human relations chapter 11
Consistent Style
A consistent decision maker makes decisions without rushing or wasting time. Consistent decision makers know when they have enough information and alternatives to make a sound decision.83 They have the most consistent record of good decisions. Steve Jobs was known for being a great problem solver, and especially for taking advantage of opportunities to introduce new i Products. Consistent decision makers tend to follow the decision-making steps below
Objectives
A great mistake made by those who call meetings is that they often have no clear idea and purpose for the meeting. Before calling a meeting, you should clearly define its purpose and objective. The objective tells you where you are going, and the plan tells you how you are going to get there.61
Reflexive style
A reflexive decision maker likes to make quick decisions ("to shoot from the hip"), without taking the time to get all the information that may be needed and without considering all alternatives. On the positive side, reflexive decision makers are decisive; they do not procrastinate. On the negative side, making quick decisions can lead to waste and duplication when a decision is not the best possible alternative. If you use a reflexive style, you may want to slow down and spend more time gathering information and analyzing alternatives.81 Following the steps in the decision-making model, our next topic, can help you develop your skills.
Emotional intelligence
Affects our behavior and human relations
Participants and assignements
Before calling the meeting, the leader should decide who is qualified to attend the meeting. Does the full group or department need to attend? Should some nongroup specialist be invited to provide input? Participants should know in advance what is expected of them at the meeting, how they can contribute.62 If any preparation is expected (reading material, doing some research, preparing a report, and the like), they should have adequate advance notice.
date time and place
Clearly specify the beginning and ending time and stick to it.64 Be sure to select an adequate place for the meeting and plan for the physical comfort of the group.
What was the conclusion of many research studies that compared cohesive and non cohesive teams in an organization
Cohesive teams tend to have a higher success level at achieving their goals than noncohesive teams do
The status of the members of a team in an organziation affects team performance. To be an effective leader of the team a person should
Ensure that the high status informal leaders of the team endorse positive norms and objectives
Creativity
Is crucial for organizational innovation and survival.
Team structure should complement each other so that a team in an organization can achieve better results than its individuals
Knowledge of team members
A feature of task roles of a group in an organziation is that they
Place emphasis on completing the job
Decision Making Defining the problem
Step 1: Define the Problem If you misdiagnose the problem, you will not solve it. So slow down. In analyzing a problem, first distinguish the symptoms from the cause of the problem. To do so, list the observable and describable occurrences (symptoms) that indicate a problem exists. For example, Wayne, an employee with five years' tenure, has been an excellent producer on the job. However, in the past month, Wayne has been out sick and tardy more times than in the past two years. What is the problem? If you say absenteeism or tardiness, you are confusing symptoms and causes. They are symptoms of the problem. If the supervisor simply disciplines Wayne, he or she may decrease the tardiness and absenteeism, but the problem will not be solved. It would be wiser for the supervisor to talk to the employee and find out the reason (cause) for the problem. The real problem may be a personal problem at home or on the job. Page 351 Step 2: Set Objectives and Criteria After the problem has been defined, you set an objective (end result of the decision) to solve the problem. Refer to Chapter 8 for the setting objectives model. Next, you identify the criteria the decision must meet to achieve the objective. It is helpful to specify must and want criteria. Must criteria have to be met, while want criteria are desirable but not necessary. For example: Objective: "To hire a store manager by June 30, 2012." The must criteria are a college degree and a minimum of five years' experience as a store manager. The want criterion is that the hiree should be a minority group member. The organization wants to hire a minority but will not hire one who does not meet the must criteria. Continuing the example with Wayne: The objective is to improve Wayne's attendance record. The criterion is his prior good record of attendance. Step 3: Generate Alternatives You need to generate possible methods, or alternatives, for solving the problem through decision making.90 When making nonroutine decisions, new, creative solutions are often needed.91 In the next section, we discuss creativity, which is commonly used as part of this step in the decision-making model. When gathering the information needed to generate alternatives, you can neither expect nor afford complete information. However, you must get enough information to enable you to make good decisions—the consistent decision style. It is often helpful to ask others for advice on possible solutions to your problem. When generating alternatives, it is important not to evaluate them at the same time (evaluation is in step 4)—just list anything reasonable that can possibly solve the problem. Continuing the example with Wayne: Some alternatives are giving Wayne a warning, punishing him in some way, or talking to him to determine the reason for the change in his behavior. Step 4: Analyze Alternatives and Select One Here you must evaluate each alternative in terms of the objectives and criteria. Think forward and try to predict the outcome of each alternative. One method you can use to analyze alternatives is cost-benefit analysis. Each alternative has its positive and its negative aspects, or its costs and benefits. Costs are more than monetary. They may include a sacrifice of time, money, and so forth. Cost-benefit analysis has become popular where the benefits are often difficult to determine in quantified dollars. The benefits of a college degree are more than just a paycheck. Another approach to improving the quality of decisions is the devil's advocate approach. The devil's advocate technique requires the individual to explain and defend his or her position before the group. The group critically asks the presenter questions. They try to shoot holes in the alternative solution to determine any possible problems in its implementation. After a period of time, the group reaches a refined solution. Continuing the example with Wayne: The alternative selected is to have a talk with him to try to determine why his attendance has changed. Step 5: Plan, Implement the Decision, and Control Step 5 has three separate parts, as the title states. After making the decision, you should develop a plan of action with a schedule for its implementation. Lack of planning is a common reason why decisions, including New Years resolutions, are not implemented. Decision making is a waste of time if you don't actually implement the alternative. As with all plans, controls should be developed while planning. Checkpoints with feedback should be established to determine whether the decision is solving the problem. 92 If not, corrective action may be needed.93 You should not be locked into an irrational escalation of commitment to a decision that is not solving the problem.94 When you make a poor decision, you should admit the mistake and change the decision by going back to previous steps in the decision-making model.
