Human geo chptr. 6 (political geography)
Border Conflicts: Tyranny of the map example: Rwanda
In 1994 ethnic Hutus and Tutsis fought for control. Tutsis had migrated to the region 400 years earlier, but upon independence from Belgium in 1962 Hutus went about ethnic cleansing, forcing many Tutsi refugees into the former Zaire and to Uganda. In 1994, after a plane carrying the president of the Rwanda and neighboring Burundi was shot down, Large-scale reactionary violence directed by Hutus against local Tutsis, who were blamed for the crash. In response, Tutsi refugees flooded back into the country to fight back. 500,000 people died. In the years following, Hutu versus Tutsi violence has spilled over to Brandy and eastern parts of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, or ethnic face violence and fighting continued today.The eastern Congo is seen by many researchers to be the next area of widespread armed conflict in Africa. Due to the ethnic fighting in and along the Democratic Republic of the Congo and invasion by the armies of Uganda and Zambia, the regions 1884 borders are all the meaningless lines on the map.
Reunification
In a few irredentism cases, nations or culture groups were torn apart into separate states as a result of war other historical events. In the post Cold War era there have been a few cases of reunification of note: (East and West) Germany, Yemen (North Yemen and Yemen democratic republic), and the return of the Canal zone to Panama. Some places, such as China/Taiwan and North/South korea, occasionally talk of reunification, despite the potential for armed conflict.
Boundary Origins: Superimposed
Lines laid down for political reasons overtop cultural boundaries. Sub-Saharan Africa after the Berlin Conference of 1884; Yugoslavia and Iraq after the 1919 Treaty of Versailles
Boundary Origins: Subsequent
Lines resulting from conflict or cultural changes, such as war and migration. German-Polish border after 1945; Kaliningrad to the USSR in 1946
Irredentism as the Cause of Balkanization: recent irredentist conflict examples
Location: Island of Timor Irredentists: East Timorese (Catholic) Resistant State: Indonesian (Muslim) Status: Independence in 2002 after UN Intervention with Australian peace-keeping troops Location: Ossetia Irredentists: South Ossetia (Muslims) Resistant State: Rep. of Georgia (Christian) Status: Russian military as of 2008 protects the Ossetian autonomous region in Georgia
Heartland Rimland Model: Predictive Power of the Model
Mackinder accurately predicted the battle lines of the Eastern front during WWI. In 1921, he revised the model, expanding the heartland further into central Europe. In essence, Mackinder stated that the same geopolitical situation remained, with land still being the primary commodity of conflict: the thing that countries were willing to fight over. From 1904 onward, Mackinder Point out that the areas of future conflicts are the borderlines between heartland and rimland. This prediction comes true again with the 1931 an invasion of Manchuria by the Japanese, which some Asian scholars identify as the actual start of WWII. The European border conflict areas in the model are also realized with the 1939 German invasion of Poland, a country within the redrawn Heartland.
Shatterbelt Theory: The Cold War: Shatterbelts and Containment Theory (img polego3)
Mackinder died in 1947, but his legacy lives on in the cold war era geopolitical models and theory. In 1950, American geographer Saul Cohen proposed the shatterbelt theory.He modified Mackinder's Heartland into the "Pivot Area" and Rimland into the "Inner Crescent. The rest of the world became the "Outer Crescent," including the the USA. His land-based concept was that cold war conflicts would likely occur within the inner crescent. He pointed out several inner crescent areas of geopolitical weakness that he called Shatterbelts. Like Mackinder's earlier predictions, Cohan's shatterbelts accurately identified numerous areas where wars emerged between 1950 and the end of the Cold War in 1991.
Political Economy: Marxist-Socialism: What happened with communism?
Marks died in 1883 and the first communist country, The USSR, was established in 1917, with the fall of the czar's absolute monarchy in Prussia. The time gap was significant. Had Marx seen how his ideas were put into practice, he would be very upset and disapproving. Despite all of the unintended consequences to the Russian Revolution, the Soviet communism emerged functioning underMarx's Basic principles. Under Stalin, the USSR developed five your plans, Which were comprehensive long-term economic plans that dictated all production in minute detail. In the 1930s, when the rest of the world was suffering through the poverty of the Great Depression, the Soviets were doing comparatively well. But 50 years later it was falling apart. The devolution of the Soviet system was due in part to several political economic problems in the USSR. In reality, three classes of Soviet citizens emerged early in the Soviet Union. Most workers, as Marx envisioned his proletariat. However, to achieve an important position in Soviet society, like government officials, professors, or factory managers, you had to join the Communist Party. They made up 6% of the USSR population and enjoy many perks. Likewise, a military officer class members that had a similarly high quality of life in comparison to the working class. Working-class people were resentful. They have heavy handed secret police and laws that made public protest punishable by hard labor in prison camps. Creative, inventive, and industrious people stagnated. There was a lack of incentive in the system.motivated people to have better lives. If you were a brain surgeon or a garbage man you got the same pay. There were more perks to being a doctor, that wasn't worth all the education with no financial reward. The lot of incentives also affected economic productivity. Neither farms nor factories had any reason to produce more food or products than what was stipulated in government quotas. This resulted in the lot of surplus, leaving many stores with a few items on the shelf and lines of people waiting to receive rations for food and clothing. Now only two cases a Soviet style communism remain: Cuba and North Korea.
