and suicidal ideation, which are common in clients that suffer from longstanding chronic and severe pain. Finally, counselors should ask outright about the client's pain level. Using a SUDS scale often is effective to get a measurable understanding of the client's pain. In the presence of chronic pain, the aforementioned symptoms should not be interpreted as hostile or uncooperative behavior on the part of the client. Empathizing with the client's pain is a very important part of validating the client, even if the pain appears to be more somatic. In triads, practice giving an assessment of chronic pain through role play. There should be one counselor, one observer, and one client. The counselor should ask questions and make observations of the client, par- ticularly around physical development and chronic pain. The observer should take notes and give feedback to the counselor. Switch roles after 10 minutes until everyone has functioned as the counselor at least once. Wincen, Sarma, & Nolan, 2017; LyRence cervana, wcitsidou, Loutradis, &€ Vaslamatzis, 2009).

BOX 17.4 TIPS FOR COUNSELING THE OLDER ADULT

Counselors should: • Be aware of what is normal development and what is not normal dur- ing this stage. • Work toward developing and maintaining trust. • Identify and learn about the individuals involved with the day-to-day care of the older adult. • Focus on creating a therapeutic partnership with all parties involved. • Modify language and communication style as necessary. • Amend treatment objectives and goals in response to evolving needs and concerns. • Provide ample time for counseling the older adult. • Adjust counseling to support different learning styles.

CYBERBULLYING LAWS AND POLICIES

Currently, 49 states across the country (all but Montana) have bullying laws and policies, and 20 of them have already been amended to address cyberbullying (Hinduja & Patchin, 2014). As society moves further into the Internet age, more states will continue to adopt laws and policies while the laws and policies themselves continue to become more detailed and adapt to the virtual environment. Another way to help prevent victimization involves educating the children about cyber- bullying, which "could take two formats: helping victims to understand the dangers and how to take simple steps to minimise any threat and educating those who believe that cyber-bullying is harmless" (Gillespie, 2006, p. 135). Think about ways that you as a counselor may help children make more informed decisions toward protecting themselves.

Decision making In late adult

Decision making is another area where older adults see notable changes. Although decision making is an essential ability for successful living in later adulthood,Part 8 Late Adulthood changes in this skill can be precursors or symptoms of impending disease or cognitive decline (Boyle et al., 2012). Boyle et al. (2012) asserted that just when many important late life decisions must be made, many older adults begin to have a decline in their abilities to make effective decisions. Decision making is a higher order cognitive function and deterioration in this ability can impact choices related to health care, transfer of finances, or end-of-life decisions and make the elderly adult more susceptible to scams (Boyle et al., 2012). However, it should be noted that a decline in decision-making ability is often a normal development due to the aging process and is not necessarily a symptom of Alzheimer's disease (Boyle et al., 2012). Mata, von Helversen, and Rieskamp (2010) affirmed that older adults performed poorer on decision-making tasks compared with younger adults. The authors went on to note differences in performance when the environment favored the use of cognitively focused strategies (Mata et al., 2010).

The Impact of Returning Veterans in middle school

Depending on a variety of factors (e.g., length of deployment, physical and mental condition of returning veteran, experience with the primary caretaker), children may experience a variety of responses to a parent or caregiver's return from deployment. Chandra et al. (2008) explained how, although the children were excited to have the deployed parent return home, they were met with some notable challenges, One of these challenges entails confusion regarding who will now run the house. Further, the returning veteran struggles to reengage into what has become a new home routine. The same children also found it difficult to reacquaint with the returned veteran. During this time both the child and veteran have undergone a series of independent experiences that cause distance between the two individuals. Chandra et al. (2008) also revealed that around 30% of the children experienced issues dealing with parent mood change and stress. Each of these factors independently and in combination with one another lead toward a variety of complications (e.g., anxiety, depression, domestic violence, abuse, PTSD; Songomonyan & Cooper, 2010). It is important to note that the impact of deployment and returning on children truly depends on the child and consideration of all other psychosocial factors. Though there are many examples of negative impacts on children, there are also positives. Songomonyan and Cooper's (2010) study actually revealed that negative consequences were less than predicted in their study. Children may better develop independent skills, be more disciplined, and engage in healthy living.

Table 19.2 Kubler Ross's Stages of Grief Stages

Description Denial First stage of dying, in which the person imagines a false or preferable reality or denies that the death is going to take place Clients may use adjectives such as disbelief, paralyzed, and numbness to describe this phase. Anger Numerous sources within the grief cycle: Anger at the loss; anger at ourselves (Did we cause it? Why my child? Why would God let this happen?); anger at doctors, nurses, parents; anger at ourselves for being angry; anger that we feel overwhelmed Bargaining An attempt to return to normal so the loss would not have to be experienced Neither the family nor the person can move past this stage without experiencing their inner pain. The individual sometimes makes promises to a higher power if the pain can be removed. Depression A normal response to significant disappointment, including dreams Can be a reaction to: Loss of perceived images and abilities of self; loss of expected or hoped for dreams; loss of abilities once possessed; loss of or impaired health; inability to fix or change that which is different; guilt or feelings of blame for disability Sometimes a combination of counseling and medication is needed to move beyond this stage. Acceptance Doesn't mean liking the loss or transition, but rather learning to live with it rather than suffering Recognizing anger and finding appropriate ways to deal with it Letting go of self-blame, guilt, and disappointment Accepting what cannot be changed and working to change what can be

uper's Five Stages cage

Description rowth Early in life, children progress through the growth substages of fantasy, interest, and capacity to prepare themselves for future stages. xploration Establishment The process of exploration occurs each time a person wishes to gather information to determine a new career direction. A person decides that his or her chosen career matches his or her self-concept, and thus he or she wishes to further establish himself or herself in this career. Maintenance Disengagement This active stage is designed to stave off career stagnation by choosing to update skills or innovate within a chosen career. All good things, including careers, must come to an end. This may mean retirement or the development of a second or even third career.

Super's Life Span, Life Space Career Theory ¥ and Young Adulthood

During the early stage of theory development, Super (1969) described it as a differential-developmental-social-phenomenologicalapproach, but today it is largely viewed as the preeminent developmental theoretical approach to career counseling. Before we begin to focus on the specific developmental tasks of this age range, it is important to understand the essence of Super's theory. This is best accomplished by understanding 7 of his 14 core assumptions that most aptly apply to this age group (Super, 1990, p. 206): 1. People differ in their abilities and personalities, needs, values, interests, traits, and self-concepts. 2. People are qualified, by virtue of these characteristics, each for a number of occupations.3. Vocational preferences and competencies, the situations in which people live and work, and, hence, their self-concepts change with time and experience. 4. Success in coping with the demands of the environment and of the organism in that context at any given life career stage depends on the readiness of the individual to cope with these demands. 5. The process of career development is essentially that of developing and implementing occupational self-concepts. 6. The degree of satisfaction people attain from work is proportional to the degree to which they have been able to implement their self-concepts. 7. Work and occupation provide a focus for personality organization for most men and women, although for some persons this focus is peripheral, incidental, or even nonexistent. To capture the essence of these seven tenets of Super's work, one might describe the importance of viewing a young adult as unique in his or her career worldriew and thus career tasks and goals (#1). Within this uniqueness, a person will find within the complex world of work that there are multiple good yet no perfect choices (#2). In fact, if a perfect choice were to exist, this perfect fit would eventually expire as career development, like human development, is adaptive and thus changes as needs and circumstances do over time (#3). For persons within the late adolescence and early adulthood stages of development, it is important to assess their decision-making skill develonasen-and conine mechanisms during

Code switching

One strategy of navigating -isms is code switching, when individuals adapt to different situations based on dominant cultural norms such as language, dress, or mannerisms. This is not a false representation of self or identity but rather a cultural tool used to buffer the effects and harm of discrimination. However, if an individual has to code switch too often, this can keep him or her from expressing himself or herself fully with others, which again can lead to silencing and isolation and can impact social-emotional development. Discussion Questions 1. What are some aspects of identity that might precipitate the use of code switching in your community? 2. Identify strengths and assets that you might elicit from a client who shares that he or she code switches.

Erikson and Middle Childhood

Erikson defined middle childhood as the period when children expand their social context from the home base to broader environments that strongly influence their social development (Eccles, 1999). He described the ages of 7 to 11 years as being those in which children develop a sense of industry and learn to cooperate with others (Eccles, 1999). During the conflict of industry versus inferiority stage, chil- dren are introduced "to new social roles in which they earn social status by their competence and performance" (Hamman, 2014, p. 39). Continued failures in an attempt to successfully meet social and academic challenges results in a "sense of inferiority" and increase the likelihood that a child will enter adolescence without the basic life skills needed to behave appropriately in varied social settings, build meaningful relationships, and achieve academic success. Should the child enter into adolescence without the proper support and guidance needed to address these challenges, myriad even more severe issues (e.g., academic, social, emotional) may continue into young adulthood and beyond (Sharf, 2008).

metacognition and egocentricity

Examples Imaginary audience & invincibility fable

FAMILY-INVOLVED SUBSTANCE ABUSE TREATMENT

Family-involved substance abuse treatment has two primary goals: (1) highlight and work with the family's strengths and available resources to assist the client's recovery; and (2) minimize the negative impact of the substance abuse on the identified client and the family system as a whole. This approach is particularly helpful as the interactions between and among family members contribute to the effectiveness or lack thereof within the system itself; when the family system is healthy the members may guide and support one another as appropriate.