Advantages and disadvantages of group decision making
The challenge in decision making is to maximize the advantages while minimizing the disadvantages and the bottom line is that the group decision must have synergy. Synergy occurs when the group's solution to a problem or opportunity is superior to all individuals'. Unfortunately, research indicates that people often choose inferior alternatives when choosing in groups.107 Skill Building Exercise 11-3 gives you the opportunity to see if your group can reach synergy. See Exhibit 11-8 for the advantages and disadvantages of using group decision making.
Laissez fairesupervisory style
The group development stage 4, production—outstanding development D4 (high commitment/high competence), uses the laissez-fairesupervisory style (low task-low maintenance), S-L. Groups that develop to this stage have members who play the appropriate task and maintenance roles; leaders do not need to play either role unless there is a problem because members share leadership
Implications for leaders
To be effective, a team must have members who play task roles and maintenance roles, while minimizing self-interest roles. When in a group, you should be aware of the roles its members play. If the members are not playing the task and/or maintenance role required at a given time, you should play the role. The next section discusses group development and the manager's use of task and maintenance roles as the group develops. /// In the opening case, the objective is fairly clear, group size is adequate, and cohesiveness, status, and roles are not major problems. Kirt has been discrediting others' ideas, and others have followed his lead. A negative norm has developed that needs to be addressed by Bonnie Sue as the leader to ensure success of the group. Bonnie Sue can begin the next meeting by stating that the norm has developed and explain how it is Page 337destructive to the group. She can interrupt when Kirt and others put down ideas by reminding the group to be positive. The group can also discuss whether there are other negative norms that should be stopped. In addition, they can discuss the development of positive norms that can help the group do a better job. In terms of group roles, Carlos is playing a task role for the group. Shelby is playing a maintenance role for the group. Kirt is playing a self-interest role. How to handle Kirt, Shelby, and Carlos as problem individuals will be discussed later in this chapter. /// In summary, effective groups should have clear objectives with agreement and commitment to those objectives by its members, appropriate group size to achieve its objectives, positive norms, cohesiveness, status congruence, and members who play task and maintenance roles while minimizing self-interest roles. Developing effective group dynamics that meet the needs of the individuals and the group or organization creates a win-win situation for all parties. See Exhibit 11.3 for a review of the six components of team dynamics.
Group ware
allows team members of any size to edit a document at the same time or in sequence.
functional teams
are formal teams that consist of managers and their employees.
Task roles
are the things group members do and say that directly aid in the accomplishment of its objective
maintenance roles
are the things group members do and say to develop and sustain group dynamics
Self interest roles
are the things group members do and say to meet their own needs or objectives at the expense of the team. Self-interest seekers often give the impression that they are concerned about others and the organization, when in reality such behavior is a cover to get what they want.45 They may use unethical politics (Chapter 10) and the forcing conflict style (Chapter 6) to push others to get what they want.46 People using self-interest roles are problem team members hurting team performance.47 Self-interest roles can be subclassified as: aggressors, blockers, recognition seekers, and withdrawers.
Subclassifications of the self interest of the self interest roles played by the members of a group in an organzisation
blockers, withdrawers, recognitions seekers
Storming
characterized by moderate development level, lower commitment, and some competence.
