HUNTERS EDUCATION

SHooting a shotgun vs. rifle: Shotgun Point a shotgun. Focus your eye on the target. Pull the trigger.

Rifle Aim a rifle. Focus your eye on the crosshairs or front sight. Squeeze the trigger.

Frostbite Frostbite occurs when tissue freezes. The best prevention is to avoid severe weather. If you're caught in extremely cold weather, pay attention to your head and extremities, such as fingers, toes, ears, and nose. Wear a face cover if the temperature is below 0° Fahrenheit. If you experience any symptom of frostbite, treat immediately.

Symptoms of Frostbite Skin turns off-white. Prickly or tingling feeling occurs as ice crystals form. Pain may be present initially, then disappears as frostbite progresses. In severe cases, victim experiences a loss of feeling in the affected area. Treatment of Frostbite Warm the affected area with body heat, but avoid rubbing the area—it can damage tissue. Don't use hot water or other external heat sources, which could cause burns. Wrap with warm, dry clothing. Move to a warm shelter. Drink hot liquids. Get medical attention.

Bow hunting cont: Before practicing or hunting, an archer must examine each arrow to make certain there are no cracks or breaks in the shaft and that the nock is in good condition. A cracked or broken nock can be replaced, but a shaft that has cracks or breaks should be discarded. Never use a cracked arrow. The shaft may shatter on release and be driven into the shooter's wrist or arm. Some common types of damage to look for are:Cracks and splinters in wood arrowsCreases, dents, or cracks in aluminum arrowsCrushed sidewalls on fiberglass or graphite arrows

An arrow is as deadly as a bullet, so the basic safety rules that govern firearm shooting also apply to archery. Although shooting accidents are rare among bowhunters, they do happen. Archers must obey a few common safety rules, whether on the range or in the field. Release an arrow only when the path to the target and beyond is clear. Make sure there's something to stop the arrow if you miss—never shoot over the horizon. Avoid shooting an arrow in the general direction of another person. Arrows are easily deflected. A small twig, unseen by you, can cause an arrow to veer dangerously off course. Don't shoot straight up. A falling arrow carries enough force to penetrate the human skull. Carry arrows in the nocked position only when slowly approaching game—never nock an arrow or draw a bow if someone is in front of you. Use a haul line to raise a bow and quiver into a tree stand to avoid serious injury. To prevent injury: Use a special wrench to screw on broadheads. This device covers the blades while a broadhead is being tightened on an arrow. If a wrench isn't used, the slightest slip can cause a serious cut. When sharpening broadheads, always stroke the blade away from your hands and body. Keep broadheads covered with a quiver while traveling to and from the field. Many arrow injuries occur while loading or unloading equipment in vehicles. While dressing bow-killed game, remember that the broadhead may remain in the animal. Use great caution until all parts of the broadhead have been found.

The main differences between rifles, shotguns, and handguns are their barrels, their intended targets, and the type of ammunition used. caliber Diameter of the bore of a rifle or handgun as measured from land to opposite land on rifled barrels and the designation for the size of ammunition for different bores rifling Spiral grooves cut into the bore of a firearm barrel together with the lands—the ridges of metal between the grooves; rifling makes a bullet spin in flight, increasing accuracy and distance grooves The spiral cuts in a rifled bore lands The ridges of metal between the grooves in a rifled bore The bore of a rifle or handgun is grooved, which puts a spiral spin on the bullet for greater accuracy. The bore of the shotgun barrel is smooth because rifling would spread the shot pattern too soon.

Rifle The rifle has a long barrel with rifling and thick walls to withstand high pressures. Rifling puts a spiral spin on a bullet fired from a rifle, increasing accuracy and distance.Rifles are typically used for firing at stationary targets.The bore of a rifle barrel is made for only one specific caliber of ammunition. Shotgun The shotgun has a long barrel and usually has a smooth bore to reduce friction. The barrel's walls are thinner due to reduced pressures. If a shotgun is designed to fire slugs, it might have a rifled barrel.Shotguns are typically used for shooting at moving targets in the air.The bore of a shotgun barrel is made for only one specific gauge of ammunition. Handgun The handgun has a short barrel with rifling and thick walls to withstand high pressures. Because of the short barrel, extra care must be taken to control the muzzle of a handgun. Like the rifle, rifling in the handgun puts a spiral spin on a bullet when fired, increasing accuracy and distance.Handguns are typically used for firing at stationary targets.The bore of a handgun barrel is usually made for only one specific caliber of ammunition.