CYCLE OF VIOLENCE SPAWNED BY CYBERBULLYING

Feelings of severe humiliation, degradation, and suicidal ideation are exemplary of the type of traumatic devastation inflicted by cyberbul- lies. In most cases, harassment online follows victims into the traditional school setting as well (Smith et al., 2008). Of important note is that vic- tims of online bullying at home may seek retaliation against the bully the next time they meet at school (Hinduja & Patchin, 2007), creating a cycle of violence whereby bullies and their victims continually attack one another in and outside of school. As a counselor it is important to consider ways this cycle may be broken before it leads toward a myriad of consequences including psychopathology or even death.

Assessments for late adult

Global and functional assessment, activities of daily living scale, instrumental activities of daily living daily living skills, the older persons counseling need survey, blessed information memory concentration test, mini mental status exam,Framingham risk model, get up and go test, assess for nutritional status, SPICES, pain assessment

AN EPIGENETIC PERSPECTIVE

Historically, the relationship between genotype (total information contained in the genome) and phenotype (expression of genetic infor- mation) was thought to be unilateral. That is, it was previously believed that genetic information gave rise to structure, which precipitated function. It is now known that trait expression is the result of an interac- tive collaboration between DNA and the environment. This epigenetic process is bidirectional across genetic activity, neural activity, behavior, and environment (Gottlieb, 2007). Though still a relative newer area of study, epigenetics offers promising insights into human development, including such timely topics as genetic predispositions to pathology and long-term effects of trauma and stress (Eaves, Silberg, & Erkanli, 2003; Essex et al., 2013; Guerrini, Quadri, & Thomson, 2014). Epigenetics may also enhance understanding of the interrelationship between genetics, physical development, and environment on the onset of puberty as well as subsequent developmental markers of adolescence

The counselor as a catalyst

Individuation and systems differentiation--as viewed within the context of the person--are important developmental tasks of adolescence, and they support identity and autonomy. Considering the influences of par- ent and family systems discussed thus far, it is not difficult to recognize the integral role parents and families have in the healthy development of the adolescent. Counselors can play an important part in supporting adolescent wellness and more fluid differentiation by integrating these systemic considerations into clinical interventions and psychoeducation: • Improving communication and connection • Enhancing warmth and responsiveness • Increasing mutual understanding and empathy • Supporting navigation of conflict and fostering growth

Erickson's Psychosocial Theory of Human Development:

Intimacy Versus Isolation An ego psychologist and leading developmental theorist, Erik Erikson was one of the first to include young adulthood as its own developmental stage in the lifespan. importantly, this stage focuses upon how the identity crisis within adolescence transitions into the crisis of intimacy during young adulthood (Erikson, 1968). According to Erikson (1968), young adults experience a time of increased need and desire to form close intimate relationships. These relationships should not be construed as sexually intimate relationships only; rather, intimacy is viewed as a spectrum ranging from light interpersonal dialogue to sexual intimacy (Erikson, 1968; Horst, 1995). Though a young adult may have a positive sense of identity, his or her social-emotional issues during this stage may stem from trying to find social fit or having aspects of identity challenged. Erikson noted that intimacy only promotes healthy relationships when individuals share other aspects of self, rather than just focusing on the sexual intimacy and ego fulfillment (Erikson, 1968; Horst, 1995). The nature of relationships shifts as young adult individuals confront relational differences, and at times challenges, that spur on new insight about them and others. This cauldron of relational experience occurs as a young adult grapples with the new responsibilities, ambiguity, and meaning-making tasks of living more autonomously. New life tasks and relationships can offer excitement along with anxiety as individuals navigate social interactions to find their niche (Azmitia, Syed, & Radmacher, 2013). It is important to note that this developmental theory is not a strictly lin- ear model and individuals can transition through the stages out of sequence, or Hamachek, 1990; Horst, 1995). Though Erikson's stage theory is limited to is description of the White heterosexual male, it still remains distinct from previous Freudian human development theory because of the emphasis placed on relational needs for not only healthy identity but also social-emotional development (Horst, 1995). According to Eriksson's stage theory, healthy development occurs when one is open to sharing self with others emotionally and physically, while also being will- ing to be challenged by difference (Erikson, 1968; Hamachek, 1990). By contrast, poor social -emotional development can manifest when one is struggling to engage intimately with others, which then threatens the person's self-concept and ability for positive growth and change (Burt & Paysnick, 2014; Erikson, 1968; Tech & Whitbourne, 1982). In summary, the basic task of Erickson's intimacy versus isolation stage is to answer the question: Can I find relationships and love as the self identified person I am becoming? This question is illuminated in the case of Ivan because of the easily identified extremes within which he attempts to answer this question. Ivan has two distinct sets of relationships in three different geographically defined real- ities (i.e., protest space, university space, home space). In considering this conflict we will now consider two essential elements of this struggle.

Conservation

It was Piaget's contention was that younger ages could not comprehend a particular cognitive level at an age younger than the milestone age. To understand conservation, a child must possess the ability to cognitively preserve something (Piaget, 1936). This ability develops around ages 5-7 years. The principle of conservation relies on an amount of a particular something remaining constant across two or more conditions despite a change in shape or appearance (Oswalt & Dombeck, 2015). As explained by Dewey (2007), "That 'something' is an awareness of quantity, mass, number, area, or some other abstract characteristic of reality" (para. 9). As children progress through middle childhood, they become able to quickly and easily recognize that the actual mass of the object remains constant. Age ranges for children in Western cultures to attain various types of conservation are as follows: (a) conservation of number, age 7 years; (b) conservation of mass, age 7 or 8 years; (c) conservation of length, age 7 or 8 years; (d) conservation of area, age 8 or 9 years. Again, each of these age ranges is dependent on a multitude of factors. It was through these experiments (and some others) that Piaget came to recognize that conservation depends on two fundamental cognitive abilities: decentration and reversibility (Oswalt & Dombeck, 2015).

Ethic of Justice and Ethic of Care

Many studies have been conducted comparing both Kohlberg's and Gilligan's the- ories; with the majority of this research claiming that differences in moral rea- soning based on sex were unsubstantiated (Woods, 1996). Further, Juujärvi et al. (2011) contended that the ethic of justice and the ethic of care are both used in moral decision making and that males and females may be conceptualized as developing within both sequences, rather than one or the other. "A large body of research has verified that both orientations are used in moral reasoning. The most important predictor of orientation usage is the content of a moral conflict, rather than gender: in particular, prosocial dilemmas concerning the needs of others tend to invoke care-based judgments among both genders" Juujärvi etal., 2011, p. 419). For example, a young adult female who is pondering issues regarding human rights may draw from her moral ethic of justice and fairness. Further, a young adult male who is deciding how to proceed within an intimate relationship may refer to his ethic of care. Cam et al. (2012) concurred that men and women both use the ethics of justice and care as bases for moral reasoning. In light of these more recent discoveries regarding Kohlberg's and Gillian's work, perhaps a synthesis of both theories might be useful as a framework for approaching conceptualization of moral development in young adulthood. Further, as Wood (1996 purported, within modern society, there are many factors that influence an individual's approach to morality. Rather than solely focusing on sex differences, dialogue and research regarding moral development must integrate other cultural variables. The idea of culture being a significant influence on moral development was in fact one aspect upon which Kohlberg and Gilligan both agreed (Çam et al., 2012). Young adults are becoming aware of myriad cultural and contextual factors that may affect their moral development. As young adults expand their perspectives and awareness of these influences, they may discover what is truly of value to them (Hallam et al., 2014). Bohlin and Hagekull (2009) broadly defined social-emotional development and adjustment as "the relation an individual establishes with respect to the envi- ronment, and as such it has positive and negative, social and emotional aspects" (p. 593). Positive aspects of social-emotional development are characterized by their contribution to successful functioning within an individual's social context and involve prosocial behaviors associated with eudemonic values. Eudemonic values include courage, openness, kindness, generosity, and fairness (Bohlin & Hagekull, 2009; Hallam et al., 2014). Meaning and purpose in life become paramount within the focus of an individual operating from a values based perspective. On the contrary, negative aspects of social-emotional development are characterized externally by aggression and antisocial behaviors, and internally by anxiety, depression, and psychosomatic complaints. These behaviors and conditions are associated with hedonic values (Hallam et al., 2014). Hedonism, in both Kohlberg's and Gilligan's theories, is associated with lower levels of moral development and reasoning. A eudemonic values system promotes interest and care for self, others, and the world and encompasses a sense of justice as well as concern for relationships. Through a eudemonic position, both ethics of justice and care may be honored and utilized within the young adult's orientation to prosocial values. This orientation would, in turn, elevate one to the higher levels of morality as defined by Kohlberg and Gilligan. Dunlop and colleagues (2013) asserted that young adulthood is the prime period of time for individuals to determine their moral motivations, and they discussed three paths upon which young adults must choose to progress in regard to developmental shifts in morality. One path indicates an inclination toward agency and personal interest, a lifestyle that reflects hedonistic values. The second path leads to communion, focused on the interests of others and reflective of eudemonic values. These first two paths could be compared to levels 1 and 2 of Gillian's model of moral reasoning, yet there is a third path that could provide a synthesis of the first two, thereby promoting an individual to level 3. "Individuals may feel as though they have to decide between lifestyles that advance the self and lifestyles that advance others, failing to yet grasp the possibility of integrating these orientations" (Dunlop et al., 2013, p. 287). Moreover, a young adult may achieve the most advanced stage of morality by choosing a lifestyle that promotes personal interest through attending to the interests of others and/or the world. Further, Hallam et al. (2014) found that behavior associated with eude- monic values in late adolescence increased emotional competence in young adulthood. In turn, emotional competence in young adulthood decreased symp- toms of anxiety and depression during this developmental stage. Thus, the transition regarding social-emotional development and adjustment in young adulthood is significantly influenced by an individual's orientation to morality (Bohlin & Hagekull, 2009; Dunlop et al., 2013; & Hallam et al., 2014). The way young adults develop socially and emotionally is intricately tied to their moral motivation. The connection between morality, social-emotional adjust- ment, and psychopathology provides significant implications for counselors who are working to facilitate optimal social-emotional development within their clients.