A feature of 20 groups or more tends to
create subgroups
Conflict
effectively resolving conflicts without hurting human relations, is important in performance
Cross functional
groups with members from different groups, which can be ongoing or temporary.
Teamwork
involves working together to achieve something beyond the capabilities of individuals working alone
Orientation stage of group development in an organziation is characterized by
low development level
What should , ought to be, or must be done
norms of the group
Team Dynamics
refers to the patterns of interactions that emerge as groups develop. These interactions are called groupprocess. It's not about the work done, but rather about how effective the human relations are, because they affect performance.26 In this section, we discuss the six components of group dynamics: objectives, team size, team norms, group cohesiveness, status within the team, and group roles. As you read the implications for leaders, recall that you don't have to be a manager to be a leader—rise to the occasion to help the group dynamics.
Self-directed/self managed
some functional groups are called these.
Norming
state is characterized by high development, variable commitment, and high competence.
Adjourning
state is not reached unless there is some drastic reorganization, The two key variables identified through each stage of group development are work on the task49 (competence) and the socioemotional tone or morale (commitment). The two variables do not progress in the same manner. Competence tends to continue to increase through each of the first four stages, while commitment tends to start high in stage 1, drop in stage 2, and then rise through stages 3 and 4. This pattern is illustrated in
Consultative supervisory style
the group development stage 2, dissatisfaction—moderate development D2 (lower commitment/some competence), uses Page 343the consultative supervisory style (high task-high maintenance), S-C. Even though groups know their objectives and their roles are clear, members become dissatisfied for a variety of reasons, such as not getting along with one or more members or not being happy with the amount of influence (status) they have in the group. When morale drops, leaders need to focus on maintenance roles to encourage members to resolve issues. At the same time, continue to play the task role necessary to help the group develop its level of comptence
Task members
work together on a specific activity.
Roles
Are shared expectations of how group members will fulfill the requirements of their position.
The first meeting
At the first meeting, the group is in the orientation stage. The leader should use the high task role; however, the members should be given the opportunity to spend some time getting to know one another. Introductions set the stage for subsequent interactions. If members find that their social needs will not be met, dissatisfaction may occur quickly. A simple technique is to start with introductions, then move on to the group's purpose, objectives, and members' roles. For long meetings, have a break that enables members to interact informally.
maintenance roles of a group in an organization
Gatekeepers of norms, consensus seekers
Digital tool used by virtual teams in organizations that allows members of any size to edit a document at the same time or in sequence
Groupware
Formula that states the team performance model
Team performance+(f)* (Team structure + Team dynamics + Team development stage)
autocratic supervisory style
The group development stage 1, orientation—low development D1 (high commitment/low competence), uses the autocratic supervisory style (high task-low maintenance), S-A. When task groups first come together, leaders need to help the group clarify its objectives to provide the direction to be sure the group gets off to a good start. Because the members are committed to joining the group, leaders need to help the group develop its competence with task behavior.
Formal groups/ Informal groups
Which are sanctioned by the organization and informal groups, which develop spontaneously when members get together voluntarily because of similar interests. Informal: The develop spontaneously when the organizations members get together voluntarily due to similar interests.
virtual teams
conduct almost their entire group work by electronic digital communications, rather that face-to face. Carry out majority of their entire group work by electronic digital communications, rather that face-to face
Consensus
is a cooperative attempt to develop a solution acceptable to all employees,106 rather than a competitive battle in which a solution is forced on some Page 355members of the group. The major benefit of consensus is that since the solution is the group's, members generally are more committed to implementing it. The process is to have a discussion trying to get everyone to agree on the decision to solve the problem or take advantage of the opportunity.
ad hoc committee or task force
is a formal, temporary team that disbands when its purpose is accomplished. For example, a task force can be created to select a new computer.
The standing committee
is formal, ongoing team that often has rotating members. For example, labor and management commonly have standing committees that work together to negotiate the ongoing collective bargaining agreements that result in a new contract.
Leadership
is important to team performance. herefore, in this chapter we expand the coverage to leading teams as a situational supervisor, based on team development stages. We also cover how to run a meeting using leadership skills.
Synectics
is the process of generating novel alternatives through role-playing and fantasizing. At first, to expand the group's thinking process, the leader does not state the exact nature of the situation. For example, when Nolan Bushnell wanted to develop a new concept in family dining, he began by discussing general leisure activities. Bushnell then moved toward leisure activities having to do with eating out. The idea that came out of this synectics process was a restaurant-electronic game complex where families could play games and purchase pizza and hamburgers. The restaurant-electronic game complex is called Pizza Time Theatre and its mascot is Chuck E. Cheese, which is also used as the restaurant's name.