Sighting in a rifle: Rifle bullets don't travel in a straight line. They travel in an arc, formed by the pull of gravity. Bore sighting-in with bolt-action rifles: Remove the bolt, brace the firearm on sandbags, and look directly through the bore. Correct the rifle's position until you see the bull's-eye in the center of the bore. Adjust the sights to give you a good sight picture. Collimator sighting-in for rifles without bolt actions: A collimator slips into the muzzle end of the barrel and allows you to adjust the sights, much like bore sighting-in.

"Sighting-in" is a process of adjusting the sights to hit a target at a specific range. Deer hunters, for example, often sight-in their rifles to hit the bull's-eye at 100 yards. All rifles should be sighted-in before every hunt using the ammunition you plan to use, especially rifles with peep or telescopic sights. Guns you sighted-in prior to your last outing could have been knocked out of alignment by a single jolt. That misalignment could mean the difference between a successful hunt and a disappointing experience. Other than ensuring accurate shots, sighting-in a rifle has other advantages:Forces you to practiceMakes accurate shooting possibleHelps identify problems with your firing techniqueHelps determine the farthest range at which you can hit your targetImproves safety by helping you know where your rifle will fireBuilds confidence in your shooting ability

Firing process for shotgun:

A shotshell is inserted into the chamber. Closing the action pushes the firing pin back and holds it under spring tension. Pulling the trigger releases the firing pin. The firing pin strikes the primer producing sparks. Heat and sparks from the primer ignite the gunpowder. Gas converted from the burning powder expands in the shell. The expanding gas forces the wad and shot out of the plastic body of the shell. The escaping gases produce a "bang" as the wad and shot leave the barrel. The wad quickly opens and falls away. The shot cluster spreads. This spread is called the shot string.

Types of Actions Firearms can be classified by their action type. The action of a firearm is made up of parts that load, unload, fire, and eject the shotshell or cartridge. Actions are either single-shot or repeating styles. Single-shot firearms must be reloaded each time the firearm is fired. Repeating firearms have extra cartridges or shotshells ready in a magazine, cylinder, or extra barrel. The pump-action firearm is fast and smooth. It allows the shooter to re-cock the firearm without taking his or her eye off the target. The pump action also is referred to as "slide action" or "trombone action." To open the action, slide the forestock to the rear, which extracts the cartridge or shotshell from the chamber and ejects it. Sliding the forestock toward the muzzle closes the action and readies another cartridge or shell for loading. A pump-action firearm will open only after it's fired or if a release lever is pressed and the forestock is pulled to the rear. To make sure it's unloaded, open the action, and check both the chamber and the magazine for cartridges or shotshells. The break-action firearm operates on the same principle as a door hinge. Simple to load and unload, a hinge action is often chosen as a hunter's first firearm. To open the action, point the barrel(s) at the ground. A release is pressed, and the stock drops downward. This allows the cartridges or shotshells to eject or to be removed manually if the firearm is loaded. Hinge-action firearms have a separate barrel for each shot rather than a magazine. Most models have one or two barrels, but some have up to four.

A bolt-action firearm operates like opening and closing a door bolt. The bolt solidly locks into the breech, making it accurate and dependable. To open the action, lift the handle up and pull it to the rear. If the firearm is loaded, the cartridge or shotshell will be ejected as you pull the bolt to the rear. To make sure it's unloaded, open the action, and check both the chamber and the magazine for cartridges or shotshells. You can store a bolt-action firearm safely by storing the bolt separately from the firearm. The lever-action firearm has a large metal lever located behind the trigger. This handle usually forms the trigger guard as well. To open the action, push the lever downward and forward, which extracts the cartridge case from the chamber and ejects it. If a magazine holds extra cartridges, another is immediately ready to be loaded into the chamber. It's often difficult to tell whether a lever-action firearm is loaded. To unload, push the lever downward and forward repeatedly until no more cartridges are ejected. To make sure it's unloaded, open the action, and check both the chamber and the magazine for cartridges. Most models also have an exposed hammer, which can be dangerous. Always use extra caution to keep your hands away from the trigger while working the lever action. double action Pulling the trigger both cocks and releases the hammer. A double-action revolver typically also can be hammer-cocked like a single-action revolver. single action Will fire only after the hammer has been cocked manually. double action Pulling the trigger both cocks and releases the hammer. A double-action revolver typically also can be hammer-cocked like a single-action revolver. single action Will fire only after the hammer has been cocked manually.

