Human Growth & Development

Erikson's Stages of Development (8)

*Stages are Psychosocial 1. Trust vs. Mistrust (Infant) 2. Autonomy vs. Shame (Toddler) 3. Initiative vs. Guilt (Preschooler) 4. Industry vs. Inferiority (School-Aged) 5. Identity vs. Identity Diffusion (Adolescent) 6. Intimacy vs. Isolation (Yong Adult) 7. Generativity vs. Self-Absorption (Middle-Aged) 8. Integrity vs. Despair (Old Aged) *Biological determination is seen as less important than interpersonal issues and the sociocultural demands of society.

Most prominent developmental stage theorists:

-Erik Erikson -Jean Piaget

Tendencies in Development of Boys

-More physically active and aggressive (androgen hormone) -Possess better visual-perceptual skills. -Boys are punished more than girls.

Erik Erikson

-The only psychoanalyst who created a developmental theory that covers the entire lifespan (psychosocial) -Ego psychologist -Coined the term "Identity Crisis" -Disciple of Freud's

Tendencies in Development of Girls

-They smile more and are using more feeling words by age 2 than boys -Better able to read nonverbal cues in others at any age -Display more caregiver behavior -In general, girls possess better verbal skills than boys.

Sigmund Freud

...

3 Theories of Development

1. Behavioral 2. Structural 3. Maturational

Timeline of school counseling and guidance services offered to different age groups of students.

1. Secondary School - since 1900s and moreso in 1960s 2. Elementary School - 1980s 3. Middle School - Even more recent, yet they experience more anxiety than elementary or high school counterparts

Jean Piaget's Theory of Development (4 Stages)

1. Sensorimotor 2. Preoperations 3. Concrete Operations 4. Formal Operations - He was adamant that these stages remained in the same order regardless of culture, though the ages could vary

IQ in Down Syndrome

50 or less

Wish Fulfillments

A Freudian notion that dreams and slips of the tongue are actually desires.

The Primal Scene

A psychoanalytic concept that suggests that a young child witnesses his parents having sexual intercourse or is seduced by a parent. -Provides impetus for later neuroses

Jean Piaget

A structuralist who believes stage changes are qualitative. -The leading name in cogntive development in children. -4 Stages of Development -Criticized for deriving much of his research by observing his own children -Considered himself a Genetic Epistemologist - Key Terms: Conservation, Symbolic Schema, Reversability, Egocentrism, Assimiliation, Accomodation, Equilibration

Sensorimotor Stage

Ages 0-2 years -Infant is gaining Practical Intelligence -Reflexes play the greatest role -8 months+: Object Permanence -Child learns concept of time (i.e. that one even takes place before or after another) -Child learns concept of causality (e.g. that a hand can move an object) -Jean Piaget

Formal Operations Stage

Ages 12+ - Abstract thinking: concepts like What was life like 500 years ago? (time) or How far is 600 miles? (distance) - Problem-solving using deduction - Can give multiple hypotheses at once -Jean Piaget said that once child reaches this stage, he or she is ready for adulthood and will not experience child-like feelings of helplessness

Preoperations Stage

Ages 2-7, Child experiences... - Egocentrism -Centration occurs -Acquisition of Symbolic Schema, which allows language and symbolism in play to occur (e.g. a milk carton can become a spaceship) -Child's concept of causality is said to be Animistic -Jean Piaget

Concrete Operational Stage

Ages 7-11, Child masters... - Concept of Conservation and Reversability ~~~Comprehends in the following order: Mass-Weight-Volume - Counting Mentally -Piaget felt that teachers should lecture less, as children in this stage learn best via their own actions and experimentation. **All C's! -Jean Piaget

Imprinting

An instinctual behavior in goslings and other animals in which the infant instinctively follows the first moving object it encounters, which is usually the mother. -Illustrates "critical periods" which states that certain behaviors must be learned at an early time -Konrad Lorenz

Arnold Lazarus

Associated with Multimodal Therapy, relying on a variety of therapeutic techniques -BASIC-ID -Pioneer in the Behavior Therapy movement, especially in regard to the use of Systematic Desensitization

Milton H. Erickson

Associated with brief psychotherapy and innovative techniques in hypnosis. **Not to be confused with Erik Erikson

Ego Psychologists...