Problem
A problem exists whenever there is a difference between what is actually happening and what the individual or group wants to be happening. If your objective is to produce 500 units per day, but only 475 units are produced, you have a problem. We typically try to reduce the discrepancy between the actual performance and the objective.77 Thus, problem solving is the process of taking corrective action in order to meet objectives. Decision making is the process of selecting an alternative course of action that will solve a problem. Decisions must be made when you are faced with a problem or opportunity. When making decisions, remember the goal of human relations is to create a win-win situation for stakeholders.
Reflective style
A reflective decision maker likes to take plenty of time to make decisions, taking into account considerable information and an analysis of several alternatives, or because they are procrastinators avoiding making decisions.82 On the positive side, the reflective type does not make decisions that are rushed. On the negative side, they may procrastinate and waste valuable time and other resources and lose out on opportunities. The reflective decision maker may be viewed as wishy-washy and indecisive. If you use a reflective style, you may want to speed up your decision making. As Andrew Jackson once said, "Take time to deliberate; but when the time for action arrives, stop thinking and go on."
Components of team structure that should complement each other so that a team in an organization can achieve better results that its individuals
Abilties of team members knowledge of team members, skills possessed by team members
Written plan
After leaders have planned the above five items, they should put them in writing and make copies to be distributed, typically e-mailed, to each member who will attend the meeting. Exhibit 11.5 provides the recommended contents, in sequence, of a meeting plan.
Creative problem solving and decision making
Also affect team performance. Teams encounter problems in getting the job done. How the members work together to come up with creative solutions to the problems affects team performance.22 How decisions are made, autocratic or participative (Chapter 7), and the decisions themselves also affect performance.23 Problem solving and decision making and creativity are discussed in separate sections later in this chapter.
Norms
Are the groups shared expectations of its members behavior. Norms determine what should, ought to, or must be done.
Leadership group structure and dynamics and emotions
As stated in the previous section, leadership needs to change with the group's level of development. The leader must be sure to provide the appropriate task and/or maintenance behavior when it is needed. The leader and members are responsible for helping the team develop an effective group structure and dynamics as it performs the task (we have already discussed how to do so in this chapter). Members may get emotional during meetings, so use your skills at dealing with emotions from C
The three parts of each meeting
Begin the meetings on time; waiting for late members penalizes the members who are on time and develops a norm for coming late.65 Each meeting should cover the following:
conducting meetings
Below, you will learn about the group's first meeting, the three parts of each meeting, and leadership, group structure and dynamics, and emotions. If you want to run meetings technically correct, you can follow the well known Robert's Rules of Order. You can find a summary at http://www.robertsrules.org or at the official website at http://robertsrules.com
Brainstorming
Brainstorming is the process of suggesting many alternatives, without evaluation, to solve a problem. When brainstorming, the group is presented with a problem or opportunity and asked to come up with creative solutions. Brainstorming Page 354is commonly used for creating new products, naming products, and developing advertising slogans. Here are four interrelated brainstorming rules: Quantity. Team members should generate as many ideas as possible. More ideas increase the chances of finding an excellent solution. Generating alternatives is step 3 of the decision-making model. No criticism. Team members should not criticize or evaluate ideas in any way during the solution-generation phase of brainstorming. Evaluation is done in step 4 of decision making—analyze alternatives and select one. Freewheel. You can't think outside the box when you are in it. You have to see things from new angles or perspectives. Team members should express any idea that comes to mind, no matter how strange, crazy, or weird—thus, the need to avoid criticism that will hinder members' creativity and to avoid responses that kill creativity (see Exhibit 11.6). Extend. Team members should try to build on the ideas of others and even take them in new directions. Extending helps build quantity and freewheeling, but watch out for criticism. Brainwriting. Brainwriting is a variation of brainstorming. To eliminate the influence of team peer pressure and other members' suggestions, participants write their ideas down. Then ideas are recorded, and members try to improve and combine ideas. It is especially relevant for use with virtual teams meeting online.
Handling problem team members
Certain personality types tend to emerge in team meetings that can cause the group to be less efficient than possible. As the leader, you will have to handle difficult Page 346people67 who don't conform with effective meeting rules and norms.68 Next we will discuss how to handle six problem types to make the member and the group more effective.
Performing
Characterized by outstanding development, high commitment, and high competence. This high commitment enhances productivity and performance, as does the high competence skill level. The group works as a team and there is a high level of satisfaction of members' affiliation needs. The group maintains a positive group structure and dynamics.