Firing Process: The same physical process is used to shoot shotshells from shotguns or cartridges from rifles or handguns. Pulling the trigger causes the firing pin to strike and explode the primer in the base of the cartridge or shotshell. The spark from the primer ignites the gunpowder, which burns rapidly and converts to a gas. The gas rapidly expands and drives the projectile(s) through the barrel with great force.

A cartridge is inserted into the chamber. The action is closed, and the firing pin is pushed back and held back under spring tension. The trigger is squeezed, releasing the firing pin, which moves forward with great force. The firing pin strikes the primer, causing it to explode. The spark from the primer ignites the gunpowder. Gas converted from the burning powder rapidly expands in the cartridge. The expanding gas forces the bullet out of the cartridge and down the barrel with great speed. The rifling in the barrel causes the bullet to spin as it travels out of the barrel. The bullet's speed and escaping gases produce a "bang.

Approaching Downed Game

A downed deer or other large animal should be approached carefully from above and behind the head. If the animal appears to be dead, wait a short distance away for a few minutes. Watch for any rise and fall of the chest cavity. Notice whether the eyes are closed—the eyes of a dead animal are usually open. You can be certain that the animal is dead if the eye doesn't blink when touched with a stick. If the animal is still alive, it should be finished with a quick shot to the base of the ear. If you wish to mount the head, place your shot in the heart-lung area. For bowhunters, the only option is placing an arrow in the heart-lung area. Once the animal is dead, follow the state regulations for reporting or recording a kill. Some states require you to tag the animal immediately and indicate the date of the kill. Then begin field dressing.

Steps to prepare for a hunt:

A successful hunt begins with careful planning and preparation. The process usually requires more time than the hunt itself. Here are some steps you should take to prepare for a hunt. Educate yourself about the game you'll be hunting and its environment. Obtain the most current state regulations. Buy appropriate clothing and gear for the environment. Secure lease arrangements and permits (dogs and horses may require a veterinarian's certificate or a current vaccination record). Visit the site in the off-season to prepare blinds and cabin facilities. Sight-in rifles, handguns, and bows; pattern shotguns. Sharpen your skills at the shooting range. Pack extra firearms, scopes, bowstrings, etc.

The HELP and Huddle Positions Heat Escape Lessening Posture (HELP): When you are alone, this position protects the body's three major areas of heat loss (groin, head/neck, and rib cage/armpits). Wearing a PFD allows you to draw your knees to your chest and your arms to your sides. Huddling With Others: Huddling with other people in the water lessens the loss of body heat and is good for morale. Also, rescuers can spot a group more easily than individuals.

ATV: Always follow the rules for safe and ethical operation. Wear a helmet approved by the Department of Transportation. Wear protective clothing, including goggles, gloves, and boots. Carry firearms unloaded, cased, and on a proper gun rack. When using the plastic scabbard mounted on an ATV, clear the inside of the scabbard of debris, and check your firearm's muzzle for obstructions. Stay on the main roads and trails open to ATV use. Pick your route carefully to minimize terrain damage. Don't drive over crops or planted fields. Don't shoot from an ATV. Use ATVs only to get to the hunting area or to haul an animal from the woods.

Firearms: Although firearms have changed a great deal since they were first invented, the terms used for their parts have changed very little. All modern firearms have three basic groups of parts: action, stock, and barrel.

Action: The action is the heart of the firearm—the moving parts that load and fire the ammunition and eject the shells or cartridges. Several types of actions are used in modern firearms. Muzzleloaders have locks instead of actions. Stock: The stock is the part of the firearm that is held by the shooter. The stock also serves as the platform for supporting the action and the barrel. Barrel: The barrel is the metal tube that the projectile travels through as a result of pressure from burning gunpowder, compressed air, or other like means. The barrel also guides the projectile in the intended direction. bore Inside of the firearm barrel through which the projectile travels when fired breech Rear end of the barrel firing pin A pin that strikes the primer of the cartridge, causing ignition receiver Metal housing for the working parts of the action

Determining Accuracy Limits

After selecting your firearm, you should practice with it before you go hunting. Ethical hunters know their personal accuracy and limit their shots accordingly. Rifles: Use an 8-inch paper plate as the standard target to establish deer hunting accuracy. An 8-inch target is about the same size as the vital area of a deer. Before hunting, practice until you are confident you can hit the required target at the distances and from the shooting positions you expect to use in the field. When hunting, limit your shots to your most accurate range. Shotguns: Pattern your shotgun, and then practice hitting targets at the distances you expect to be from game you shoot. This will develop proficiency with the chosen firearm and help to ensure an ethical, clean, quick kill.