Capitals: capitals moved to existing cities for political reasons
New Capital: Berlin / Old Capital: Bonn, East Berlin / State: Germany / Reason: Reunification New Capital: New Delhi / Old Capital: Calcutta / STate: India / Center of colony New Capital: Ankara / Old Capital: Istanbul / State: Turkey / Reason: Congestion, centrality New Capital: Moscow / Old Capital: St. Petersburg / State: Russia / Reason: Russian Revolution New Capital: Jerusalem (some countries don't officially recognize this)/ Old Capital: Tel Aviv / State: Israel / Reason: Israeli annexation of West Bank
Capitals: planned capital cities examples
New Capitals: Washington, D.C / Old Capital: New York City / State: USA New Capital: Brasilia / Old Capital: Rio de Janeiro / State: Brazil New Capital: Canberra / Old Capital: Sydney / State: Australia New Capital: Abuja / Old Capital: Lagos / State: Nigeria
Supranationalism: the EU: Open-border policy
No border control stations for immigration or customs inspections. Cross borders without stopping. Began with the Schengen plan in 1985 when West Germany, France, Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands opened their borders to one another. Workers can now take jobs in other EU states without applying for work permits.
Supranationalism: the EU: Free-trade Union
No taxes or tariffs are charged on goods and services that cross the internal borders of the EU. European businesses can save money and be more economically competitive with the USA and Japan.
Supranationalism: the EU: European Union Constitution
Proposed for ratification in 2004. 65,000 word docmuent was poorly understood by citizens and members of parliament. Concepts like a common EU foreign policy among all states were unclear. Concerned about the continued loss of sovereignty for member state governments. Political leftists saw it as being too pro-business. Right wing sentiment against Turkey in the Eu also said no. Voted down in the Netherlands and France in 2005.
Geopolitics
Refers to the global scale relationships between sovereign states.
Nation: Anglo-Canadian, Quebecois, and First Nations. What is the state name and country
State name: Canada Country: Canada
Nation: French, German, Italian, and Romansch
State name: Confoederatio Helvetica Country: Switzerland
Nation: Han, Manchu, Zhuang, Miao, Uygur, Tibetan, and others. What is the state name and country
State name: People's republic of China Country: China
Nation: England, Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland, Isle of Man, and the Channel Islands. What is the state name and country
State name: United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland Country: Great Britain or the British Isles
Capitals: more than one capital examples
State: South Africa / Capitals: Pretoria, Bloemfontein, Cape Town State: Bolivia / Capitals: La Paz, Sucre State: Netherlands / Capitals: Amsterdam, The Hague State: Ivory Coast / Capitals: Abidjan, Yamoussoukro
Balkanization and Irredentism
When the political landscape goes from a larger state to several smaller states. The case of the former Yugoslavia is also an important example of Balkanization. This is due to the fact that Yugoslavia sits in the Balkan peninsula, which has historically been divided among a large number of ethnic and religious groups. In the last 100 years of European history, the continent has geopolitically gone from being dominated by large Empire States to being dominated by several small nationstates. In 1909, there were 27 sovereign states in Europe; today, there are 50. After WWI, much of the early cases of Balkanization were due to a realignment of German borders and the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire into 6 sovereign states. After WWII, some borders changed but the number of states changed only slightly. It was after the fall of communism in Eastern Europe and in the Soviet Union in 1991 that the political landscape began to break apart.
Electoral politics and internal boundaries: Who can vote?
Suffrage in terms of age, race, and gender has a very historically from state to state. The 19th amendment to the US constitution granted American women the right to vote in 1920. Woman, in other parts of the world, gained the right to vote in these examples: New Zealand 1893 Canada 1917 United Kingdom 1918 United States 1920 Mexico 1947 Honduras 1955 Paraguay 1961 Race has also been a barrier to voting rights. South Africa denied the voting rights of nonwhite citizens. In 1994, the first full and free elections in south Africa resulted in the presidency of Nelson Mandela from the African Xhosa tribe. This was the world's last case of official government restriction, or de jure (by law) on voting due to race. However, in many countries there is still de facto (as a matter of fact) racial and ethnic discrimination that restricts voting by Minority citizens, via fear and intimidation tactics.
Political Borders: Water Borders at Sea: high seas and admiralty law
Technically outside of the 12 mile limit. Past that line, cruise ships can open their casinos and ship captains gain the authority to marry couples or arrest thieves onboard their ships. Provisions made under admiralty law, a part of international law that dictates legal procedures on the high seas. Beyond the 200 mile limit, international fishing fleets can hook or net whatever ocean life they choose and in unregulated amounts. Only exceptions are when international treaties limit the capture of certain species, like the 1986 International Whaling Commission (Norway and Japan still hunt whales, claiming for "scientific purposes" (lol sure ok))
Spacial concepts of Political geography (citizenship and territory)
Territory is the expression of political control over a space. Concept of the state implies that the government controls land and the people who live there Citizenship is legal identity of a person based on the state where they were born or where they were naturalized as an immigrant. When citizens go outside their state's political borders, they retain their citizen status and become an extension of their state (unless they apply for new citizenship as immigrants). Why we strictly define the state as a population represented by a single government without mentioning territory. However, space matters, and it's not much of a state if it has no land, which can happen in the case of a government in exile, like the Dutch or Polish governments during WWII.
Supranationalism: the EU: Legislative and regulatory bodies:
The 785 seat EU Parliament was established to propose and approve laws within the union. The European Commission is a separate council with one seat for each member state. Each year the presidency shifts to one members state, allowing it to set the year's policy agenda. The European cCommission also acts as the executive branch of the union to enact programs and enforce regulation set by the EU Parliament and Council. The EU Commission president is appointed by the European Council.