The struggle against stagnation IN Middle adulthood

Middle adulthood can be a time when people have many different roles (Havinghurst, 1972). However, when the number of those roles starts to decrease due to impending retirement, job loss, or children moving out of the home, those in middle adulthood may need to find different avenues that could help against stagnation. Creative arts may be one option for individuals dealing with role changes in middle adulthood. An activity such as quilting has been shown to help resolve this crisis of gen. erativity and stagnation, as it allows individuals in middle adulthood to contribute to family, friends, and younger generations (Cheek & Piercy, 2008). Although this activity may not be for all, it is an example of how those in middle adulthood can find new activities to combat the feelings of stagnation. Volunteering has also been found to be satisfying (Kulik, 2010), but it is important to remember that middle adulthood covers a number of years. Two adults in middle adulthood may have vastly differ. ent views and experiences. Those in middle adulthood with many roles and activities may find volunteering less substantial to well-being (Yun- ging & Ferraro, 2006), and a study of individuals in this age group found middle-aged participants to perceive their volunteer contributions as less than younger-aged counterparts (Kulik, 2010). Discussion Questions 1. How might your conversation about generativity versus stagnation with a 45-year-old parent differ from a discussion with a 60-year-old parent? 2. What techniques might you use with a middle-aged client who comes to you with concerns about stagnation?

PERSONAL IDENTITY AND SELF-ESTEEMM in middle childhood

Middle childhood is a period where personal identity becomes "more complex, muld-faceted and abstract in nature" (Oswalt & Dombeck, 2010, para. I). Rather than identify themselves according to physical, observable characteristics (e.g., gender, size, eye color), they identify more so by personality characteristics and psychological being. Further, they are able to differentiate between positive and negative qualities. For instance, rather than describing oneself as a 7-year-old girl with blond hair and blue eyes, a young lady might describe herself as a nice girl who enjoys helping people but is incapable of carrying the younger boys' heavy book bags. It is through this identity recognition of strengths and weaknesses that children begin to compare themselves to others. As middle childhood-aged children become more influenced by social factors, their identities become entangled in the perceptions of others- especially their peers: Why is DJ. good at throwing a football when I can't even toss it 3 yards? Why is Megan so pretty when I'm stuck wearing these nerdy glasses? These per- ritv. That is, if others perceive a child as a loser, uncool, or any other negative connotation, he or she begins to self-identify in that light. On the other hand, if the child receives positive feedback from peers and others, then his or her self-identity may become inflated. Throughout development, one's self-identity may continue to shift and uke varied shapes. The same is true for self-esteem. Because external forces significantly impact these perceptions, the influence that positive individuals may place upon the child is extremely significant. Parents, teachers, coaches, and other positive adult role models may assist in the development of positive identity and self-esteem. One important theme is for children to understand that there are multiple means toward achieving success. Oswalt and Dombeck (2010) identified the following as these means: basic skill or ability, effort, practice and perseverance, maintaining a positive optimistic attitude, and asking for help when necessary. Recognition of these means helps children understand that although some peers may have a natural tendency to perform better in one domain, they might possess abilities to outperform other children elsewhere, especially with effort, practice, and perseverance. As children continue to make improvements and receive recognition for them, their self-esteem becomes boosted. This boost inay continue to serve as the drive that propels them to succeed above others in their class. Without this boost, however, children may become unmotivated, lose their drive, and give up.

THE INTERNET AND MIDDLE CHILDHOOD

Middle childhood marks a period when the Internet has more of an impact on social development. Beyond the typical utilization, chil- dren are socializing with one another via instant messenger, email, chatrooms, and video conferencing applications. This virtual social environment mimics real social environments in that there are two or more entities (e.g., person-person, Al-Al, person-Al) communicating with one another. As such, children may declare their needs and wants, learn new information, share their knowledge, communicate with others, and so on while receiving the similar responses to those they would receive from the real social environment (e.g., feedback, rewards, consequences).

The Impact of Deployment in middle school=

Military trauma may result from any direct or indirect act that occurs during war (U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs, 2014). It is during these times that human beings are more likely to lower themselves to commit subhuman acts beyond injury and death, which include torture, rape, hostage situations, and indirect trauma (Crandall, Parnell, & Spillan, 2010). The impact of deployment on middle childhood-aged children cannot be understated. In an article by Songomonyan and Cooper (2010) written on the behalf of the National Center for Children in Poverty (NCCP), data revealed that • Changes reported included changes in school performance, lashing out in anger, worrying, hiding emotions, disrespecting parents and authority figures, feeling a sense of loss, and symptoms consistent with depression. • High levels of sadness were seen in children in all age groups. • Depression was seen in about one in four children. • Academic problems occurred in one in five children. • Thirty-seven percent of children with a deployed parent reported that they seriously worry about what could happen to their deployed caretaker. • Parents reported that one in five children coped poorly or very poorly with deployment separation. (p. 4) Beyond the direct impact on the child is the indirect impact experienced by living with the other caretaker. Another study by Chandra, Burns, Tanielian, Jaycox, and Scott (2008) found additional evidence indicating that children "noted that deployment impacted their home caregiver's behavior" and "expressed greater worry about their home caregiver during deployment" (p. 54). When a caregiver's emotional state is impaired, it becomes difficult to adequately care for the child. Therefore, this additional stress may further compromise a child's psychosocial development.

MORAL DEVELOPMENT in middle school

Moral development can often be an overlooked concept in exploring the devel- opmental progression of middle childhood. Conventionally, focus is placed on the cognitive, emotional, and physical paradigms of development. Though these paradigms are supremely important it is imperative to understand how moral development is woven throughout the growth progression. We will not spend an exorbitant amount of time disseminating the specific nuances of moral development, yet beginning this conversation with counselors is tremendously important for several reasons. First, middle childhood is where the transition from Piaget's concrete operational to formal operational reasoning occurs (e.g., progression from concrete operational thinking to abstract logical thinking). Second, middle childhood is a pivotal stage, laying the foundation for Erikson's identity versus role confusion stage as the child transitions to adolescence. And third, middle childhood becomes a place where moral absolutes, values, and faith constructs are explored, tested, and eventually solidified.

* Contemporary Adolescents in Context

Most researchers agree that the optimal family structure includes two parents, under the same roof, who are both involved with raising children and running the household. However, in the United States, less than half of all children live in a "traditional" household, when defined as two heterosexual, married parents (Liv- ingston, 2014). Contemporary family structures include parents who are cohab- itating/unmarried, gay or lesbian parents (married and unmarried), grandparent guardians, extended family guardians, single parents, foster and adoptive parents, and more. In all forms, families have parent-child dynamics to consider, even if The parent is neither biological nor custodial. All adult members of family systems can play important roles in adolescent development. "in working with adolescents in counseling, it is important to understand Hoth the present and past family structures and influences on the adolescent. For example, adolescents whose parents are divorced may have fewer supporting resources in their lives, as divorce generally adversely impacts parental finances, free time, and emotional availability. Furthermore, the marital discord that precipitated the divorce may remain between the divorced parents, causing stress for the adolescent who continues to feel torn between parents. In fact, particularly contentious divorces and continued animosity between parents can impact ado- lescent social development and attachment patterns well into adulthood (Affi& Denes, 2012). Though a large body of research indicates that adolescents from divorced fam- lies are far more likely to develop significant issues-_-including depression, anxiety, academic problems, and substance use--it would be inaccurate to assume that all adolescents who experience divorce face these challenges, or that the divorce itself is the cause. Constance Ahrons (1998, noted family therapist and author of The Good Divorce, suggests that it is the residual animosity that so often persists between divorced parents that is the biggest stressor for children and most directly impacts developmental outcomes. Divorced parents who strive to create a binuclear family system, continue to consult with each other over decisions affecting their chil- dren, and treat each other with respect and kindness will often find themselves with happy, well-adjusted teenagers. Adolescents whose parents divorce may end up living with single parents or perhaps will soon find themselves in a stepfamily. Both circumstances have their unique challenges, including issues of boundary ambiguity and changing relational dynamics. While these issues can certainly have an adverse impact on adolescent development, negative outcomes are not foregone conclusions--in fact, many nav- gate the adjustments successfully. Counselors working with adolescent clients and their families through this period would be wise to help enhance communication and mutual understanding in relationships, as both are essential to healthy social and emotional development in adolescents. Another increasingly common nontraditional family is that headed by gay or lesbian parents who are single, cohabitating, or married. Adolescents with bay or lesbian parents experience stage-related trials and tribulations with the same rates and outcomes as their peers raised by heterosexual parents (American Psychological Association, 2004; Goldberg, 2010). There are some unique developmental stressors for these teenagers, however-including facing prejudice based on assumptions by a heteronormative society (Robitaille & Saint-Jacques, 2009). Counselors may need to integrate such topies into treatment with these adolescents to ensure healthy identity development and social adjustment.