Sight Alignment Sight alignment, which is important in rifle firing, is even more important in pistol shooting because of the shorter distance between the sights. Typically, handgun sights consist of a square rear notch sight and a heavy square front blade sight. This arrangement is easy to align. Most handguns are initially sighted-in at 50 feet.

Aiming At the shooting range, many handgunners use a sight picture that places the bull's-eye on the top of the front sight, rather than placing it in the sights over the center of the target. However, hunters should hold the alignment directly over the vital area. Scopes with long eye relief have become popular with handgunners and offer exact sighting for hunters. Scopes may take longer to align on a target than open sights, but they're usually more accurate. The pistol-shooting fundamentals of breath control, trigger squeeze, and follow through are almost identical to those in rifle firing. There are, however, some important differences to remember. The first joint of the finger should take up trigger pressure, not the tip, as is often done with rifles. When a revolver is fired, powder flashing at the front of the cylinder can cause burns. Be sure to keep your fingers away from the front of the trigger area. The slide and hammer of a semi-automatic gun can deliver a bruising blow when held too close to the body. All handguns should be fired at arm's length.

Understand Animal Characteristics: Whatever you're hunting, a basic understanding of an animal's characteristics will help you develop an effective strategy for identifying and tracking it.

Animals can be identified by four basic characteristics. Distinctive Markings: The black cheek patch on male pronghorns; the "flags" of the white-tailed deer; the face pattern on a gray fox; the green head on a mallard drake; the red, white, and blue on the head of a male turkey Sounds: The wild call of the sandhill crane, the familiar honk of the goose, the gobble of a strutting "tom," the grunt of the deer, the howl of the coyote Movement: The bounce of mule deer, the strut of a tom turkey, the fast or slow wing beats of some waterfowl, the zigzag in-flight pattern of the common snipe when flushedGroup Behavior: Flock patterns, such as the familiar V shape of certain migratory birds; various types of herd behavior Further study will help you learn other ways to identify and understand your quarry, including signs the animal leaves, camouflage capability, and behavior.

Field care basics: The way you handle game after it's harvested can have a significant impact on the quality of the meat. The growth of bacteria is the cause of spoiled meat. Three factors contribute to bacteria growth.Heat: Heat is the number-one concern. Bacteria grow rapidly in a carcass, especially if it's allowed to stay warm. Meat begins to spoil above 40° Fahrenheit. The higher the temperature—and the longer the meat is exposed—the greater the chance of spoilage. This is particularly true with large game.Moisture: Moisture also encourages the growth of bacteria.Dirt: Dirt can introduce bacteria. Field Dressing Techniques: Basic field dressing techniques help cool game by removing entrails. This lowers body heat by allowing air into the body cavity.

As a rule, it's best to field dress immediately.When cooling the body, use available shade. Hang deer, if possible. For larger animals, such as deer, elk, and moose, you should prop the carcass open with a clean stick to allow air to circulate.In warm weather, it's helpful to place squirrels and doves in a cooler after dressing, as long as they remain dry.Dispose of entrails carefully. Don't leave them lying by the side of a road or near a residence where they can be dragged home by a dog.Keep meat clean by covering it with cheesecloth. This also protects it from flies, which lay eggs in exposed flesh. Rubbing meat with black pepper also will repel insects. If you have to drag the game to camp, try to keep dirt and debris out of the chest cavity.Because moisture damages meat, don't use excessive amounts of water to wash the cavity. Allow it to dry.If you plan to process the animal yourself, skin the animal as soon as possible to allow the carcass to cool. Wearing latex gloves while field dressing helps protect you from wildlife diseases.

The Hunter's Ethical Code As Aldo Leopold, the "father of wildlife management," once said, "Ethical behavior is doing the right thing when no one else is watching—even when doing the wrong thing is legal." The ethical code hunters use today has been developed by sportsmen over time. Most hunting organizations agree that responsible hunters do the following: Respect natural resources Respect other hunters Respect landowners Respect non-hunters ethics Moral principles or values that distinguish between right and wrong; they are unwritten rules that society expects to be followed. These rules may help you survive if something goes wrong. Give a responsible person your hunting plan. Don't travel or hunt alone. Take enough food and water to last for several days in an emergency. Bring a map and compass, and always orient yourself before leaving camp. Wear layered clothing, and take extra clothing, preferably wool and polyester, with you. Plan your outings so that you can return to camp before dark. Never leave camp without taking fire-starting equipment and a foil blanket. Don't panic if you become lost.