Communication Skills
Communication Skills Refer to CS Question 8. Objectives. Begin by reviewing progress to date, the group's objectives, and the purpose or objective for the specific meeting. If minutes are recorded, they are usually approved at the beginning of the next meeting. For most meetings, it is recommended that a secretary be appointed to take minutes. Agenda. Cover the agenda items. Try to keep to the approximate times, but be flexible. If the discussion is constructive and members need more time, give it to them; however, if the discussion is more of a distractive argument, move ahead.66 Summarize and review assignments. End the meeting on time. The leader should summarize what took place during the meeting. Were the meeting's objectives achieved? Review all of the assignments given during the meeting. Get a commitment to the task that each member should perform for the next or a specific future meeting. The secretary and/or leader should record all assignments. If there is no accountability and follow-up on assignments, members may not complete them.
Creativity/ Innvovation
Creativity and innovation go together, but they are different.95 Creativity means the ability to develop unique alternatives to solve problems. Innovation is the organizational implementation of the creative ideas.96 Innovation is important to organizational success,97 and many companies are working to enhance creativity and innovation.98 In this section, we'll focus on creativity that can take place during the third step of the decision-making model. Creativity is about coming up with ways to improve products and processes by rethinking a problem and creating opportunities.102 To improve your creativity, focus on thinking about new products, processes, and procedures that are designed to be useful, in both your personal and professional lives. Follow the stages in the creative process. The four stages in the creative process are: (1) preparation, (2) possible solutions, (3) incubation, and (4) evaluation. These steps are also listed in Model 11.3.
The silent member
For a team to be fully effective, all group members should participate. If members are silent, the team does not get the benefit of their input. Encourage the silent member to participate, without being obvious or overbearing. The simple rotation method, in which all members take turns giving their input, helps. To build up the silent members' confidence, call on them with questions they can easily answer.69 If you are a silent type, speaking up is hard,70 but participate more often. Don't be intimidated and quiet because you are thinking others are smarter than you—they most likely are not and may have the same thoughts as you. Go to the meeting prepared with notes, knowing what you want to say. Know when to stand up for your views and be assertive (Chapter 6).
Groups
Groups with the highest levels of productivity were highly cohesive and accepted management's level of productivity. Groups with the lowest levels of productivity were also highly cohesive, but rejected management's level of productivity; they set and enforced their own level below that of management. Groups with intermediate levels of productivity were low cohesive groups, irrespective of their acceptance of management's level of productivity. The widest variance of individual group members' performance was among the groups with the lower levels of cohesiveness. They tended to be more tolerant of nonconformity with group norms as they pursue their own self-interest.34 Implications for Leaders Strive to develop cohesive groups that accept positive norms. The use of participation helps the group develop cohesiveness while it builds agreement and commitment toward its objective(s) (goal orientation).35 While some intragroup competition may be helpful, focus primarily on intergroup competition—think like sports.
Group cohesiveness
Is the attractiveness and closeness group members have for one another and for the group. The more cohesive the group, the more its members stick together as a team. The more desirable group membership is, the more willing the members are to behave according to the team's norms. For example, if some team members drink too much and/or take drugs, the team may develop a norm of taking drugs. This peer pressure often wins out.33 To be accepted by the team, members will behave in ways they really don't agree with.
Status
Is the perceived raking of one member relative to to other members of the groupStatus is based on several factors: a member's job title, wage or salary, seniority, knowledge or expertise, interpersonal skills, appearance, education, race, age, sex, and so on.37 High-status members have more influence on the development of the group's norms. Lower-level members tend to copy high-status members' behavior.
Normal Grouping
It is appropriate to use nominal grouping to ensure that status difference among members doesn't influence the process and decision; some members tend to agree with the boss or informal leader and ignore low status ideas.105 Nominal grouping is the process of generating and evaluating alternatives through a structured voting method. This process usually involves six steps: Each member individually generates ideas in writing (brainwriting). In a round-robin fashion, members give ideas. Someone records all ideas where everyone can see them. Alternatives are clarified through a guided discussion and any additional ideas are recorded. Each member rates the ideas and votes; the voting eliminates alternatives. An initial vote discussion takes place for clarification, not persuasion. During this time, it is recommended that members present the logic behind the reasons they gave for the various alternatives. The final vote is taken to select the alternative solution presented to the leader. Management may or may not implement the decision.
When to use the decision Making model
It is not necessary to follow all five steps in the model when making unimportant recurring decisions when the outcome of the decision is known, called certainty. Risk taking is fundamental to decision making. Use the model when making important nonrecurring decisions when the outcome is risky or uncertain.89 Following the steps in the model will not guarantee success; however, following the model increases the probability of successful decision making. You most likely followed the steps in the model when selecting a college without consciously knowing it. Consciously use the model in your daily life, and you will improve your ability to make decisions. Let's examine each step here, as it is shown in Model 11.2.