Decline of Working Memory inmate adult *

People often use the terms working memory (WMD) and short-term memory (STM interchangeably. However, working memory tends to refer to the theoretical framework of structures and processes used for the temporary storage and manip- ulation of information (Bayliss & Jerrold, 2015). Age is a central determinant of working memory (Riediger et al., 2014). For example, evidence abounds that older adults' performance in working-memory tasks, on average, is lower than that of younger adults (Riediger et al., 2014). Often individuals employ various strategies and tools such as chunking or mnemonic devices to retain information (Xu & Padilla, 2013). This process can be more difficult for individuals in late adulthood. Fandokova et al. (2014) affirmed the existing assumption that the mechanisms underlying the associative component of memory are mature by middle childhood and undergo senescent decline in late adulthood and old age. Additionally, there are age-related differences in memory performance due to decreased functionality of strategic operations that contribute to developmental changes (Fandokova et al., 2014)

Schemas

Piaget believe that we acquire knowledge through the use of certain skills

Influence of peer group

R Influence of Peer Groups Adolescents spend most of their days immersed and enveloped within peer groups, Som the social peer group scene of adolescents and you will generally obserse a variety of small peer groups or adolescent cultural subgroups (Stearn, 20125 within the larger, school-wide peer culture (Lynch, Lerner, & Leventhal, 2013). Some peer groups are self-selected by adolescents, whereas adolescents might find themselves labeled or stereotyped into a peer group (e., jocks, nerds, preppy, popular, druggies). Adolescents may also find themselves placed into a particulat peer group because of gender, race, religion, affection orientation, socioeconomic status, disability, and other types of cultural groupings. Furthermore, affiliation into a peer group can occur based on adult recommendation or assignment, such as ability grouping (eg, gifted, talented; Nussbaum, Lucas, & McManus, 2012). Nonetheless, membership in or out of peer groups can have positive and nega- tive consequences on adolescents' self-concept, self-esteem, and overall sense of self-worth (Nussbaum et al., 2012). Through peer influence, a phenomenon characterized by the presence of both peer selection and peer socialization (Brechwald & Prinstein, 2011), adolescents come to know themselves. Within the peer group relational laboratories, adoles- cents experiment, risk, and learn about who they are in relation to others. Adoles- cents learn from peers and peer groups what is preferred, acceptable, and tolerated, and what is not. As youth individuate from adult values, peers serve as a social compass, a scope for modeling, imitation, comparison, and experimenting, each of which holds possibilities for positive and negative outcomes (Brechwald & Prin- stein, 2011). In other words, involvement with peer groups can be as liberating as it is painful. Whereas peer groups serve as support for adolescents as they envi- sion life beyond the family of origin, peer groups can also introduce adolescents to the harsh realities of judgment and how others view them. As Josselson (1992) described, "Never are people more unforgiving mirrors for each other than in youth" (p. 114). Through involvement in peer groups, "one finds oneself mirrored in another's eyes" (p. 210). Peer groups can reflect negative influences of on adolescents, such as antisocial, deviant, and at-risk behaviors, in addition to internalizing behaviors, depressive symptoms, and issues with body image and eating (Brechwald& Prinstein, 2011). The desire to belong, be seen, and avoid rejection can motivate some adolescents to choose behaviors that might not choose in other contexts

Kohlberg's Theory of the Development of Moral

Reasoning During Young Adulthood Lawrence Kohlberg, through his theory of moral reasoning (Kohlberg, 1976, 1984), purported that the highest forms of moral thinking are influenced by the forces associated with a person's sense of justice. Kohlberg's phases or levels of moral reasoning, discussed in chapter 3, were based on the importance that individuals placed on answering the following questions: How do I behave socording to external forces put upon me? How do I behave according to my internal expectations related to what society expects of me? How do I behave based on my own philosophies and beliefs regarding society's expectations? The significance one places on responding to any of these three questions may determine from which level of moral reasoning he or she is functioning: preconventional, conventional, or postconventional. Kohlberg purported that the cognitive and intellectual advances brought forth through young adult- hood will ultimately influence advances in moral thinking and development. Thus, moral reasoning may be elevated during this developmental transition (Kohlberg, 1976, 1984). Kohlberg used the famous dilemma referred to as the Heinz dilemma to con- ceptualize an individual's development and corresponding levels of moral reason- ing. The Heinz dilemma described a scenario that involved a man named Heinz who was faced with the decision of whether to steal a drug to save the life of his dying wife. Heinz did not have enough money to pay for the drug, and the druggist refused to lower the price. The conflict that Heinz struggled with was based on the values to which he must adhere, the preservation of life or the maintenance of property and law. Refer to Table 3.1, which outlines the three levels of moral rea- soning, the six stages within the levels, and the corresponding expected response from Heinz, based on his stage of moral development. Kohlberg's theory of moral development was well researched and sup- ported and thus became quite influential in regard to understanding how an individual comes to develop moral reasoning (Çam, Cavdar, Seydoogullari, « Cok, 2012). However, Kohlberg's theory came under scrutiny by other social psychologists, as his original research was based solely on the morality of men. Carol Gilligan (1982) asserted that the distinctive perspectives from women's life experiences were not given voice through Kohlberg's work, thereby disputing his claims of having created a universal theory of moral reasoning

Relational-Cultural Counseling Theory and Young * Adulthood: Addressing Issues of Difference

Relational cultural theory (RCT) is a feminist theory that counters the separate- ness of ideological self, presented in theories like Erikson's intimacy versus isola- tion. It emphasizes the role interpersonal relationships have in positive identity and social-emotional growth while exploring the influence of female gender identity (Deanow, 2011; Jordan, 2010; Miller & Stiver, 1997). Relational cultural theory has seven concepts Jordan, 2010, p. 24): People grow through and toward relationships throughout the life span. 2. Movement toward mutuality rather than separation characterizes growth. 3. Relationship differentiation and elaboration characterize growth. 4. Mutual empathy and mutual empowerment are at the core of growth-fostering relationships. 5. Authenticity is necessary for real engagement and full participation in growth-fostering relationship. 6. In growth-fostering relationships, all people contribute and grow or benefit. Development is not a one-way street. 7. One of the goals of development from a relational perspective is the develop- ment of increased relational competence and capacities over the lifespan. According to Erikson (1968), one of the most important goals of early adult- hood development is the formation of intimate relationships. Once achieved, these growth-fostering relationships produce Miller's (1986) five good things: a sense of zest; better understanding of authentic self, other, and the relationship; sense of worth; enhanced capacity to act; and an increased desire for more connection (Miller & Stiver, 1997). Similarly to Erikson's theory, RCT characterizes young adulthood as the authenticity-voicelessness stage and includes the development of intimate relationships where one can exercise the authentic self (Deanow, 2011). Authentic self is determined by relational experiences when one is either accepted by others, similar to finding one's niche social group, or is rejected and subse- quently hides aspects of his or her identity from relationships Jordan, 2010; Miller & Stiver, 1997). Counter to authenticity and akin to isolation, voicelessness is when a young adult runs the risk of rejection and losing one's sense of self through pressure to conform (Deanow, 2011). When young adults keep themselves from engaging in authenticity within relationships, they can become trapped in a cycle of voicelessness and isolation.

KEEPING UP WITH TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIAL IMPLICATIONS

With new technological advancements seemingly popping up every month, it can be overwhelming for an individual to keep up with the status quo. As counselors, we must take into consideration the effects (positive or negative) technology has on the developmental trajectory. Hofferth (2010) conducted a large-scale longitudinal study from 1997 to 2003 and found that as time increased playing video games and computer games and watching television, time decreased in other nonscreen activities including time spent sleeping, reading for pleasure, and nonscreen study. Take some time to ponder what changes you have noticed since the dawn of the Internet.

Attachment and Autonomy

Research on the profound developmental impact of attachment has traditionally focused on early childhood. While first relationships certainly do have lasting impact, it is now recognized that attachment impacts identity and development well into adulthood. Furthermore, attachment in adolescence is associated with the development of autonomy, differentiation, and individuation as well as the ability to form healthy relationships in adulthood. Building on the theories of Bowlby and Ainsworth, contemporary developmental theorists recognize secure attachment in adolescence to be an extension of positive parenting practices and essential in successful navigation of the challenging journey of adolescence. Secure attachment in adolescence has been found to be negatively associated with both depression and anxiety Jokobsen, Horwood, & Fergusson, 2012) and suicidal ideation (Sheftall, Matias, Furr, & Doughter, 2013). Conversely, insecure attachment has been linked to depression and conduct problems in adolescence (Scott et al., 2013) and to increased risk of suicidality (Sheftall, Schoppe-Sullivan, & Bridge, 2014). Researchers have suggested that attachment quality in adolescence may be a protective factor and is a promising focus for treatment of adolescents. Parent-adolescent attachment quality can impact social competence as well. Van Petegem, Beyers, Brenning, and Vansteenkiste (2013) found that insecure attachment was associated with less consistency in autonomy and increased interpersonal anxiety. Conversely, Mikulincer and Shaver (2013) noted that securely attached adolescents display greater confidence in decisions and comfort in inter- personal relationships and generally develop healthier romantic attachments. Hershenberg et al. (2011) also found a positive correlation between secure attachment and healthy interpersonal relationships, noting that securely attached adolescents had better emotional regulation and affect consistency. The researchers further suggested that secure attachment in adolescence may provide a buffer for common developmental challenges. As in childhood, secure attachment in adolescence still holds the parental figures- particularly mothers--as a secure base. However, for the adolescent, the secure base is defined differently parents serve a more supportive and guiding role for teenagers.