Be Ready: To help you avoid or minimize problems, it's essential that you plan carefully for the hunt. Responsible hunters anticipate potential problems and make plans to deal with them. Considerations include terrain, location, weather, dangerous game, and the potential for forest fires. Know Your Location: Learn as much as you can about your chosen hunting area before you arrive.You can purchase topographic or aerial maps to familiarize yourself with the terrain.If the location is within a convenient drive, it's a good idea to visit the area in the off-season. Preparing for hunt: Prepare for Safety: You also need to assess your physical condition and equipment.Your physical and mental condition will affect your performance and safety on the hunt. Staying in shape also may prevent exhaustion and heart attacks.Refresh your memory of hunting and firearm safety rules, and review the rules with your hunting partners. Tell Others: Prepare a hunting plan in case you or someone in your group becomes lost, sick, or injured.Tell where and with whom you are hunting and when you expect to return.Give specific directions on your route to your destination and any alternate destinations.Leave the plan with a family member or friend so that searchers will know where to find you. Do not deviate from your hunting plan without notification.When hunting with a group, each person should discuss their route plan.

Muzzle loaders cont. Three types of projectiles—the round ball, the bullet, and shot—are used in muzzleloaders. Most are melted and cast from pure lead. Round balls are used mainly for target practice but also can be used for hunting. Bullets are preferred for hunting because they are generally more accurate at certain ranges. Shot pellets are designed to spread, just as with today's shotguns. Muzzleloaders take significantly more knowledge to operate than modern firearms. They also present greater risks. Several rules must be followed to ensure safe operation. Keep the muzzle pointed in a safe direction. Do not lean over, stand in front of, or blow down the muzzle. Use only black powder or a safe substitute in a muzzleloading firearm. Wait until you're ready to fire before you prime or cap a muzzleloader. Always wear shooting glasses and ear protection when shooting a muzzleloader; a long-sleeved shirt is also advisable. Never smoke while shooting or loading or when near a powder horn or flask. Load a muzzleloader directly from a calibrated powder measure—do not load from a horn, flask, or other container. A loose spark or glowing ember in the barrel can cause the powder to explode. Load only one charge at a time. Unload a muzzleloader before bringing it into your home, camp, or vehicle. Stay with your charged muzzleloader at all times.

Black powder is the only type of powder that should be used in muzzleloaders. However, synthetic substitutes, such as Pyrodex®, also can be used. Be sure to use only approved substitutes. Don't use modern-day smokeless powders in black powder firearms. Smokeless powders can cause serious injury if used in muzzleloaders. Black powder is made of potassium nitrate (saltpeter), sulfur, and charcoal. When ignited, it causes a dense cloud of white smoke. It comes in four sizes or granulations.Fg: Coarse grain typically used in cannons, rifles larger than .75 caliber, and 10-gauge shotguns or largerFFg: Medium grain typically used in larger rifles between .50 and .75 caliber, 20-gauge to 12-gauge shotguns, and pistols larger than .50 caliberFFFg: Fine grain typically used in smaller rifles and pistols under .50 caliber and smaller shotgunsFFFFg: Extra-fine grain typically used as a priming powder in flintlocks Black powder substitutes can be used in amounts equal to black powder, but loading may vary. Be sure to get instructions from a qualified gunsmith for loading procedures. Substitutes are not recommended for use in flintlocks because they may not ignite from sparks as easily.

Purpose of hunter ed: The mission of the International Hunter Education Association (IHEA-USA) is to develop safe, responsible, and knowledgeable hunters by promoting hunter education.

Decrease hunting-related shooting incidents and other hunting injuries and... Promote responsible hunter behavior, including compliance with hunting laws and regulations.