Believe in man's powers of reasoning to control behavior. -Erik Erikson

Harry Harlow

Believed that attachment was an innate tendency and not one which is learned. -'Harlow's Monkeys': Isolated monkeys developed autistic abnormal behavior, while monkeys with nurturing caregivers developed normally.

Psychiatry of Interpersonal Relations

Biological determination is seen as less important than interpersonal issues and the sociocultural demands of society. -Harry Stack Sullivan's theory (he also postulated stages of development, but not as prominent as Erikson & Piaget)

Epigenetic

Borrowed term from embryology referring how each stage of development must emerge from the previous one in a systematic, given order. - Kohlberg's, Erikson's, & Maslow's theories

Epistemology

Branch of philosophy that attempts to examine how we know what we know.

Centration

Characterized by focusing on a key feature of a given object while not noticing the rest of it. EX: a child who focuses exclusively on a clown's red nose but ignores other features

Symbiosis

Child's absolute dependence on the female caretaker. -Difficulties in the Symbiotic Relationship can result in adult psychosis.

Abraham Maslow

Coined term 'Positive Psychology'

Zone of Proximal Development

Describes the difference between a child's performance without a teacher vs. that which he or she is capable of with an instructor.

John Bowlby

Developed Attachment Theory -Saw bonding and attachment as being innate and having survival value (aka Adaptive Significance) -In order to lead a normal social life, child must bond with an adult before the age of 3 -Object Loss -Symbiosis

Visual Cliff

Device utilizing a glass sheet which simulates a drop-off. -Even infants will not attempt to cross the drop-off, thus indicating that depth perception in humans is inherent.

Structuralist viewpoint on developmental stages.

Each stage is a way of making sense out of the world. -Jean Piaget

The most comprehensive theory of personality and therapy ever devised.

Freud's Psychoanalysis

Freud's structural theory of the mind

Id, Ego, Superego

Fixation

Implies that the individual is unable to go from one developmental stage to the next. They become stuck in a stage where he or she feels safe. -When life becomes too traumatic, emotional development can halt while physical and cognitive processes may continue at a normal pace. -Psychoanalytic theory

RS

In our field, it means Religious and Spritiual. - RS factors are often examined by counselors who are attempting to integrate the practice of Positive Psychology into work

Object

In psychoanalysis, Object is a term used to describe the target of one's love (e.g. Bowlby's thoughts on 'Object Loss')

When does conformity peak?

In the early teens.

When does 'development' begin?

It is a continuous process which begins at conception. -Decelopmental psychologists look at prenatal influences (e.g. smoking or alcohol consumption)

William Perry

Known for ideas related to adult cognitive development, especially with college students. -Emphasized concept: Dualistic Thinking is common in teens, while Relativistic Thinking more common in adulthood

Lawrence Kohlberg

Leading theorist in moral development -Theory has 3 levels, which can each be broken down into 2 stages: 1. Preconventional 2. Conventional 3. Postconventional -The Heinz Story method -Expanded on Piaget's theory of MD

Cephalocaudal

Means 'head to foot'. The head of the fetus develops earlier than the legs. -Development is cephalocaudal

The Heinz Story

Method used by Lawrence Kohlberg to assess the 'level' and 'stage' of moral development in an individual -Story outlines a man (Heinz) whose wife is dying of cancer. Only one drug can save her, but it is extremely overpriced by the druggist. He can't raise nor borrow the money and druggist will not reduce price at all. A desperate Heinz breaks into the store and steals the drug. -->Individual is asked if husband should have done that and why. -The individual's reason for the decision, rather than the decision itself allowed Kohlber to evaluate the person's stage of moral development.