The Adolescent Brain

Research over the past few decades has yielded previously unknown insights into the structural and functional differences in the adolescent brain. It is now widely accepted that the adolescent brain is fundamentally different from that of both children and adults (Keating, 2004). In fact, considerable change in neural pathways, neurotransmitter activity, and neural density occur well into early adulthood

Befriending Programs f

Research suggests that having a least one close friend later in life makes a positive contribution to well-being as one grows older because the two can Becolhe-cact, Other's confidants and sources of support (Ryff, 2014). In response to the increak Sing need for social support for older adults, befiending programs fave de valoren. Befriending is defined as a relationship between individuals that is initinted and supported by a community agency and is designed to address unmet social relation. Ship needs. These relationships are mutual, nonjudgmental, upportive, purposeful, and extend over a significant period of time (Dean & Goodlad, 1908). Community agencies also use such terms as friendly visitors and senior companions to leverite befriending. Often agencies work to match volunteer befrienders and older adults with similar interests, demographics, and life experiences. Cattan, Newell, Bond, and White (2003) suggested matching individuals in the same generation, noting that these relationships have more potential for positive outcomes because they honor older adults' needs for reciprocity. Davis (1990) found when matched on similar characteristics, individuals were more likely experience positive attachment and improved mental health. Contact between the befriender and older adult is usually a combination of face-to-face contact and telephone contact. Although participants in a study con- ducted by Lester and colleagues (2012) preferred face-to-face contact, Cattan, Kime, and Bagnall (2010) found that telephone contact via befriending helped older adults increase self-confidence and social contacts, become more engaged in the community, and feel safer as a result of this positive bond. To understand befriending programs, Lester, Mead, Graham, Gask, and Reilly (2012) completed a qualitative study, interviewing 25 individuals who participated in befriending programs across five different European agencies. The average age of participants was 83.5 years, with 17 females and 8 males. Themes emerged from the qualitative analysis and identified the important experiences and elements of the befriending relationships. First, participants acknowledged that many adults live in a context of loss, as they experience many losses such as death and loss of physical abilities on a daily basis. The befriending relationship helped them deal with these multiple losses. Some participants described feeling trapped and iso- lated in their own homes, which increased feelings of loss and loneliness. They often used the noise of radio or television for companionship, so the befriending relationship was a welcoming connection. Second, the participants reported that it was not important that the pair shared similar previous experiences, but the rela- tionship was more beneficial when commonalities such as shared hobbies or similar opinions about popular media started to surface as the relationship progressed. Next, the predictability of the relationship seemed to be beneficial to many partic- pants in that there were clear boundaries and reliable and resourceful contacts in the community. In addition, participants acknowledged they often ruminated and at times became self-absorbed. The befriending relationship interrupted some of these patterns and also provided a relationship with a low risk of rejection. Last, Participants enjoyed sharing their knowledge and wisdom they had gained over time

The Impact of Sociocultural Factors on Adult Physical Development

Several social and cultural components may influence physical development during the vears of middle adulthood, specifically race and ethnicity, Family relationships, and vocational and socioeconomic status. Race and Ethnicity Compared with the well-being of middle age adults belonging to ethnic majority groups, the measurable health levels of individuals belonging to racial or ecti minority groups may be lower (Meyer, Castro-Schilo, & Aguilar-Gaxiola, 2014). African American women may experience menopause at an earlier age, on aver- age, than White women; however; this observed difference may be due to differ. ences in observed stress levels among various races or ethnic groups (Newhart, 2013). For many adults of racial or ethnic minority groups, exposure to various hinds of trauma is negatively related to self-related physical health (Klest, Freyd, Hampson, & Dubanoski, 2013). Other physical factors may not vary by ethnic and racial group; for example, similar factors may influence the health and weight management for White women and African American women (Capers, Baugh- man, & Logue, 2011). Minorities may be less willing to seek out medical resources or assistance (McGarrity & Huebner, 2014), which may lead to lingering physical problems and chronic health conditions. Family Relationships Family characteristics play a significant role in physical health during middle adulthood. Stressful environments or difficult transitions within the family life dynamic can trigger weight gain, poor sleep quality, and greater health stress for family members, which may contribute as a whole to lower levels of life satis- faction (Darling, Coccia, & Senatore, 2012). Although the physical well-being of middle age adults has been commonly evaluated by how frequently family members care for each other Jianfang, Xiaomei, & Hearst, 2014), the act of providing care during this period of life may be accompanied by significantly negative physical affects for adults serving as caregivers for other family members (Mosher, Bakas, & Champion, 2013). Vocational and Socioeconomic Status Vocational and Socioeconomic Status Various occupational and economic factors can affect physical health in middle adulthood. One prominent psychosocial issue is that gaps in physical health among this population as a whole widen during middle age (Benzeval, Green, & Leyland, 2011). Adults in the workforce typically begin to experience losses of on-the-job

DRuG USE in middle school

Social influences for drug use among middle childhood-aged children include par- ents, peers, and any other individual of influence (both in real life and in media). Parental influence is particularly significant, as there are hereditary and parental style components that factor into account. Evidence indicates that genetic predis- positions may be passed from one generation to the next, therefore increasing the likelihood that succeeding generations will also suffer from substance-related dis- orders (Stevens & Smith, 2009). To build on genetics, substance-abusing homes increase the likelihood of children abusing drugs as well. First, modeling of such behavior may leave the child thinking it is acceptable to use. Second, substance abusing homes may not be as careful about securing substances of abuse in the household. Third, children may become resentful of their parents and use to spite them. Fourth, children may use as a coping mechanism to escape the pain expe- rienced from their parents' issues. Stevens and Smith (2009) described the social consequences in the following statement: This makes the children in these families at high risk for the devel- opment of a variety of stress-related disorders, including conduct disorders, poor academic performance and inattentiveness. Children in substance-abusing families are socially immature, lack self-esteem and self-efficacy, and have deficits in social skills. (p. 257) Although children coming from healthy households may also use drugs in an attempt to experiment or socialize with their peers, those coming from substance using households are much more likely to associate with other peers who use. Unfortunately, drug use beginning in middle childhood is not uncommon. In fact, The TEDS Report (SAMSHA, 2014) revealed the following alarming statistics. First, in 2011, 10.2% of substance abuse treatment admissions aged 18 to 30 years with known age of initiation information initiated use at the age of 11 years or younger. Also, more than three-quarters (78.1%) of admissions that began substance use at the age of 11 years or younger reported abusing two or more substances at treatment entry. In addition, nearly two-fifths (38.6%) of admissions that initiated substance use at the age of 11 years or younger reported co-occurring mental disorder. As evidenced by these statistics, the potential impact of drug use on development is substantial. Early age onset of experimental use is the best predictor of substance abuse later (Sobeck, Abbey, Agius, Clinton, & Harrison, 2000). Social consequences for those who experimented before sixth grade include high susceptibility to peer pressure, poor decision-making skills, low confidence in skills, and negative perceptions of school. Therefore, early detection through being mindful of what children are doing, who they are associating with, and so on is critical toward minimizing early onset substance use disorders beginning in middle childhood.

Neural Plasticity in late adult

Successful aging can be described as having the cognitive attributes to explore, navigate, negotiate, and enjoy one's life (Vance et al., 2008). Therefore, to age successfully, individuals in late adulthood need mental stimulation. Mental stimu- lation is an individual's engagement in cognitive activities that trigger connections between neurons (Vance et al., 2008). Such stimulating activities promote neu- ral plasticity in older adults. Neural plasticity is the brain's ability to make new neural connections throughout life (Bryck & Fisher, 2012; Couillard-Despres, Iglseder, & Aigner, 2011; Stepankova et al., 2014; Vance et al., 2008). The pro- cess begins with the initial exposure to a new stimulus or stimuli, followed by neuronal expansion, and then the establishment of new synapses between neurons (Stepankova et al., 2014; Vance et al., 2008). As experiences repeat, the new neural522 Part 8 Late Adulthood pathways and connections will strengthen. As the number of neural connection, increases, resistance to age-related changes also increases Vance et al., 2008). * previously mentioned, such mental stimulation can be effective in slowing donn Cognitive decline or diseases such as Alzheimer's (Douthit, 2007, Harrison etal, 2014; Stanner & Denny, 2009). Numerous activities can provide mental stimulation for older adults. Of course, personal preference and levels of interest will vary from person to person. Krampe et al., (2014) found that musical experience offsets age-related delays in neural timing, and there is also extensive support for the use of physicl activities or exercise to improve the potential for neural plasticity (Erickson, Miller, Weinstein, Akl, & Banducci, 2012; Erickson et al., 2013). Counselors working with this population can encourage older adults to engage in activities that intrigue them or challenge them to try something new. The introduction of novel and interesting stimuli can potentially help increase neural plasticity and connectivity (Erickson et al., 2013; Vance et al., 2008). As individuals age, there is often some level of difficulty or decline that occurs. Most notably are difficulties experienced with language, working memory, and attentional control (Fandokova, Sander, Werkel-Bergner, & Shing, 2014, Mattys & Scharenborg, 2014; Riediger et al., 2014). Notably, the sensory-decline approach has gathered a great deal of empirical support over the years (Mattys & Scharenborg, 2014). Researchers have found that when adverse listening conditions such as noise, reverberation, and competing talkers are considered, complex interactions between peripheral auditory, central auditory, and cognitive abilities have to take place (Mattys & Scharenborg, 2014). Specifically, studies have shown enduring age effects on speech processing even after receptive abilities have been accounted for (Mattys & Scharenborg, 2014)

CONCEPTUALIZING SYNAPTIC PRUNING

Synaptic pruning during middle childhood is similar to rose pruning a gardener does in preparation for spring, which typically happens between the months of January and April. Though it seems counter- intuitive, the gardener will prune the rose bush back to two-thirds the original size. Bushes that have been appropriately pruned will explode in growth during the growing season and will typically be one to two times the size of bushes that were not pruned.