The arguer
Like the talker, the arguer likes to be the center of attention. Arguers enjoy arguing for the sake of arguing, rather than helping the group. Page 347Resolve conflict, but not in an argumentative way; stay calm.73 Do not get into an argument with arguers; that is exactly what they want to happen. If an argument starts, bring others into the discussion. If it is personal, cut it off. Personal attacks only hurt the group. Keep the discussion moving on target. Try to minimize arguers' opportunities for confrontation. If you tend to be an arguer, strive to convey your views in an assertive debate format, not as an aggressive argument (Chapter 6). Listen to others' views and be willing to change if they have better ideas.
Stages in Creative process
Preparation. You must become familiar with the problem. This is done during steps 1 and 2 of the decision-making model. Get others' opinions, feelings, and ideas, as well as the facts. When solving a problem, look for new angles, use imagination and invention, and don't set boundaries—think outside the box! Possible solutions. Generate as many possible creative solutions as you can think of, without making any judgments. The brainstorming rules (discussed next) will provide details. Incubation. After generating alternatives, take a break. It doesn't have to be long, but take time before working on the problem again. During the incubation stage, you may have an insight into the problem's solution. Have you ever worked hard on a problem and become discouraged, but when you had given up or taken a break, the solution came to you? Page 353Evaluation. Before implementing a solution, you should evaluate the alternative to make sure the idea is practical. Evaluation through feedback often leads to more creativity.
compostition
Refers to the diversity of team members. Team mix, or diversity, involves more than gender and race, which we will discuss in Chapter 13. Important to team performance are the knowledge, abilities, and skills of the team members that should complement each other so that the team can achieve better results than its individuals.
Stages of team development
Stage 1: Orientation This forming stage is characterized by low development level (D1), high commitment, and low competence. When people first form a group, they tend to come to the group with a moderate to high commitment to the group.48 However, because they have not worked together, they do not have the competence to achieve the task. Members tend to have anxiety over how they will fit in, what will be required of them, and what the group will be like. Provide his or her team members with clear objectives and ensure they know their roles Communication Skills Refer to CS Question 7. Stage 2: Dissatisfaction This storming stage is characterized by moderate development level (D2), lower commitment, and some competence. As members work together for some time, they tend to become dissatisfied with the group. Members start to question: Why am I a member? Is the group going to accomplish anything? Why don't other group members do what is expected? and so forth. However, the group does develop some competence to perform the task. Stage 3: Resolution This norming stage is characterized by high development level (D3), variable commitment, and high competence. As members develop competence, they often become more satisfied with the group and committed to it. Relationships develop that satisfy group members' affiliation needs. They learn to work together as they develop a group structure with acceptable norms and cohesiveness. Stage 4: Production This performing stage is characterized by outstanding development level (D4), high commitment, and high competence. This high commitment enhances productivity and performance, as does the high competence skill level. The group works as a team and there is a high level of satisfaction of members' affiliation needs. The group maintains a positive group structure and dynamics. Page 339 Stage 5: Termination In functional groups, the adjourning stage is not reached unless there is some drastic reorganization; however, it does occur in task groups. During this stage, members experience feelings about leaving the group. WORK APPLICATION 11-7 Identify the group's stage of development and the leader's situational supervisory style. Does the leader use the appropriate style? The two key variables identified through each stage of group development are work on the task49 (competence) and the socioemotional tone or morale (commitment). The two variables do not progress in the same manner. Competence tends to continue to increase through each of the first four stages, while commitment tends to start high in stage 1, drop in stage 2, and then rise through stages 3 and 4. This pattern is illustrated in Exhibi
Forming
State is characterized by low development level, high commitment, and low competence.