When is fear of death usually the strongest?

Middle age years. -Erikson's stages suggest that the individual would accept the finality of life better during the final state than in the middle age years.

Animism

Occurs when a child acts as if nonliving objects have lifelike abilities and tendencies. EX: Child fantasizes that a rock is talking to him -Piaget's Preoperations Stage

Hysteria

Occurs when an individual displays an organic symptom (e.g. blindness, paralysis, or deafness) yet no physiological causes are evident.

Konrad Lorenz

One of the founders of modern Ethology. -Discovered process of imprinting in goslings, which illustrated "critical periods" of learning at a young age. -Felt that humans are naturally aggressive as it was necessary for our survival. --> Solution is to utilize Catharsis (e.g. competitive sports)

Freud's Stages of Development (5)

Oral - 0-1 - Attachment is a major factor Anal - 1-3 - Phallic - 3-5 - Oedipus/Electra Complex occurs Latency - 6-12 - Sexual interests are replaced by social interests Genital - 12+ -Psychosexual

Organicists

Organismic viewpoint believes that development consists of qualitative changes. -They do not believe in a mind-body distinction and feel that change can be internal. -Feel the individual's actions are more important than the environment in terms of one's development. -Term has also been used to describe Gestalt psychologists -Opposite: Empiricists

Relativistic Thinking

Perceives that not everything is right or wrong given the specific situation. - Common in adults -William Perry

Symbolic Schema

Piaget's theory: Cognitive structure that grows with life experience. -Schema is a system which permits child to test out things in the physical world

Lev Vygotsky

Pioneered Zone of Proximal Development - Disagreed with Piaget's theory that development occurs naturally. Rather, he insisted they unfold due to educational intervention. - Russian psychologist

Martin Seligman

Popularized Positive Psychology -Pioneer of Learned Helplessness syndrome -Dogs received electric shocks while in harness. Ultimately did not even try to escape the shocks even when harness was removed.

Heritability

Portion of a trait that can be explained via genetic factors.

A.A. Brill

Psychoanalytic career theorist

Comparative Psychology

Refers to laboratory research using animals and attempts to generalize the findings to humans.

Conservation

Refers to the notion that a substances weight, mass, and volume remains the same even when it changes shape. - Child does not master this until Concrete Operations stage (7-11 yrs)

Reversability

Refers to the notion that one can undo an action and return an object to it's original shape. - Child does not master this until Concrete Operations stage (7-11 yrs)

Ethology

Refers to the study of animals' behavior in their natural environment. -Associated with the work of Konrad Lorenz, who discovered the process of imprinting

Possible explanation for why males are better than females at math?

Research by Maccoby and Jacklin showed that males became superior in math starting in high school or college. Girls who excelled in science or math often identified with their fathers and were encouraged to value initiative and were given independence (child-rearing patterns common to males). -Implications: Sex-role differences may come from child-rearing patterns rather than bodily chemistry.

Fixed-Action Patterns (FAP)

Ritualistic behaviors, common to all members of a species, that are elicited by sign stimuli. FAP result whenever a releaser in the environment is present. -The action or sequence of behavior will not vary.

Anal Retentive Personality

Stingy and cheap

Piaget's Theory of Moral Development

Suggested 2 major stages: 1. Heteronomous Stage (begins b/w ages 4-7): Child views rules as absolutes that result in punishment 2. Autonomous Stage (begins approx. at age 10): Characterized by the child's perception that rules are relative and can be altered or changed.

Balance Theory

Suggests that individuals avoid inconsistent or incompatible beliefs. In other words, people prefer consistent beliefs (aka Cognitive Consistency)

Metaneeds

Term that some exams may use to refer to higher-order needs (any need which is not physiological) on Maslow's hierarchy.