A Rifle's or Handgun's Caliber

Caliber usually is measured as the diameter of the bore from land to opposite land and is expressed in hundredths of an inch, thousandths of an inch, or millimeters. For example, a .270-caliber rifle bore measures 270/1000ths of an inch in diameter between the lands and has a larger bore diameter than a .223-caliber rifle. However, there is no standard established for designating caliber. In some cases, the caliber is given as the diameter of the bullet, which is the distance between the grooves. Caliber designations sometimes have a second number that has nothing to do with the diameter. For example, the popular .30-30 is a .30-caliber cartridge, but the second number is a holdover from the days when the cartridge took 30 grains of powder. The "06" in .30-06 refers to the year (1906) it became the official ammunition of the U.S. military. Every rifle or handgun is designed for a specific cartridge. The ammunition must match the barrel stamp on the firearm. Having the same bore size does not mean different cartridges are interchangeable. For example, there are several .30-caliber firearms that use the same bullet size but are designed for different cartridges (the .30-30, .30-06, .308, and the .300 Savage). If you cannot find the caliber stamped on the firearm, take it to a qualified gunsmith.

Large Mammals The large mammal group typically includes horned animals, antlered animals, bears, and large members of the wild cat or wild dog families. Horned or antlered animals have these key characteristics. Horns are hollow and are not shed. Wild sheep and goats have horns. Antlers are solid bone and are shed annually. Members of the deer family have antlers and rub their antlers on trees. Horned and antlered animals are cloven-hoofed (their hooves have two parts). Horned and antlered animals are ruminants (they chew cud). A ruminant digests its food in two steps. First they eat food and regurgitate it (cud), and then they eat it a second time. They have a hard upper pad that they use to mash their food.

Characteristics of Mammals Mammals are warm-blooded animals with hair. Young are nourished with milk from the mother. Mammals can be carnivorous (meat-eating), herbivorous (plant-eating), or omnivorous (meat- and plant-eating). Mammals seek to regulate their temperature. Mammals in cold climates must keep warm, and mammals in hot climates must keep cool. Small mammals live shorter lives than large mammals, in general. Mammals vary in social behavior—some species live in groups, and other species are solitary except when mating or raising offspring.

Patterning shotgun: No two shotguns will shoot identical pellet patterns. In some cases, the pattern will be off-center. In other instances, there may be gaps in the pattern. In addition to the firing characteristics of the gun, the gun's choke, the brand of shotshell, the shot size, and the type of shot also affect the pattern. In order to select ammunition that provides the best performance, it's necessary to "pattern" your shotgun. Shots at game birds in flight should be limited to your "maximum effective range." This is the distance at which you can hit the target consistently. Shooting beyond this distance leads to an increased number of birds wounded and lost. Also, firing at game too close may destroy the meat.

Choke re visit: Here are some examples for matching the choke to the quarry. Someone hunting small, fast, close birds would generally use an Improved Cylinder or Modified choke, which creates a broad shot pattern that spreads quickly at close ranges. Conversely, someone hunting a larger, less mobile bird that is usually farther away, such as a turkey, would select a Full choke, which concentrates the shot in a smaller area. Pellet size also varies based on the size of the game. The chart below suggests choke selections for a variety of game. It is intended only as a guide—choice of choke may vary depending on ammunition, target distance, and hunting conditions. Always pattern your shotgun for the quarry you are hunting and the ammunition you are using.

Common types of bullets: In tubular magazines, the bullet tip of one cartridge rests directly on the primer of the cartridge immediately ahead. For this reason, use only rounded or blunt tips in tubular magazines. Ammunition can be centerfire or rimfire. Centerfire ammunition is used for rifles, shotguns, and handguns. In this type of ammunition, the primer is located in the center of the casing base. Most centerfire ammunition is reloadable. Rimfire ammunition has the primer contained in the rim of the ammunition casing. Rimfire ammunition is limited to low-pressure loads. Rimfire cartridges are not reloadable.

Common Types of Rifle Bullets Pointed Soft Point: High velocity, accurate bullets with a flat travel path (trajectory); excellent mushrooming Rounded Soft Point: Popular for low-velocity calibers; recommended for tubular magazines Protected Tip: Highly accurate with excellent expansion Full Metal Jacket: Maximum penetration without mushrooming; these bullets are illegal for big game hunting in most states Common Types of Handgun Bullets Roundnose Lead: Good penetration, little expansion Full Metal Jacket: High penetration, no expansion Semi-Wad Cutter: Balances penetration and expansion Hollowpoint: Designed for high expansion on impact Wad Cutter: Flat-ended, used for target shooting; creates clean hole in paper

SHOTGUN GUAGE: Shotguns are classified by gauge, which is a measure related to the diameter of the smooth shotgun bore and the size of the shotshell designed for that bore.