Capitals
We can't forget that each state has to have a capital city. Why? There will always need to be a seat of government where political power is centered. In a way, power political power is a form of currency just like money. And just as market areas need financial centers of exchange, politicians need to place have organized exchanges of power. Occasionally they make laws and have elections, as well. Federal states can have several scales of capitals, just as they have several scales of sub-state units. Some countries have more than one capital to share power across different regions of the country. Sometimes new capitals are created because of the shift in political power for congestion in the old Capitol. Sometimes new capitals are made for previously a city didn't exist.
Border Disputes: Allocational
When a resource lies on two sides of a border. Who gets what? Mexico-USA river allocations for irrigation and drinking water on the Colorado River and Rio Grande (Rio Bravo)
Border Disputes: Definitional
When border treaties are interpreted two different ways by states. Russian-Japanese Kuril Islands under Soviet control in 1945
Border Disputes: Operational
When borders are agreed to, but passage across the border is a problem. New passport requirements for entry into the USA after September 11, 2001
Boundary Process: Definition
When borders are claimed, negotiated, or captures
Boundary Process: Delimitation
When borders are put on the map
Boundary Process: Demarcation
When markers are placed on the ground to show where borders lay
Border Disputes: Locational
When the border moves, like a river changing course or lake drying up. India-Bangladesh territory along the Ganges-Brahmaputra River Delta
Nationstate
A single culture under a single government. A cultural group that has its own political boundaries. Not a lot. Japan, Iceland, Tonga, Ireland, Portugal, and Lesoth are places that have not seen permanent invasion or mass immigration from other culture groups in their histories. Also applied theoretically to multinational states where the state has come to represent a singular and contemporary culture, as opposed to the ancient cultures from which the population originates. Identifiable American culture in the USA, or Brazilian culture in Brazil. The new political nation is the result of the blending of several culture groups together along with the idea of political nationalism.
Electoral politics and internal boundaries: voting for a local and regional representation
All democracies have some form of parliamentary system where at least one law making body or house has popular representation. Each country has its own system regarding the number of seats and the size of voting districts. In the USA, division of the 435 seats house of representatives is apportioned relative to each state's population. Every state is divided into a number of congressional districts, each district having one seat in the Congress; California have the most 53, And the least populated state, Wyoming, has one. In the UK and Canada members of parliament are selected from local constituencies based on population, but unlike the US, these are outbreaks from across the country. Do you've to its dense population, Ontario holds 106 of of the house of commons' 308 MPs. Senators in Canada are appointed.
Territorial morphology: the Swiss navy
Although Switzerland can register and fly merchant ships, due to its land locked morphology it has never had a Navy. Humorously, The term "Swiss Navy" is either an oxymoron or pure idiocy. The latter appears to be the historical case. In the early 1990s, pilots from the Swiss Air Force for the first outside of the US Navy and Marines fly the F 18 Hornets aircraft. United States gave permission for the Swiss Air Force to use all existing American F-18 training programs and facilities. For some this went as far as the old and military flight training, carrier landing school. Upon completion of carrier training, some highlights were awarded certificates which had a Swiss navy printed on them.
Political borders: Enclave and Exclave
An enclave is a minority culture group concentrated inside a country that is dominated by a different, larger culture group. An exclave is a fragmented piece of sovereign territory separated by land from the main part of the state's territory. Occasionally, neighbouring states attempt to claim exclaves in the name of cultural nationalism. Often armed conflicts result. Exclaves: Alaska, Port Roberts, Kaliningrad (Russia separated by Lithuania and Belarus), Nagorno-Karabakh (Armenia, separated by Azerbaijan), Nakhchivan (Azerbaijan, separated by Armenia), Cabinda (Angola, separated by Dem. Rep. of Congo), Musandam (Oman, separated by UNited Arab Emirates), Llivia (Spain, separated by France), Ceuta and Melilla (Spain, separated by Morocco).
Jingoism
An extreme or excessive type of nationalism. WWII Japan, WWII Germany, WWII Italy
Country
An identifiable land area, identifiable by a political boundary. Often a general term. Often interchangeable with state.
Border Disputes: Post Colonial Boundary Conflicts
An international example of a former frontier dispute that has lead to conflict today is in central Africa. The conference of Berlin in 1884 was a diplomatic meeting between the European colonial powers set the internal political boundaries in Africa. Most colonies were in coastal areas, but the interior of the content had only recently been explored by European. The final agreed-upon map is very similar to today. However their mark many problems with the 1884 border design that didn't urge until after decolonization in the late 20th century. Most African colonial state achieve self determination as fully independent sovereign states between 1960 and the early 1990s. The main problem with this is that they do not match cultural boundaries. This is super impose boundary situation is what Africans referred to as a tyranny of the map. Instead of the large artificial nationstates that the Europeans envisioned, the reality is that political allegiance in sub-Saharan Africa is based upon tribal identity and at a much smaller relative scale. The result has been that within postcolonial African states and number of tribes have been grouped together in a confined area some of whom have a long pre colonial histories of conflict.
Territorial change: Annexation
Annexation is another term used to describe the addition of territory as a result of a land purchase or when a territorial claims extended through incorporation. The USA originally purchased Alaska from the Russian Empire in 1867 for $7 million in gold- a bargain- and became a full state in 1948. The US Virgin islands resulted from a cash sale of St. Thomas, St. John, and St. Croix in a financially strapped Danish government in 1917.
Territorial morphology: elongated
Appear stretched out, long. Chile, Tennessee.