What is the only Freudian developmental stage that is not primarily psychosexual in nature?

The Latency stage (ages 6-12), because sexual interests are replaced by social interests temporarily (e.g. sports, learning, and hobbies).

Equilibration

The balance between Assimilation (act of taking in new information) and Accomodation (modification of child's schemas to deal with new information). -Opposite: Disequilibrium (When schemas cannot process new information, which is why children change their own schemas to accomodate new information until equilibrium is mastered)

Sigmund Freud and Erik Erikson agreed about what regarding moving on through stages?

They agreed that each developmental stage needed to be resolved before an individual could move on to the next stage.

Dualistic Thinking

Things are 'good' or 'bad' or 'black and white thinking'. - Common in teens - William Perry

Maturational Theory of Development

Utilizes the plant growth analogy, in which the mind is seen as being driven by instincts while the environment provides nourishment, thus placing limits on development. -Counselors of this persuasion allow the client to work through old painful material from early conflicts. -Psychoanalysts and Psychodynamic therapists fall into this category (e.g. Erikson, Freud)

Ego Identity

When an adolescent is able to integrate all his or her previous roles into a single self-concept, the person achieves Ego Identity. -Erikson's 5th Stage of Identity vs. Role Confusion -Opposite: Identity Crisis

Object Loss

When the bond between child and adult is either nonexistent before age 3 or severed at an early age. -Said to be the breeding ground for abnormal behavior or psychopathology. -Child will be incapable of having normal social relationships as an adult. -John Bowlby

Empiricists

aka Associationism Theorists who believe that development merely consists of quantitative changes. -Scientists believe we can only learn from objective facts -Forerunner for behaviorism -Value statistical studies and emphasize the role of environment -Opposite: Organicists

Maturation Hypothesis

aka Maturation Theory In behavioral sciences, this concept suggests that behavior is guided exclusively via hereditary factors, but that certain behaviors will not manifest themselves until the necessary stimuli are present in the environment and until the neural development reaches a certain level of maturity. -Counselor who believes in this concept strives to unleash inborn abilities, instincts, and drives, while the client's childhood and that past are seen as important topics. -Freud and Erikson could be classified as Maturationists.

Object Permanence

aka Object Constancy Beyond approximately 8 months of age, children will search for an object that is no longer in sight, b/c they learn that objects continue to exist even when child is not interacting with them. -Needs Representational Thought to master this -Piaget's Sensorimotor Stage

Postconventional Level of Moral Development

aka Personal Integrity or Morality of Self-Accepted Principles Level A person who reaches this level is concerned with universal, ethical principles of justice, dignity, and equality of human rights. Stage 5: "Democratically Accepted Law or Social Contract" Stage 6: "Principles of Self-Conscience and Universal Ethics" EX: Ghandi, Socrates, MLK jr. -Lawrence Kohlberg

Preconventional Level of Moral Development

aka Premoral Level -Stages: Stage 1: "Punishment vs. Obedience Orientation" - Consequences (rewards or punishment) guide behavior. Stage 2: "Naive Hedonism" - If I'm good, then others will give me what I want. -Lawrence Kohlberg

Identity Crisis

aka Role Confusion An inability to accomplish the task of finding out who they really are -Adolescents will experiment with various roles during Erikson's 5th Stage of Identity vs. Role Confusion -Term comes from work of Erik Erikson. -Opposite: Ego Identity

Conventional Level of Moral Development

aka Self-Accepted Morality Individual wants to meet the standards of the family, society, and the nation. Also, has a desire to conform. Stage 3: "Good boy/Good girl Orientation" - person is concerned with approbation (approval) and the ability to please others in order to achieve recognition Stage 4: "Authority, Law, and Order Orientation" -Lawrence Kohlberg

Adaptive Significance

aka Survival Value EX: Bonding and attachment have adaptive significance since it helps beings survive during infancy. -John Bowlby