Middle school social biological development

With the increased growth in the prefrontal cortex and the subsequent improve- ment of the child's higher order thinking, emotional regulation also matures. Colle and Del Giudice (2011) indicate that the "ecology of middle child- hood suggests that change should be especially pronounced in two areas: the understanding of complex social emotions (e.g., shame, pride, embarrassment) and the deliberate, self-aware employment of emotional regulation strategies"

Career promotion and career

Working with groups, career change or returning to school, loss of employment under employment or unemployment, retirement, Relationships, raising children, caring for aging parents

Gillian's Theory or Moral Development and Young * Adulthood

arol Gillian's (1982, 1988) theory of moral reasoning asserted that higher levels of moral thinking are related to one's sense of care, contrasting Kohlberg's previous assertions that advanced moral reasoning was associated with one's sense of justice. Gilligan discovered that females spoke of morality in terms of their responsibilities to themselves and others rather than focusing on individual rights. Moral decisions were based on caring for others as well as fairness. Gilligan found that the female identity was influenced by connections to and relatedness with others. Therefore, the themes of separation and connection impacted various approaches to moral decision making. This proposed variance in perspective was thought to be influenced by the manner in which males and females are socialized within a gender-stereotyped society. Males are taught to value characteristics such as assertiveness, independence, achievement, and individuation, whereas females are encouraged to value sensitivity, connectedness, caring, and concern for others. Gilligan's (1982, 1988) work highlighted another perspective from which young adults may base their moral reasoning. Young adults are traversing new moral terrain as they experience increased levels of freedom and autonomy while balancing moral decisions based on what is fair, as well as what upholds their sense of caring. Previous life stages may have not afforded them the opportunity to apply moral reasoning to this expanded worldview. As young adults transition from home and school settings to more independent living, new challenges emerge concerning relationships, intimacy, and responsibility (Hallam et al., 2014). Refer to Table 3.3, which outlines Gilligan's three levels of moral reasoning, along with the significant transitions between levels 1 and 2 and 2 and 3. Level 1 is characterized by a focus on self, which alternates within level 2 to a focus on others. Finally, within level 3, a balanced focus on self and others is achieved. A developmental challenge for young adults may center on movement from level 2 to 3, wherein individuals experience a balanced focus on self and others, thereby enhancing their abilities to successfully address care-based relationships and roles (Dunlop et al., 2013; Gilligan, 1982, 1988; Lehnart et al., 2010). Although Gillian's (1982) research recognized the divergent patterns within the socialization of males and females, she clarified that "the different voice I describe is characterized not by gender but theme" (p. 2). In other words, Gilli- gan maintained that a person's approach to moral reasoning is based not on his or her biological sex or gender affiliation but rather an orientation toward the ethic of justice or the ethic of care. Gilligan believed that people choose one focus or concern on which to base their moral decision making. More recently, research has supported the idea that approaches to moral reasoning are much more adaptable, fluid, and contextual than previously thought Juujärvi, Pesso, & Myyry, 2011; Skoe, 2010).

Physical activity in late adult

as an intervention impact several age induced decline such as executive functioning which can result in either cognitive aging or dementia

Life Stages and Transition lheories for Early Adulthood *

The early adulthood stage is built on numerous processes, rites, and passages that reciprocally influence physical and cognitive development. A thorough under- standing of these processes and the theories that guide them assists counselors as they empathize with and take client diversity into account. Following are descriptions of transition theories that are applicable when working with clients in early adulthood. Levinson's Seasons of a Man's Life Levinson (1978) described five main stages whereby a person's life structure or pattern of relationships develops. The first adult stage, ern of early adulebood, encompasses the ages between 17 and 45 years and consists of three substages: early adult transition (ages 17-22); midlife transition (ages 40-45); and late adult transition (ages 60-65). Within the ern of early adulbood, three substages are described: entry life structure for early adulthood (ages 22-28); age 30 transition (ages 28-33); and the culminating life structure for early adulthood phase (ages 33-40). Levinson also discussed mid-life and late life adult transition stages. More emphasis will be given to these phases in later chapters. Early adult transition marks the beginning of adult independence. The ado- lescent leaves home and must make responsible choices regarding personal and financial issues. This stage is pivotal because it marks the end of childhood and the beginning of adulthood. Counselors help young adults in this life stage by offer- ing information on personal finances, educational choices, college financial aid assistance, career counseling, and other adjustment issues of living independently. Discouragement of drug use and encouragement of sexual responsibility may also be appropriate at this stage.

Beyond Piaget

The most prominent criticisms of Piaget's theory are (a) that there is greater varia- ton to the stage development than originally proposed, and (b) culture and context are far more relevant than Piaget suggested. For example, some adolescents remain very concrete in their thinking processes; in fact, many adults are not fully for- mal operational thinkers. In addition, certainly environment plays an important role in all aspects of development, a factor not well accounted for in Piaget's the- ory. Viewing intellectual development from a different angle, Vygotsky proposed a social constructivist theory, which emphasized a collaborative approach to learn- ing and intellectual growth, stressing the role of social interaction and contert. Vygotsky's theory accounts for cultural variations in both stage progression and skill acquisition and underscores the importance of opportunity in learning--thus taking into consideration the influences of parenting, schools, and peers on cog- nitive growth. Vygotsky's theory is not without its own criticisms, however, as some believe he overemphasized the responsibility of caregivers, teachers, and even peers on a child's intellectual development. Furthermore, neither Vygotsky nor Piaget accounted for substantial variations in rate of development, such as intellectual growth spurts. They also failed to fully acknowledge and explain how subcategories of intelligence may develop at different rates. A more integrated theory may be better suited for explaining cognitive devel- opment in adolescence as well as across the lifespan. The information procesing view is a theoretical framework of cognitive development built on the work of the neo-Piagetians in response to the criticisms and limitations of traditional the- orists. However, unlike the majority of developmental theories, it is not a stage model, but rather a process model. The four primary mechanisms of cognitive functioning remain fairly consistent throughout development: encoding, auto- maticity, strategy construction, and generalization (Siegler & Alibali, 2005). Vari- ation and development are directly impacted by available resources (nature) and opportunity (nurture). Thus, an information processing view may provide a more cohesive and diversity-oriented perspective of development.

Gender Identity and Sexual Orientation

The process through which individuals develop and express both gender identity and sexual orientation is multifaceted and involves strong influences from both biological and environmental factors. Chapter 12 explores some of social and emotional changes during adolescence that impact sexual behaviors. First, though, let's take a brief look at the biological and cognitive changes that impact gender identity and sexual orientation in adolescence.

Love

There are many different kinds of love, and by adolescence most individuals have some concept of what love feels like for them (Williams & Hickle, 2010). However, adolescence is often the first developmental stage during which concepts of love expand to include romantic attachments. The constructs and foundations of intimacy are laid by the nonromantic attachment relationships ado- lescents experienced during development--most influentially by those associated with parents, guardians, and caregivers, but also to a lesser extent by siblings and peers. These early attachments set examples for how close relationships function,how connection is forged and deepened, and how love is defined. For example, an adolescent who was raised in an encouraging, loving, and supportive family environment is likely to have the expectation that romantic relationships will be positive and satisfying. By contrast, an adolescent raised in an unaffectionate, critical, and cold family environment is likely to have negative expectations of romantic relationships, and may even gravitate toward partners who would fulfll such an expectation. The old adage is true- children do learn what they live. In fact, numerous studies have found clear correlations between parental-child and parent-parent attachment patterns and the beliefs, behaviors, and outcomes associated with adolescent romantic relationships (Santrock,2007). Another essential element in understanding adolescents' conceptualizations of love is the cultural variations of how love is defined (Williams & Hickle, 2010). In some cultures, such as traditional Asian cultures, romantic love is not consid- ered a vital element in successful relationships. By contrast, most Western cultures highly value love and consider it an important part of healthy, long-term pair bond- ing. Culturally bound discussions about defining love and assessing its importance can range from the biological to the psychological to the philosophical. In order to fully grasp the relevance and meaning of love to an adolescent client, the counselor must consider all of these aspects from the cultural vantage point and to understand the influences on the adolescents' narratives of love. Attachment patterns and cultural influences contribute significantly to how the adolescent defines love; however, perhaps the most crucial element influenc- ing how love is experienced and its impact on subsequent development lies in how adolescent love is perceived by the most central adults in the adolescent's life. As previously noted, romantic love is fairly new notion to an adolescent, and its meaning evolves over time, aided by the foundations created in childhood. However, too often adults minimize the significance of this experience for the ado- lescent and may inadvertently do harm to the social and emotional development of this period by belittling, diminishing, or even forbidding the adolescent's expe- rience and perceptions. Adolescents often hear "it's just puppy love" or "you don't know what real love is" or "you're too young." There are many possible reasons for this, including beliefs by parents or caregivers that romantic love endangers the adolescent as it may increase the risk of sexual activity. Adults may also believe that adolescent love is superficial and less meaningful, as they perhaps define love from their own more advanced and complex perspective. Regardless, it is vital for adults to recognize that love can be profound to the adolescent; validating and empathizing with this viewpoint are essential to maintaining connection and fostering guidance throughout the adolescent's experience. 4 Sexual Activity Adolescence is not the beginning of an individual's sexual exploration or the start of a sexual identity- in fact, very young children will often explore their own bodies and each other's as they discover similarities, differences, and pleasurable sensa- tions. However, adolescence is generally the beginning of genuine sexual desire, which starts at an auranda

PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS IN MIDDLE CHILDHOOD

To this point this chapter has discussed typical cognitive middle childhood development. Although the majority of children will develop along this typical progression, some will face a variety of complications such as a diagnosable psychological disorder. Recognition and appropriate treatment of such disorders may minimize or even fully eliminate associated complications. As such, this section addresses several common psychological disorders as experienced during middle childhood. This section is by no means comprehensive, and readers are encouraged to engage in further review of those most common within their particular population. Dealing with a psychological disorder can be a daunting task. It is diffi- cult enough to deal with the disorder on a daily basis, and continual negative

*The Victim (Reactive Aggression)

Unlike aggressors, victims can sometimes display an emotional immaturity and social understanding, thus causing the potential for irrational, aggressive, and sometimes violent responses (Camodeca et al., 2003). Other types of victims will struggle with problems such as depression, low self-esteem, suicidality, and psychosomatic complaints (Carney, Hazler, Oh, Hibel, & Granger, 2010). Carney et al. (2010) suggest that a victim might also struggle with anticipatory stress reaction, which suggests that a victim's anxiety (e.g., the anticipation of a potential bullying event) is worse than the event itself.