Problems with republics
Arguments between levels of government, and constitutions. The written constitution of the governments need to be flexible enough to allow governments to deal with political and other crises when they occur. The USA has had 2 constitutions, the former being in the articles of Confederation, which didn't work. The French have had five different types of government since the revolution, and the current government system in France is known as the Fifth Republic. There is no perfect Constitution, but the Constitution can be refined overtime by the addition of amendments. Another problem is that the wealthy business people and corporations have replaced the aristocracy in terms of the control of money, land, and resources. Their personal and corporate political influence overshadows that's of many thousands of private citizens. The purchase of political favoritism to influence the setting of regulations is a constant problem in republics, as it is in other democracies, especially within the legislative branch. This has created uneven power relations in free market democracies. Another type of separation is the power of the executive branch is to have separate presidents and prime ministers (or chancellors in Germany). In the USA, Mexico, and Argentina, the president is both head of State and head of government. And most other republics there is executive separation. Depending on the country, this can be done in a couple of ways. In France, the president is head of government and the prime minister is head of state, but it's the opposite in Italy.
Political borders: Outside the lines (expatriate)
Countries with large expatriate populations (citizens living outside of their borders) have to provide consular services in large foreign cities. Citizens living in foreign countries often have to visit their country's embassies or consulates to process legal documents, passports, and visa applications. When citizens get trapped in war zones, their government has gotta get them out.
What's important about the "high seas" (beyond the 12 miles limit)
Cruise ships can open their casinos, ships captains can marry people, ship captains can arrest thieves on their ship. Basically you can do things on your ships but you can't do things off your ship.
Organization of states: The Big Fellas: Federal and confederatinos
Common approach to government. USA, Australia, Canada, Germany, Brazil, Russia, and Mexico are all confederations of several smaller states or provinces under a federal government. Federal state provides military, foreign diplomacy, regulates trade, legislative, and judicial services. Overlapping roles in the administration, each has its own division or responsibilities. The federal government regulates interstate trade, whereas states can make rules about the sale of goods within each state.
Supranationalism
Concept of two or more sovereign states aligned together for a common purpose. Have been formed for the purposes of trade alliances, military cooperation, and diplomacy. Largest is the UN (193 member states) whose purpose is primarily diplomatic. UN also provides a umber of services internationally through its WHO, FAO, UNDP, UNICEF, peacekeeping, and smaller directorates like the UNHCR.
Supranationalism: the EU: Monetary union
Eliminated the costs of currency exchange fees. The UK kept the pound because of its high value. New member states have to meet strict EU economic regulations before they can join the monetary inion. But the financial crisis of 2008 showed some weaknesses of the Euro as indebted countries were unable to devalue the Euro as they'd been able to with national currencies. Countries like Greece, Ireland, and Portugal received bailouts as part of the Eurozone crisis. These events have forced countries to questions the desirability of using the Euro currency.
Border Type: Cultural
Estimated boundaries between nations, ethnic groups, or tribes
The EU as the World's Largest Economy
Eu governance has been successful in creating a singular economy through free trade, open borders, free movement of labor, free exchange of currency, and a level plying field for business and labor in terms of laws and regulations. Instead of 28 small economies, it's one big economy that is very competitive with the USA, Japan, and emerging economies like Russia, China, India, Brazil, or a proposed Free Trade Zone of the Americas. In GDP the IMF reported in 2014 that the EU had an economy of 185 trillion, while the GDP of the USA was 17 trillion.
Supranationalism: the EU: Not so good stuff
Eu's main source of revenue is a 20% sales tax knows as value-added tax (VAT). Many complain that the cost of EU governance has increased the cost of many items in Europe. Member state governments have also complained that the European courts have threatened the sovereignty of national and local courts and laws. Open borders have made it difficult to control crime and terrorism. Externally the Eu has had to strengthen its borders against illegal immigration and the flow of contraband. Fortress Europe to describe the concept of sealing Eu borders. But many of the eastern EU borders and undefended and only road and rail border crossings are inspected.
What's a republic?
France, Germany, Italy, and many former colonial state are technically republics, under the broader category of free-market democracy. Some republics, like France, are centrally governed from a single capital. Others, like Germany or the USA, our confederation that apportion some government power of legislation and administration to their components states or provinces. Republics are free of aristocracy or monarchal control. The governments are fully under the control of the common people, as opposed to hereditary monarchy. Republics generally have a separation of powers. Here, the executive, Legislative, and judicial branches of government are held by separate groups of people that keep each other in check. This may seem less efficient, but it reduces the potential for corruption of the whole government. One branch of leadership sales or its practices are called into question, the other branches can act correct problems or police leadership If necessary.
Border Conflicts: other postcolonial frontier border disputes
Frontier: Kashmir, States in dispute: India Pakistan China, Cause or Reason: mountainous region and British partition in 1948 remains in conflict. Frontier: Empty Quarter, States in Dispute: Saudi Aravia, UAE, Oman, Cause or Reason: open sand dune desert (Rub al-Khali) Saudis and Yemen settles in 2000) Frontier: Neutral Zones, States in Dispute: Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Kuwait, Cause or Reason: Uqair Protocol of 1922 and open desert (Saudis and Kuwait settled in 1970) (Saudis and Iraq settled in 1991)
Heartland Rimland Model (img polgeo2)
In 1904 British geographer Halford Mackinder proposed what would become known as the heartland-rimland model. Mackinder's model was an effort to define the global geopolitical landscape and determine areas of potential future conflict. He identified agricultural land as the primary commodity that states we're interested in. Several states with limited land area wanted to expand their territory- as they had done by expanding their colonial empires. However, they also eyed one another's European farming areas. The largest of these was the Eastern European steppe, a very productive area of grain cultivation mostly controlled by the Russian Empire at this time. This, combined with the mineral end timber-rich region across the Urals into siberia, was identified by Mackinder as the heartland. It was this portion of the earth surface that bordering Rimland States such as the German Empire, the Austro-Hungarian empire, and Romania were potential invaders of. The rimland also contained other landwolves eager to grab at neighboring territory such as France and Italy. Likewise, there were seawolves, such as Great Britain and Japan, who would use their navies to leverage geopolitical power.