Common shotgun gauges are 10-gauge, 12-gauge, 16-gauge, 20-gauge, and 28-gauge. The smaller the gauge number, the larger the shotgun bore. Gauge is determined by the number of lead balls of size equal to the approximate diameter of the bore that it takes to weigh one pound. For example, it would take 12 lead balls with the same diameter as a 12-gauge shotgun bore to weigh one pound. Today, however, gauge can be measured much the same way as caliber, by measuring the inside bore diameter. The .410-bore shotgun is the only exception to the gauge designation for shotguns. It has an actual bore diameter of 410/1000ths of an inch, which is approximately equivalent to a 67½ gauge. Each gauge of shotgun shoots only shells of the same gauge. For example, 12-gauge guns use only 12-gauge shells. The gauge of a shotgun is usually marked on the rear of the barrel, and the gauge of a shell is marked on the shell as well as on the factory box.

The habitat is where a species fulfills its basic life needs: nourishment, procreation, and rest. If not managed properly, urban development can result in habitat loss, which presents the greatest threat to wildlife. Habitat management, the most essential aspect of wildlife management, safeguards the essential elements to meet these needs.Food and water are necessary to all wildlife. Competition for these elements among species makes cover, space, and arrangement top priorities.

Cover protects animals from predators and the weather while they feed, breed, roost, nest, and travel. Cover ranges from thick weeds and brush to a few rocks piled together.Space is necessary for adequate food among wildlife, territorial space for mating and nesting, and freedom from stress-related diseases.The ideal arrangement places food, water, cover, and space in a small area so that animals minimize their energy use while fulfilling their basic needs for nourishment, procreation, and rest. Edge effect refers to the consequence of placing two contrasting ecosystems adjacent to one another. Most animals are located where food and cover meet, particularly near water. An example would be a river bottom, which offers many animals all their habitat needs along one corridor.

Safeties: All safeties are located around the receiver of the firearm and are usually easy to spot. The orange outlines indicate where safeties typically are located on rifles, shotguns, and handguns. A safety is a device that blocks the action to prevent the firearm from shooting until the safety is released or pushed to the off position. The safety is intended to prevent the firearm from being fired accidentally. However, safeties should never be relied on totally to protect against accidental shooting. Safeties are mechanical devices subject to mechanical failure from wear and other factors, and they can fail when least expected. Also, safeties can be unknowingly bumped from the safe position as your firearm is being handled or as it catches on clothing or tree branches. Pivot Safety Common on bolt-action rifles and found on some semi-automatic pistols A pivoting lever or tab that blocks the trigger or firing pin Located on the frame (blocks trigger) or on the bolt or slide (blocks firing pin)

Cross-Bolt Safety Common on pump and semi-automatic firearms A simple, push-button action that blocks the trigger or hammer Usually located at the trigger guard or ahead of the hammer Slide or Tang Safety Common on some rifles and break-action shotguns A sliding bar or button that blocks the firing action Located on the tang (a metal strip behind the receiver) of break-action firearms or on the side of the receiver on some rifles Half-Cock or Hammer Safety Common on single-action revolvers and other firearms with exposed hammers Positions the trigger at half-cock, away from the firing pin Engaged by placing the trigger at half-cock While not a true safety, it is sometimes described as a mechanical safety device by firearm manufacturers

Types of chokes: Your distance from the target determines the choke you need. The choke of a shotgun determines shot string only. It has no bearing on shot speed (velocity) or distance (range). That is, the choke does not alter the shotgun's power—it just controls how tight or spread out the pellets will be at a specific distance. Steel shot is slightly lighter than lead shot of the same size—reducing its velocity and distance (range). Also, steel shot is harder than lead, so the individual pellets stay round, keeping the pattern tighter. Some hunters use steel shot one or two sizes larger to make up for the difference in weight from lead shot. Others use the same size steel shot, or even smaller steel shot, to get more shot into their patterns. You should pattern your shotgun with various loads of steel shot before hunting waterfowl with it. Effective pattern density is the key. Maximum pellet counts spread evenly across a 30-inch circle are best. Full chokes generally produce poor patterns with steel shot.

Cylinder choke is an unconstricted barrel. The shot string spreads quickly. Improved Cylinder choke has a slight constriction. It allows the shot string to spread fairly quickly. This is a good choice for quail, rabbits, and other upland game at relatively close ranges. Modified choke has moderate constriction. The pellets stay together longer, making the shot string denser and more useful at longer ranges. This choke is used often when dove hunting and when using steel shot to hunt for ducks or geese. There is also an Improved Modified choke that is slightly tighter than Modified. Full choke has tight constriction. The shot holds together even longer, making this choke good for squirrels, turkey, and other game shot at 40-yard and longer ranges. Turkey hunters sometimes use Extra Full or Turkey choke for even denser patterns at long range.