Vygotsky and Middle Childhood

Vigorsby (1978) believed that middle childhood-aged children extramentally Merelop higher psychological functioning through interactions with the environ ment. As children internalize these interactions over time, they develop the means br which they may function intramentally. To support this theory; Vygotsky uptured the structure of this relationship by creating experiments in which in eternal mediator would help a child perform a particular task (Wagoner, 2009). What Vygotsky (1962) found was an important link between language and cognitive and social development. When very young children are trying to problem solve or perform some novel task, it is common for them to speak their thoughts out loud. They speak their needs and wants, ask questions, and provide answers to those questions out loud to where anyone else in the child's presence may hear. Vygotsky's (1962) experiments revealed that middle childhood is when children shift from the external dialogue to internalized thoughts. Externalizing dialogue helps guide young children through various tasks. Children in middle childhood are able to internalize this dialogue because they have developed to a point of being more efficient and skilled at various mental operations (Oswalt & Dombeck, 2010). A 3-year-old boy wanting to play with his fire truck might say out loud: I want to play with my fire truck. Where is it Oh, it's in the toy box. Each step of the thought to find the fire truck is spoken out loud. The process for an 8-year-old boy wanting to find the truck would occur internally. The boy might think to himself. Where did I put my fire truck? Oh yes, it's under my bed. The thought process and subsequent actions for both the 3- and 8-year old boys might be similar, but the 8-year-old does not speak his thoughts out loud. Vygotsky noted that when younger children partake in private speech (thinking out loud), they become more socially competent in middle childhood because it allows children to better guide themselves through their behaviors (Santrock, 2007). As children progress into and through middle childhood, internalized thought continues to reinforce one's learning and better commit it to memory. Consequently, this is essential for academic achievement, making friends, and participating in various activities. An extremely important concept of Vygotsky's (1978) social development the- ory is the more knowledgeable other (MKO). MKO is an individual who is more knowledgeable or skilled in respect to a particular idea, process, or task (Vygotsky; 1978). This individual may offer direct or vicarious instruction through teaching or demonstration. A father demonstrating to his 6-year-old son how to throw a foothall by throwing the football himself is an example of this. Such a relationship may be extended to that of mentorship or apprenticeship. Then again, there may be no relationship at all past the initial instruction. It is important to note, however, that social development theory does not require the MKO to be a living person and is open to include all relevant variations of artificial intel- ligence (AI). Contemporary technology has contributed heavily to this form of MKO. Desktops, laptops, tablets, smartphones, and other devices that allow Inter- net access or interactions with software and other programs allow children to learn and reinforce that learning with various forms of practice.

The Baby Boomer Generation Jf

We would be remiss if we did not reference the influence of the Baby Boomer generation, defined as those born between 1946 and 1964, because they have been ine impetus for redefining the meaning of aging. Numbering nearly 77 million Jenkins, 2014), Boomers make up about a third of the population in the United states, and for the first time the senior age group is the largest in terms of size and percent of the population. It is expected that Boomers will live into their 80, 20, and 100 (Whitbourne & Whitbourne, 2011), which will necessitate revising social policies that affect older adults. As young adults, the Boomer generation redefined normative behavior just, as they are now redefining aging. According to O'Ryan, Rawlins, and Rawlins (2005), they are "a force to be reckoned with" (p. 34). O'Ryan and colleagues also noted that Boomers have transformed many of the preconceptions we have regarding aging; they "remake each life stage and are rewriting what it means to be a senior citizen" (p. 34). Boomers look at aging from a very differ- ent perspective that embraces individuality, self-expression, and youthfulness. They value self-determination and have different developmental needs than other cohorts. Boomers are typically well educated and socially conscious. Many fought hard for racial and gender equality and paved the way for gays, lesbians, and bisexuals to be more empowered. Their generation was the catalyst for change in traditional family structures, including dual-career families, as many Boomer women entered the workforce to pursue meaningful careers, not just jobs. Boomers embrace youthfulness--they do not want to "grow old gracefully" (O'Ryan et al., 2005, p. 37), nor do they consider themselves old (Moody & Sasser, 2012). Many intend to stay active as long as possible, valuing their individualism and autonomy. Moody and Sasser noted that many Boomers have made a "fundamentally different life plan" (p. 458) from that of their parents and grandparents. They are not just drifting to the end of their lives--many are staying gainfully employed, at least part time, well past retirement age, either because they enjoy working or can't afford to retire. Counselors working with adults in this stage of development need to remain cognizant of the fact that the Baby Boomer generation defies traditional assump- tions about aging, and therefore, they need to reconceptualize how to best address the needs of this age group, which is also ethnically and racially diverse (Cavanaugh & Blanchard-Fields, 2011). 'Ryan and colleagues (2005) stated that counselors working with the Boomer population must be flexible, open-minded, creative, and culturally sensitive. They must create new paradigms that better address the emerging needs of this cohort, including advocating for changes in social policies that affect older adults. O'Ryan et al. also suggested that counselors will need to be prepared to help clients with wellness and preventive health-care practices and to initiate good working relationships with medical doctors to facilitate appropriate health care. They must be able to help individuals and couples deal with the tran- sition to retirement and increase their awareness about how this will impact them socially, emotionally, and financially. Counselors need to be familiar with referral sources so their clients can get sound advice regarding financial and estate plan- ning. If clients are raising grandchildren, counselors may need to set up support groups to help them deal with the stressors and issues associated with this new responsibility. Even if they are not raising their grandchildren, clients may need family education or communication skills to facilitate the relationship with either the grandchildren or their adult children. Because of the unique needs of the Boomer cohort, counselors will need to assume an advocacy role with regard to health care and social security reform. Whitbourne and Whitbourne (2011) stressed the importance of this, noting that "new ideas are needed to revamp the current health care system for the aging baby boomers, whose numbers, lifestyles, and values will almost invariably lead to chal- lenges of the status quo of care now being offered (pp. 277-278). In addition to being advocates, counselors will also need to be collaborators, helping this cohort navigate transitions that present new challenges as different issues emerge.

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN MIDDLE ADULTHOOD*

What Is Cognition? Cognition is the process by which humans construct and process their thoughts. However, this definition is actually quite simple. Cognition contains many domains of how humans receive, process, and communicate information-_all in one gray matter space (the brain). Thus, adults could demonstrate impairment in one or more aspects of cognition but still have good cognition overall. Given the multiple domains of cognition, it is essential for counselors to (a) determine the various domains of cognition in adults and (b) measure these domains in order to determine the level of functioning in each domain. One of the most common ways that counselors measure cognition is through assessment of a client's mental status. Counselors and medical professionals (e.g., psychiatrists) use the Mini-Mental State Examination (MIMSE), initially developed in 1975 (Folstein, Folstein, & McHugh), to measure the cognitive functioning of adults on the domains of orientation, memory and recall, calculation, attention, language, repetition, and short commands via a scored method. Today, counselors often use modified versions of the MMSE, which they refer to as a mental status exam (MSE). Areas of cognition on the MSE usually assessed by counselors are con- centration, attention, memory, thought processes, thought content, perception, insight, and judgment, but other domains can be included. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fifth edition (DSM-S; APA, 2013), also provides several domains to measure cognition: complex atten- tion, executive function, learning and memory, language, perceptual-motor, And social cognitionPart 7 Middle Adulthood social cognition. This latter domain, which is defined as "recognition of emotions, theory of mind" (APA, 2013, p. 595), is a more contemporary idea in cognitive functioning, implying that cognition is more than just internal mental processes; it is also the method by which we interact with other humans.