Supranationalism: the EU
23 states in 2013. Named in 1991 under the Treaty of Maastricht, which expanded the organization's role beyond trade relations. Prior there was the European Coal and Steel Community, its success encouraged the development of the European Economic Community ("the Common Market" or EEC). By 1973, the EEC eliminated all tariffs on trade goods between its 12 Western European member states. Today the EU is like a federal government for Euorpe but lacks some of the administrative aspects of other confederations like the USA.
Nation
A cultural area, a land that's identifiable by a single culture. There can be stateless nation.
State
A population with a single government. Often interchangeable with country.
Border Conflicts: Peaceful Resolution to Border Conflicts
Before the 1846 Oregon Treaty that set the border at 49 degrees North latitude, the western border between Canada and teh USA was undefined. Much of the frontier region that today is Montana, Idaho, Oregon, Washington, Alberta, and BC was claimed by Great Britain and the USA. Diplomacy was key, but nearly led to a war as many in the USA said "Fifty-Four Forty or Fight!" This claimed that the USA border should be 54degrees40' North. We were lucky to settle it peacefully.
Border Type: Geometric
Boundaries surveyed mostly along lines of latitude and longitude
Boundary Origins: Antecedent
Boundary lines that exist from prehistoric times. French-Spanish border along the Pyrenees.
Territorial morphology: Fragmented
Broken into pieces; archipelagos. Philippines, Newfoundland
Nationalism
Can be an existing culture group that desires political representation or independence, or from a political state that bonds and unifies culture groups. Politicians use nationalism as motivation to support the state and oppose foreign or other political influences. Individuals tend to take pride in their nationalist identities, even though they or their neighbours may be from a mix of different ethnic backgrounds.
Territorial change: decolonization after WWII
Decolonization after World War II significantly reduce the area and number of territorial and colonial holdings of the European powers and the USA although most areas for granted independence, some colonial holdings were incorporated and residents integrated with full citizens status. E.g., hawaii, Alaska, and the French departments of Guadeloupe, Martinique, Reunion, and French Guyana. Residents of these places have full voting rights, pay taxes, and receive benefits just like the other citizens of USA and France.
In which order does the boundary process occur?
Definition > delimitation > demarcation
Containment's Long-Term Success
Despite feelings of the containment approach, Communism was limited to a large degree to the pivot area and a number of buffers states. The containment effect had a devastating effect on the economy of the Soviet Union and its allies. At certain points during the cold war it is estimated that upwards of 50% of the USSR's Gross national product was focused on military production and other activities to support expansion of communism. This stressed the Soviet economy and created further shortages of food and goods for its citizens, which created further problems within the Soviet society and the communist government. By the 1980s cracks began to appear in the social fabric of the USSR. Numerous dissidents publicly criticized the government's expansion efforts and costly nuclear arms arsenal. Similarly, the mothers of the red Army soldiers killed in the war in Afghanistan (1979-1989) publicly protested in the streets of Moscow despite the potential of arrest and deportation to Siberia. They learned that not even the most coldhearted Communist leaders could jail the mother of a soldier killed in action. Continuing the containment tradition, monies spent by the USA in the 1980s arm afghan Mujahideen rebels with arms, includingStinger shoulder launched antiaircraft missiles, paid off in the end with Soviet troops returning in defeat. This was a centrifugal force that reverberated throughout the USSR, and its government fell 2 years later in 1991.
Centripetal forces
Factors that hold together the social and political fabric of the state (pedals make the bike go). Examples: political beliefs of nationalism, a strong and well liked national leader, an effective and productive economy, effective government social welfare programs
Centrifugal forces
Factors that tear apart the social and political fabric of the state (F U get away from me). Examples: ethnic, racial, or religious differences or conflicts, political corruption, failing economic conditions, natural disasters or a wartime defeat
Capitals: examples
Federal State example: Place, Description: Akron, county seat of Summit Country, Ohio Relative Scale: Local, Country, or Parish Place, Description: Columbus, state capital of Ohio Relative Scale: State, Provincial, or Regional Scale Place, Description: Washington, D.C, capital of the USA Relative Scale: National (nation-state), Federal
Political economy: Feudalism and its decline
Feudal political ecoomies operated with the vast majority of land and wealth being controlled by an aristocracy- a peerage of lords, earls, marquis, barons, dukes, princes, kings, and queens. Conversely, the vast majority of the population, as peasants, commoners, serfs, or slaves, were poor farmers and laborers who worked the land controlled by aristocrats. Peasants paid rents and had their harvests taxed for the right to live on and work the land. This kept peasants in a cycle of debt, known as debt peonage, as they were never able to fully pay of rents and taxes. Feudal states tended to have absolute monarchy, in which the supreme aristocrat, a king, Prince, or Duke, is both head of state and head of government, and therefore does not share power with anyone. Like medieval style feudalism, the concept of an absolute monarchy has diminished over time and mostly exist in the Islamic world. Only a few absolute monarchy exist today: Saudi Arabia,Brunei, Morocco (limited power-sharing), Emirates within the United Arab Emirates
Boundary Origins: Relic
Former state boundaries that still have political or cultural meaning. Scotland-England border after The Act of Union in 1652
Sovereign territory
Generally means that a state is fully independent from outside control, holds territory, and that it has international recognition from other states or the UN. Autonomous from the country next to you. Has control over its own affairs.
What determines if you're a country or not?
Generally not considered a country if the UN doesn't recognize you. But most middle eastern nations don't recognize Israel as a country, they recognize Palestine. Not always that perfect. If you want to be a country. you have to be recognized internationally.