The perveived ranking of one mbember relative to other members of a group in an organziation is termed
Status
Team work globally
Successful leaders see the world through a global lens.109 At major global multinational corporations (MNCs), teamwork has been important for many years.110 However, the level of teamwork does vary, and operating in an individualistic versus a collectivist culture Page 356does affect teamwork. In general, in collectivist cultures of Asian countries such as Japan, teamwork is considered very important and leadership and decision making are participative; the group composition is not very diversified, with shared norms and cohesiveness; and there is less conflict than within the United States and many European countries that are more individualistic. Unlike in the United States and many European countries, there are fewer status differences, as Asians don't want to stand out as being the stars—they just want to be part of the team. New technologies, especially the Internet, have made virtual teams more common and at the same time have increased the speed and quality of global communications and decisions. EXHIBIT 11.8 | Advantages and Disadvantages of Group Decision Making Advantages Disadvantages Better decisions—with synergy, including avoiding errors with the help of the devil's advocate technique More alternatives—more people provide diverse ideas Acceptance and commitment—people tend to accept and be more committed to implement a decision they help make Morale—participants have more job satisfaction Time—it takes a long time to make group decisions Domination—powerful individuals or a coalition may actually make the decision Conformity of groupthink—members may go along with the suggested decision without questioning when they disagree with it to avoid conflict and keep social solidarity Responsibility and social loafing—no one individual is accountable for the decision, so people don't take it as seriously and some don't do their fair share of the work The global economy requires decisions to be made that affect operations worldwide, but at the same time, country and cultural differences call for local decisions. People from different cultures don't necessarily make decisions the same way or at the same rate of speed.111 In countries that are not time-sensitive, such as Egypt, decisions are more reflective. In time-sensitive countries, such as the United States, decisions are more reflexive. Countries using participative decision making take longer than do countries that use autocratic decision making. Communication Skills Refer to CS Question 17. The level of participation in team decision making does vary by culture. In high power-distance cultures (for example, Mexico, Venezuela, the Philippines, and Yugoslavia), where more autocratic decisions are made, participation is not as acceptable. In low power-distance cultures (the United States, Japan, Ireland, Australia, New Zealand, Denmark, Israel, and the Netherlands), there is greater use of participation in decision making.
The talker
Talkers have something to say about everything. They like to dominate the discussion. However, if they do dominate, the other members do not get to participate and may get bored. Slow down talkers, don't shut them up, and don't let them dominate the group. The simple rotation method is effective with talkers, as they have to wait for their turn. When not using a rotation method, gently interrupt the talker and present your own ideas or call on other members to present their ideas. If you tend to be a talker, realize that as an extravert you tend to "think out loud" by speaking, whereas introverts prefer to collect their thoughts before speaking and can be overwhelmed in a group, especially a group of extraverts. So slow down and give others a chance to talk and do things for themselves.
Delphi Technique
The Delphi technique is considered a variation of nominal grouping, without face-to-face interaction at any point, and it also includes consensus. The Delphi technique polls a group through a series of anonymous questionnaires. The opinions of each round of questionnaires are analyzed and resubmitted to the group in the next round of questionnaires. This process may continue for five or more rounds before a consensus emerges. The technique is used for technological forecasts, such as what the next online breakthrough will be.
Peer pressure
The common ways teams enforce norms include ridicule, ostracism, sabotage, and physical abuse. You most likely have experience peer pressure at school, socially, and at work.
Participative supervisory style
The group development stage 3, resolution—high development D3 (variable commitment/high competence), uses the participative supervisory style (low task-high maintenance), S-P. There is little need to provide task leadership; the members know how to do the job. When commitment varies, it is usually due to some problem in the group's dynamics, such as a conflict,52 self-interest roles,53 or a loss of interest, so focus on the maintenance behavior to get the group through the issue(s) it faces. If leaders continues to provide task directives that are not needed, the group can become dissatisfied and regress or plateau at this level.
leadership
The leader should determine the group's level of development and plan to provide the appropriate task and/or maintenance behavior using the situational supervisor model. Some groups rotate the role of the group moderator or leader for each meeting, with groups that are capable of doing so, to develop meeting skills.
agenda
The leader should identify the activities that will take place during the meeting to achieve the objective of the meeting.63 Place agenda items in order of priority. Then if the group does not have time to cover every item, the least important items carry forward. At too many meetings, a leader puts all the so-called quick items first. The group gets bogged down and either rushes through the important items or puts them off until later.