Identity Crisis *

ccording to Erikson (1968), social-emotional issues in young adulthood develop from isolation. Isolation is multidimensional and can present as a range of symptoms, such as a client's fear of being intimate because it may challenge Part 6 Young Adulthood strongly held beliefs, values, experiences; fear of being rejected because of race, ethnicity, and sexual orientation; and the lack of ability to share oneself for the benefit of others in place of self-fulfillment (Burt & Paysnick, 2014; Erikson, 1968 Tech & Whitbourne, 1982). This tendency of creating relationships only based on self-fulfillment rather than intimacy can lead to distantiation, when one becomes unwilling to engage in relationships that are with people who hold different values, beliefs, or experiences because they are perceived as dangerous to one's self-identity (Erikson, 1968). Distantiation leads to the development of prejudice, which left unchallenged can perpetuate interpersonal relationships that are only one-sided, rather than fostering deep mutual growth, intimacy, and positive identity development (Lehnart, Neyer, & Eccles, 2010). Isolation can also led to depression and anxiety when emerging adults struggle to find fit as they develop new senses of self and expression (Azmitia et al., 2013). Some behavioral characteristics of intimacy are (a) firm sense of own identity; (b) tolerant and accepting of differences in others; (c) able to form close emotional bonds without losing own identity; (d) can be close with others but also comfortable alone; and (e) able to express caring feelings and empathy (Hamachek, 1990, p. 678). Conversely, isolation is associated with the following characteristics: (a) no estab- lished sense of identity; (b) no acceptance of differences in others; (c) hesitancy to form close relationships for fear of losing identity; (d) development of competitive relationships rather than cooperative ones; and (e) difficulty expressing empathy (Hamachek, 1990, p. 678). Though Erikson's intimacy versus isolation stage was progressive for its time, it remained closely aligned with his psychoanalytic background, which emphasized the separateness of self from relational identity (Erikson, 1968; Horst, 1995; Tesch & Whitbourne, 1982). One major critique was attributed to his studies including predominately White males during a time when racism and sexism were more overt within our society, and it remains a limitation that other theories sought to expand (Horst, 1995; Tech & Whitbourne, 1982). The following theory, rela- tional cultural theory, is one counseling model that expands on social-emotional development to include identities beyond White males with an increased emphasis on relational identity development.

Influence of school

eachers help navigate and cope with emotional challenges they face as adolescence FAMILY RELATIONSHIPS AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT The traditional view of parental influences on adolescent development has been grounded in the notion that parents train their children- in essence, children are the products of their parents, socialization and instruction. This view was partic- ularly popular through the mid-20th century, when adolescence was often viewed as a period of rebellion and an intentional pulling away from parental mores (recall the concept of storm and stress discussed in chapter 11). More contemporary views of parent-child relationships support a reciprocal socialization view; that is, it is now recognized that while parents do have significant impact on their children's devel- opment, children are also impacting parental development and behaviors. This systemic approach to understanding parenting and adolescent development offers a more comprehensive view of family processes and a better understanding of rela- tional dynamics and dysfunctional family patterns. To better understand the implications of reciprocal impacts and a systemic view, it would be helpful to consider a few examples. It is widely known that interparental relationships significantly impact the adolescent's development. Ligure 12.1 Reciprocal socialization Intiuences in family systems. infuences must always be a fonsideration, even if an individual - rather than a systemic--treatment approach is used.

Brain Mapping *

euroscience is changing the way mental health professionals diagnose and treat client issues. For example, brain mapping is increasingly used to compare emotion regulation and decision making without the need for invasive surgery. Collura, Bonstetter, and Zalaquett (2014) advocated the use of ele ctroencephalogram (EEG) technology to better understand client experiences based on emotional responses. For example, a client whose brain shows right hemisphere activity when given a phrase such as body fat is indicating negative emotion. This knowl- edge assists counselors as they empathize with clients and attempt to understand the degree for which certain issues affect emotions and accompanying emotional responses. Particular counseling micro skills can then be used to address concerns that might otherwise be unknown

ISSUES COMMONLY EXPERIENCED IN MIDDLE ADULTHOOD

hapter 16 Middle Adulthood: Emotional and Social Developmen measured individuality through the use of photo essays of adult participants aged 18 to 54 years. These photo essays required participants to use pictures to show who they were as individuals, and these were then given a score by trained raters. A comparison of the 20-25-year age group and the 45-50-year age group showed a significant difference in rated individuality, with the 45-50-year age group scoring higher (Dollinger & Clancy Dollinger, 2003). These results indicate that our personalities and our abilities to describe ourselves possibly develop throughout our adulthood. Think of the implications of these finding as you read the following sections. The main areas that contribute to social and emotional development during middle adulthood are career, relationships, and spirituality. We provide vignettes at the beginning of each section to direct your attention to how you may provide counseling to someone experiencing these issues in middle adulthood.

Age and death

he ages of children and adults can impact the way they think about and conceptualize death

BOX 12.8 SOCIAL ADVOCACY: PREVENTION AND INTERVENTION

he most effective prevention and intervention programs are those that provide early identification of problematic behaviors and issues and that offer prompt support and resources. What local, state, and federal pro- grams are available in your area to provide such services and to foster adolescent resiliency, wellness, and healthy development? Is the out- reach of these programs sufficient? Where are the gaps and what steps might be taken to improve services?

Piagets cognitive development

iaget described four stages of cognitive development: sensorimotor (ages 0-2 years); preoperational (ages 2-7 years); concrete operational (ages 7-11 years); and formal operational (ages 11-adulthood). During these stages, cognitive think- ing evolves from reflexive, instinctual action in the sensorimotor stage to symbolic thinking in the preoperational stage. The concrete operational stage is noted as the child begins to understand logic about concrete events, including the concept of conservation. Formal operational thought is characterized by abstract thinking and logical hypotheses (Piaget, 1952, 1954). Some theorists suggest the presence of a fifth stage transcending beyond Piaget's theory of cognitive development. This fifth stage, the postformal stage, is thought to evolve in young adulthood as adolescents mature and begin to accept ambiguity. For example, adolescents tend to look for correct answers whereas young adults are comfortable brainstorming multiple solutions to a problem. Further, disagreement is accepted in the postformal developmental stage and is viewed as the means to better understanding (Siobhan, 2007). Postformal thought is only observed in the adult population and some never reach this stage of reasoning (Freberg, n.d.).

altachment Styles in middle school

motional growth (or the lack thercof) happens in the context of culture and relationships and, thus, could be viewed through the lens of attachment. Colle and Del Giudice (201 1), referencing Shaver and Mikulineer (2002) and Mikulincer, Shaver. and Pereg (2003) indicated that secure children have healthy primary strategies for affective regulation. These strategies are initially based on the mirrored coregula- don with children'S primary caregivers. As children enter middle childhood these regulation strategies provide them with stable, autonomous, independent ways of coping and regulating with the world around them (Colle & Giudice, 201 1). When an insecure attachment with the primary caregiver is present, the aforementioned secure strategy is absent and one of two alternative strategies develop: 1) the byper- actiouting strategy of the ambivalent child and (2) the deactivating strategy of the avoidant child. The hyperactivating child is characterized by continuous and sus. tined proximity seeking, constant monitoring of caregivers, and a preoccupation with the threat of abandonment (Contelmo, Hart, & Levine, 2013). Conversely, the deactivating or avoidant child dismisses his or her attachment needs, redirects focus and feeling of negative emotions, and develops maladaptive coping strategies based on the innate desire to avoid and a hypervigilance to suppress any resemblance of an emotion (Colle & Del Giudice, 2011; Contelmo et al., 2013). With this brief understanding it must be realized that as the child enters midde childhood, the relationship between emotional regulation and attachment has the tendency to become more multifarious. The child's emotions are less reliant on the reciprocal interaction with the primary caregiver, internalized models begin to take on generalized representations, and friends take on more of a prominent role as the child's interdependence moves toward independence (Colle & Del Giudice, 201 1).

hapter 17 Late Adulthood: Physical and Cognitive Development Decline of Attentional Control in late adult

ttentional control is an individual's capacity to choose what to pay attention to Mattys & Scharenborg, 2014). Bugg (2014) affirmed the difficulties in splitting attention but noted the assumption that there is a general decline in cognitive control is unsupported. However, it is wise to be mindful of the potential for cog- nitive decline and to work proactively to prevent such deterioration. As previously noted, adding mentally stimulating tasks to daily life can make a difference (Bryck & Fisher, 2012). In addition to mental stimulation, older adults can employ cognitive strate- gies to compensate for such losses (Bryck & Fisher, 2012). Well-informed older adults can access information and tools online to help combat the aforementioned declines (Bryck & Fisher, 2012). For example, websites such as Lumosity, Brain Metrix, and Mind Games offer free methods to help test and train the brain. In some cases, individuals can choose to pay a fee to subscribe to the site in order to get a personalized brain-training program. Additionally, members of this pop- ulation can engage in other activities that require mental acuity, such as playing Sudoku or crossword puzzles.

†Cognitive Degeneration and Memory

ust as the brain becomes fully developed, degenerative changes begin occurring. The brain shrinks with increasing age, memory impairment increases, and cog- nitions are affected (Muller-Oehring, Schulte, Rolfing, Pfefferbaum, & Sulli- van, 2013). This brain shrinkage is especially evident in the prefrontal cortex. For example, between the ages of 30 and 80 years, the brain loses up to 14% of frontal lobe gray matter and 24% of frontal lobe white matter (Balter, 2011). Other brain areas are also affected including the cerebellar hemispheres and hippocampus (Chang, Nien, Chen, & Yan, 2014). Reductions in neurotransmitters such as acetylcholine and gamma aminobu- tyric acid (GABA) also make the brain less productive in memory retrieval and signal transmission. Reductions in acetylcholine may be responsible for memory loss associated with Alzheimer's disease, whereas decreases in GABA, the entity responsible for ensuring efficient transmission of signals, affect precision between neurons. Fortunately for young adults, the accompanying losses in cognitive per- formance and memory are not noticed until much later in life. Outcomes can be improved with physical activity, intellectual engagement, proper diet, and social interactions beginning in early adulthood (Chang et al., 2014).

Normal Grief Reactions

• Protest, disbelief, and denial • Sadness and survivor guilt • Somatic symptoms • Withdrawl • Anger and irritability Disruption of normal patters • Preoccupation with memories • Identification with the deceased Abnormal Grief Reactions • Persistence of denial • Suicidal ideation Acute organic disease Progressive isolation Hostility about medical care Continued disruption of behavior Preoccupation with the deceased Conversion symptoms (deceased)