Political Economy: Free-Market Democracy
Generally, countries with elected representatives parliamentary system like the USA, the United Kingdom, Commonwealth countries, and other constitutional monarchies or republics are classified as free-market democracies. Generally relies on balancing the relationship between elected representative government, Its citizens, and business interests. In most cases, there is a variable System of regulation and taxation by the state. As a result, the marketplace is not totally free, as it would be in a completely unregulated laissez-faire economic system, but it's close enough.
Territorial morphology: Perforated
Has a hole(s) (country, large lake). A perforated state completely surrounds another. A classic example would be South Africa since it surrounds Lesotho. The surrounded nation can only be reached by going through one country. South Africa, Utah.
Territorial morphology: Prorupt
Has a panhandle or peninsula. Italy, Michigan. Has a long extension, or an extended arm of territory.
Territorial morphology: Landlocked
Has no sea or ocean borders. Switzerland, Wyoming.
Political Borders: Water Borders at Sea
Historically, borders at sea were poorly defined, and each country had its own laws. Often, more than one sovereign state claimed the same part. Changed in 1982 with the United Nations Conference on the Law of the Seas (UNCLOS), which proposed standard oceanic boundaries for all UN member states, and was fully ratified in 1994. Border system under UNVLOS in 2 parts: *Territorial sea*: Sovereign territory includes the area of sea from shore out to the 12 nautical mile limit. Within 12 nautical miles all the laws of a country apply. *Exclusive Economic Zone*: Exclusive economic rights from shore out to the 200-nautical-mile-limit. Within 200 nautical miles of its shores, a state controls all aspects of natural resource exploration and extraction. Includes fisheries, oil and gas production, salvage operations, and permits for such activity. Beyond the shallow water continental shelf in almost all cases.
Border Conflicts: Frontier War or Peace?
Historically, frontier described the open and undefined territory. Few disputed small frontier regions today. Only remaining large land is Antarctica, where the Antarctic Treaty (1959) has set aside the continent for scientific research and prohibits any military action and commercial mineral or energy extraction.
The electoral college
In the USA, presidential election are decided through voting by the electoral college. After the November presidential election, electoral votes are assigned state by state in December, based on the popular vote in each state. Number of electoral votes is based on the total number of representative seats, plus the two senators' seats from each state. California has the most electoral votes, with 55, and Wyoming the least, at 3. It takes at least 270 (over 50%) electoral votes to win the presidential election. If the canidates tie or have fewer than 270 b/c of third party, then Congress chooses the new president. Every 10 years after the census, the USA reapportions the 435 seats of the House of Representatives. This generally causes some changes to the number of congressional seats and the number of electoral votes a state has.
Irredentism as the Cause of Balkanization
Irredentism tends to follow one of two definitions: when a minority ethnic group desires to break away from the multiethnic state and form its own nationstate, or break away and align itself with the culturally similar state. Russia is one of the most significant situations where a number of groups are seeking independence or annexation by neighboring sovereign state that is culturally similar. Chechnya is one such place. Chechens, like more than 25 other autonomous republics in Russia, we're granted limited local self-governance by the Russian Federation. However, Chechens are ethnically Turkic peoples who are predominantly Muslim- very different from Slavic, eastern orthodox Christian Russians. It stands to reason that both religion and ethnicity are the centrifugal forces in this case. Soon after the fall of communism, Chechens began to declare independence from Russia. As a result the Russian government moves in troops and a regional armed conflict has ensued. Russian fears the loss of oil resources and pipelines in the region, but a larger geopolitical issue looms. If Russia were too loud Chechnya had to become independent or be annexed by Azerbaijan, Then many of the other autonomous republics would push for succession, leaving the Russian Federation without much of its current land and resources.
Terrorism
It is hard to define terrorism and prevent it. The use of terrorism- plan violent attacks on people and places to provoke fear and cause danger in government policy- is old as time. State terrorism occurs when governments use violence and intimidation to control their own people. Roman army attacked Carthage in 146 BCE and totally destroyed the city and its inhabitants. They even threw salt on the fields so no food can be grown. Nazi Germany, the Stalinist Soviet Union, and Pol Pot's regime in Cambodia are all side examples of state terrorism during the 20th century.
Political economy
It's often difficult to discuss the political situation in the states without explaining the economic aspects. In addition, the political economic systems have important links to other parts of the AP human geography material. Here are the major categories to consider, with examples.
Commonwealth countries
Most but not all member states of the Commonwealth of Nations (independent former parts of the British Empire) retain the British monarch after had a state. These Commonwealth countries have their own parliament and prime ministers as head of government. Each also has a royally appointed Gov. Gen. as the Crown representative in the country. The Gov. Gen.'s role, like the monarchs, is mostly symbolic. These are independent sovereign state, but do retain some minor political link to the UK. Most provide military support to the UK in times of war. Examples: canada, Jamaica, Dominica, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, New Zealand, Australia, Fiji, Papua New Guinea, Belize, Guyana, Bahamas, Antigua and Barbuda, and Granada. Don't claim the British monarch as head of state: india, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Nigeria, and Kenya. Commonwealth nations have parliamentary government, which integrate executive, legislative, and judicial powers, like Great Britain. The Commonwealth of Nations is an important supranational organization that provides special trade, education services, government funding, and preferred immigration status between member governments and citizens. Former colonies that are now dependent territories not sovereign states of the United Kingdom; are not commonwealth members and are still controlled from London with limited and local governance include: anguilla, Cayman Islands, Turks and Caicos, British Virgin Islands, Bermuda, Montserrat, at the Falkland Islands, St. Helena, Ascension Islands, and Gibraltar.