identify a true statement about group cohesiveness in an organization
The more cohesive a group the more its members remain ta team
Types of teams in an organization/Functional Teams
There are formal groups, which are sanctioned by the organization (i.e., departments), and informal groups, which develop spontaneously when members get together voluntarily because of similar interests.15 Two of the major types of formal groups are functional and task. Functional Teams Functional teams are formal, ongoing teams that consist of managers and their employees. Each work unit or department makes up a functional group. There are also cross-functional groups with members from different groups, which can be ongoing or temporary.16 Some functional groups are called self-directed groups or self-managed teams because team leadership is shared.17 Task Teams Task teams work together on a specific activity.18 Being a member of a task group is in addition to your job in a functional group, so you can have two bosses. Task groups are often called committees. There are two common types of task groups or committees. The ad hoc committee, or task force, is a formal, temporary team that disbands when its purpose is accomplished. For example, a task force can be created to select a new computer. The standing committee is a formal, ongoing team that often has rotating members. For example, labor and management commonly have standing committees that work together to negotiate the ongoing collective bargaining agreements that result in a new contract. Virtual Teams—Working Digitally In the global economy, people from around the world work in teams digitally. Virtual teams conduct almost their entire group work by electronic digital communications, rather than face-to-face. Recall that you learned about Page 332digital communications, etiquette, and networking in Chapters 5, 9, and 10. This information also applies to virtual teams, as well as developing trust (Chapter 7). An additional digital tool commonly used is groupware. Groupware allows team members of any size to edit a document at the same time, or in sequence. Before we get into the details of the components of the team performance model, complete Self-Assessment Exercise 11-1 to determine your use of team behavior.
The social loafer
This social loafer problem member doesn't want to take individual responsibility and do a fair share of the work.74 Following all the previously mentioned meeting guidelines helps, especially giving clear individual assignments. Don't let the group develop norms that allow social loafing, and use peer pressure to get them to do their work. Confront social loafers assertively using the conflict resolution model in Chapter 6. When necessary, threaten to go to the boss. If these methods do not work, go to the supervisor (professor or boss) and explain the situation stating the specific behavior that is lacking and that you and the group have tried to resolve the problem, but the social loafer refuses to perform to standards.
A team in an organziation develops norms spontaneously as the group members interact through the routine of the team
True
The wanderer
Wanderers distract the team from the agenda items and often like to complain and criticize as they ramble off topic.71 Keep the group on track. If the wanderer socializes, cut off the conversation. Be kind, thank the member for the contribution, and then throw a question out to the group to get it back on track. Griping without resolving anything tends to reduce morale and commitment to task accomplishment. If the wanderer complains, make statements like, "We may be underpaid, but we have no control over our pay. Complaining will not get us a raise; let's get back to the issue at hand." If you tend to be a wanderer, try to be aware of your behavior and stay on the subject at hand.
The Decision Making Model
We all like to think that we are rational and have great intuitive judgment when making decisions.84 However, research reveals that people are far from rational and often act against their best interests, and that intuitive judgment is often flawed and doesn't Page 350help us make good decisions.85 Decision making can be more rational when following a process,86 which we call the decision-making model. Of course we have to use some intuitive judgment,87 but using the model helps us be more rational and focus our intuitive judgment, which is called bounded rationality.88 The five steps are shown in Model 11.2 and discussed here.
leadership skills in meetings
With the trend toward teams, there are more meetings in the workplace.55 Thus, you need meeting leadership skills for career success. The meeting skills presented here apply to both face-to-face and the increasing use of audio conference56 and videoconference57 meetings. Let's take a few seconds for a humorous break. How do you define a committee? A committee is a group that takes minutes and waste hours. Top level managers spend as much as one-third of their day in meetings,58 and many people dislike meetings because they believe they are often an unproductive waste of time.59 But it doesn't have to be. If you develop the skills in this section you can plan, run, and help lead meetings, and deal with problem members effectively. The success or failure of meetings rests primarily with the leader, but again we can all be leaders,60 so if the person in charge is not running the meeting effectively, you may be able to help improve the meetings.
The board member
Your team may have one or more members who are not interested in the task. The bored person may be preoccupied with other issues and not pay attention or participate in the group meeting.72 The bored member may be a know-it-all, who feels superior and wonders why the group is spending so much time on the obvious. Keep members motivated. Assign the bored member a task such as recording ideas on the board or recording the minutes. Call on bored members; bring them into the group. If you allow them to sit back, things may get worse and others may decide not to participate either. Negative feelings can easily be carried to other team members. If you tend to be bored, try to find ways to help motivate yourself (Chapter 8). Work at becoming more patient and in control of behavior that can have negative effects on other members.
how should a manager in a firm supervise his or her team members in the productions stage of group development
by letting the group make its own decsions and by being a group member
Status congruence
is the acceptance ans satisfaction members receive from their group status. Members who are not satisfied with their status may feel excluded from the team, and they may not be active team participants.39 They may physically or mentally escape from the team and not perform to their full potential. Or they may cause team conflict as they fight for a higher status level.40
Task roles and maintenance roles
stated that when leaders interact with employees, they can use directive behavior, supportive behavior, or both. These same two dimensions can also be performed by group members as they interact. When used to relate to group interactions, they are commonly called task roles and maintenance roles. A third category, called self-interest roles, is often added.44 Below we will discuss each type of role in more detail.