Border Type: Physical
Natural boundaries- rivers, lakes, oceans, mountains, or deserts
Examples of Balkanization
Old State (end date): Yugoslavia (1991-2008) New States: slovenia, Croatia, Serbia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, montenegro, Macedonia, Kosovo (disputed) Old State: Czechoslovakia (1993) New States: Czech Republic, Slovakia. Old State: Austro-Hungarian empire (1918) New States: Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Yugoslavia, Liechtenstein Old State: USSR (1991) New States: russia, Belarus, Ukraine, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan
The Decline of Feudalism and Empires
Revolutions and wars from the late 1700s to to the 1900s forced many feudal state to accept some form of democracy. Events such as the French Revolution of 1789 inspired many monarchs to accept power sharing with commoners to avoid losing control of their state. Under constitutional monarchy, the supreme aristocrat remains head of state, but the leader of the elected parliament is the head of government, with integrated legislative and executive powers. In most cases this is a prime minister or premier, who appoints senior members of parliament to be ministers or secretaries of executive branch departments. In most constitutional monarchies, the monarch retains the power to dismiss parliament; appoint judges, ambassadors, and other officials; is commander-in-chief of the military; and retaines significant landholdings and estate. However, the monarchs political power is mostly diminished to a symbolic role, and he or she holds a small but important position in proposing laws. Examples: Great Britain, Belgium, the Netherlands, Japan, Norway, Denmark, Sweden, Spain, Thailand, Luxembourg, Kuwait, Jordan, Bahrain, Monaco, and Cambodia.
Territorial morphology: Compact
Shape without irregularity. Nigeria, Colorado
Containment Theory
Some of these conflict areas were ones that the Soviet Union and the People's Republic of China would attempt to capture to create buffer states, land that would protect them by creating a surrounding buffer of sympathetic countries. Influenced by Mackinder and Nicholas Spykman's theoretical work, US diplomat George Kennan first proposed the strategic policy of containment to the American government in 1947. In this proposal, the USA and its allies would attempt to build a containment wall around the core Communist States. Anytime the USSR or China attempted to expand the realm of influence politically or militarily, the forces of NATO and other democratic state allies should be deployed to stop them. This was a successful strategy at first, and communist movements were thwarted in Greece, Iran, and Malaysia. At the same time, West Germany, Italy, and Japan were rebuilt as industrialized free-market democracies as part of the containment wall, under the Marshall and MacArthur Plans. However, Communists reached a military stalemate in Korea in 1953, and won military victories against the French (1958) and Americans (1975) in Vietnam. These combined with quick communist takeovers of Hungary (1956), Czechoslovakia (1969), as well as Angola (1975), Cuba (1959) and Nicaragua (1979) were evidence of containment theory's limitation put into practice, as communism spread even to parts of the outer Crescent. They USA and allied states had to contain the Soviet-supported satellite states to prevent communism from spreading further. They feared a domino affect where one state would fall to communism and then inspire and support communism uprisings in neighboring states
Multinational states, sometimes called _______
Sometimes called multiethnic states. The USA, Canada, Rwanda, People's Republic of China, and most other sovereign states are multinational states made up of a number of different nations represented by the multitude of culture groups who have migrated and intermixed around the world. Most common in the Americas, where there are no nation-states.
Gerrymandering
Sometimes reapportionment mapping is done in a straightforward manner with regional or compact districts. Other times the shapes of new or redrawn districts are irregular. The irregularly shaped districts that are highly elongated and prorupt are often referred to as gerrymandering, named for Massachusetts Governor Elbridge Gerry who first attempted irregularly shaped districts in 1812. In 1990 and 2000, a number of gerrymanders were attempted that tried to stack votes guaranteeing congressional support for one political party within each district, making the outcomes of elections predictable and in favor of the political majority in state government. Others were attempted that created minority majority districts where lines were drawn to encompass only minority population centers. In 1992 case of North Carolina, Republican state leaders drew the new 12th district along interstate highway 85 connecting a number of African American communities along a narrow corridor over 200 miles long. The reapportionment was challenged in court and in 1993 the US Supreme Court found the redistricting unconstitutional, resulting in a redrawn district for the 1998 election cycle.
Organization of states: The Wee Fellas: microstates
Sovereign states that despite their small size, hold the same position of much larger states like the USA or Canada. Many are island states, ports, or city-states, or they sit landlocked with no access to the sea. (img: polgeo1)
Supranationalism: the EU: Judicial Union
The European Court of Justice in Luxembourg provides a legal venue for cases between litigants in separate member states. With the increase in cross-border tade and labor, there were boudn to be lawsuits and contract issues that would require the EU's decisions. Also, a European Court of Human rights ahas been established to preserve civil rights regardless of their member states' local laws.
Political Borders: Water Borders at Sea: Overlapping Borders at Sea and Disputes
The UNCLOS makes provisions for a UN arbitration board to settle disputes regarding boundaries at sea. Often countries with overlapping sea claims generally agree to split the lines halfway. Difficult when uninhabited small islets, exposed reefs, and sandbars above water are claimed by more than one country. Can take years of negotiation, and occasionally troops are deployed. E.g., two areas of the South China Sea, the Spratly Island and the Paracel Islands, are claimed concurrently by China, Vietnam, Indonesia, the Philippines, Malaysia, and Brunei. Oil is believed to be under both island groups, and these are areas of potential future armed conflict if arbitration fails.
Political Borders
The borders between political states and political sub-unit areas (countries, parishes, parliamentary districts, and city limits) are strictly finite lines. Political boundaries, as expressions of political control, must be clear. Sometimes the physical geography like rivers define boundaries, and sometimes border lines are measured surveys based on treaties or other agreements between states. Non-physical boundaries often reflect cultural divisions, but not always accurate. Such borders can be the result of aristocratic land holdings from Feudalist eras, or the front lines at the secession of armed conflict between states. But treaties can change these lines.
The Decline of Feudalism and Empires: Example: The British Aristocracy and Government
The current form of constitutional monarchy in Great Britain has been in place since the Magna Carta was signed in 1215. Feudalism has a range throughout, but in the Magna Carta and there was some degree of power sharing with the aristocracy and later with commoners voting in elections (1689). Today, feudal rents to local aristocrats are still technically paid in a number of rural areas of the United Kingdom, although many are symbolic and small fees. A majority of Britons live in urban areas and are not subject to those fees.Any farms are now owned privately, though some may still be required to pay feudal rents. The British aristocracy structure and role has also been modified in recent years. Traditionally, aristocratic peers sat in the house of lords, the upper House of the Parliament, which also serves as the Supreme Court. The House of Lords numbers more than 760 members. When the king or queen elevated someone to the peerage, a new seat was added. Eventually, they had too many members. Beginning in 1999, Queen Elisabeth II reformed the house with two types of members. Hereditary peers, who after death pass their title and seat to their first born son, were reduced, and life peers, mainly senior public servants were rewarded with a title, kept their title and seat for their lifetime only. Since the late 1600s, the power has steadily increased the house of commons, the lower house of parliament. The commons has 650 seats apportioned to local districts across the United Kingdom; scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland also have regional parliaments of their own. The prime minister is head of government, but is also a member of Parliament. Generally the PM is the political leader of the party with the most MPs. Other senior MPs from this ruling party serve as ministers of the executive branch of government. This is another example of how parliamentary democracy integrates the three branches of government.
Political Economy: Marxist-Socialism: What about the socialism part? (good things from communism)
The positive things that came out of communism were mainly in the realm of infrastructure and social welfare. Prior to communism in the Soviet Union, China, and Cuba, there have been almost no healthcare available to the common people. Similarly, infrastructure programs for public schools, free universities, drinking water, care for the elderly, and public transit were established to improve the efficiency and quality of life in communist society. It successfully replaced the utter poverty that existed under the former feudal and corrupt capitalist society in these countries Government leadership and control of healthcare, education, and pensions are Marxist-socialist I deals which have since been incorporated in western free-market democracy like Canada and Great Britain.
Examples of Supranational Organizations:
UN, EU, NATO (military), OPEC (Oil Pricing Cartel), NAFTA (Free-Trade Zone), OAU (Regional Diplomacy), IMF (Government Loans)
Political Economy: Marxist-Socialism
Under Communism, Karl Marx's political economic theory is attempted to right the wrongs of feudalism and inequalities of capitalism in free-market democracies. One of the main goals was to create a class free society where there were no inequalities in terms of wealth or power. To do this, the state would own all land and industry, government would direct economic productivity, and everyone regardless of labor position would earn the same amount of money. The key to this was the planned economy, which did not rely on supply and demand like capitalism. The central government would calculate the economic needs of the state, its industries, and people. Then the government would set quotas for each individual operational unit of agriculture or manufacturing production to meet those needs. Theoretically, the productivity of the economy would result in a collective wealth that would be shared equally across the population. It's a utopian idea of the system should create a harmonious peaceful social existence, but communism and practice failed to produce Marx's Utopia
Political Borders: Water Borders at Sea: Political Borders on the Map, Not EEZs
When you look at the map you can see that normal political boundaries and the real EEZ boundaries are very different. The cartographic borders are often rectangular around islands. In reality, territorial seas and EEZs create circular boundaries.
Statless nations
Where a culture group is not included or allowed to share in the state political process. The Kurds spread across northern Iraq, western Iran, eastern Syria, and southeastern Turkey. Semi autonomous Kurdistan in Iraq since USA invaded in 2003. Full independence is limited geopolitically due to Turkish government resistance to their sovereignty, based on Kurdish Marxist rebels, the PKK, who have been fighting in Turkey for a while. Since the start of the Syrian Civil War, Kurds have taken territory and started a semi autonomous gov. Basques in northern Spain and southwestern France (Pyrenees mountains), who have an entirely unique language. Spain has granted limited autonomy to the Basque region around the city of Bilbao, but many Basque nationalists want full independence. Hmong have existed in rural highlands in Laos, Vietnam, Thailand, and southern China. The alliance with the USA against commies during the Vietnam War caused many families to leave. Today many Hmong have resettled in the upper Midwestern states of Wisconsin and Minnesota. Also Karen, Romani, Karelians, Tartars, Tuvans, Chechens, Sami, Uygurs, Tibetans, and Tamils.
Yugoslavia (centripetal centrifugal)
Yugoslavia was an artificial state created after WWI that has several different ethnic and religious groups. The post WWII communist leader of the country was the Croatian Josip Tito. As a Croat who fought alongside Serbians against the Nazis, Tito was a good choice as president. He became a centripetal force representing the two largest ethnic groups in the country. A strong nationalist belief in communism among Yugoslavian s helped Tito build an economically strong and socially harmonious multiethnic society. When Tito died in 1980 the lack of an effective multiethnic leader to replace him created a political power vacuum that opened the way for different nationalist leaders representing different ethnicities to attempt to seize power for themselves and their constituents. These ethnic differences, combined with differences in religion between groups, had many histories of conflicts and warfare. These became powerful centrifugal forces that ripped apart the Yugoslav social and political fabric and, in combination with the fall of communism in Europe, doomed the country to ethnic violence and dissolution.