Fall Arrest System: You should use a fall-arrest system (FAS) that is manufactured to industry standards. Never use single-strap belts and chest harnesses—they can be deadly. Before hunting, carefully read the manufacturer's instructions for proper use of your FAS and follow all safety guidelines. Most tree stand falls occur when a hunter is climbing up or down a tree. Always use a properly fitting FAS that includes a full-body harness at all times when your feet are off the ground. This includes while climbing a tree, installing a tree stand that uses climbing aids, and hunting from a tree stand. (When using a ladder stand, attach your FAS to the tree and tighten the tether as soon as you reach the top of the ladder.)

Essential FAS Components: Make sure your FAS includes these components. Full-Body Harness: The vest harness is a very effective style of full-body harness. Tether: The tether attaches your full-body harness to the tree strap/belt or the tree stand safety line system and has a shock-absorbing feature. Suspension Relief Strap: This strap provides a loop to stand in if you fall. Additional FAS Components: Your FAS also must have additional components that you use to attach yourself to the tree.Lineman's-Style Belt or Climbing Belt: The lineman's-style belt (or climbing belt) goes around the tree while you are climbing up and down the tree. Tree Strap/Belt: The tree strap goes around the tree after you are in your tree stand. Tree Stand Safety Line System: The tree stand safety line system is an alternative to using a lineman's-style belt and a tree strap. When installed on a tree, a tree stand safety line system lets you remain attached to the tree with your FAS full-body harness and tether from the time you leave the ground until you return. A complete system includes these parts. Safety Rope/Line With Prusik Knot: The rope/line goes around the tree and extends from the base of the tree to a point at, or above, head level when you are standing on the tree stand platform. The prusik knot on the rope/line is designed to slide easily with one hand. If you should fall, the knot will tighten around the rope/line to keep you from falling to the ground. Carabiner: This metal ring connects the tether from your full-body harness to the prusik knot on the safety rope/line.

Benefits of hunting laws: Game Conservation To conserve wildlife for future generations to enjoy, wildlife management laws were passed. These laws allow game to flourish by: Establishing hunting seasons that limit harvesting and avoid nesting and mating seasons. Limiting hunting methods and equipment. Setting "bag" limits on the number of animals that can be taken. Establishing check stations and game tag requirements to enforce the laws. Safety, Opportunity, and Funding In addition to ensuring the availability of game for future generations, hunting laws: Establish safety guidelines for hunting that protect both hunters and non-hunters. Offer equal opportunity for all hunters, whether they use modern firearms, muzzleloaders, or bows. Ensure adequate funding for wildlife programs by collecting license fees, which annually raises millions of dollars.

Fair chase rules make sure hunters have no unfair advantage over wild game by balancing the skills and equipment of the hunter with the abilities of the animal to escape. The rules of fair chase are defined by law, regional preferences, and personal choice. Fair chase emphasizes self-restraint and skills development.Fair chase is primarily defined by individuals and their level of hunting ability.Expert hunters may use more restrictive and less effective techniques than novice hunters. Fair chase rules include banning the use of vehicles, airplanes, and radios; electronic calling; or shooting in a fenced enclosure. Many states have made these rules into law. How hunting laws are passed: In most states, a wildlife management agency sets hunting regulations. These agencies will have regular meetings where the public can voice their concerns and make suggestions. Hunters wishing to propose changes to the regulations should participate in these meetings or join a hunting organization that interacts with the agency.

hunting incidents

From a law enforcement perspective, a hunting incident occurs when a hunter directly or indirectly causes personal injury or death while using a firearm or bow. More broadly defined, a hunting incident is any unplanned, uncontrolled action that occurs while using a sporting arm. It can include near misses. Being responsible in order to prevent hunting incidents is your first priority. It is important to remember that:The most common hunting incidents result from hunter judgment mistakes.Eighty percent of all firearm incidents occur within 10 yards of the muzzle.

Patterning procedure: Patterning can be done with simple, homemade targets—sheets of blank paper about 4 x 4 feet in size. A commercial target with a bull's-eye also can be used, but the bull's-eye is used only to aim at—it is not used in steps 2-4 below. To pattern your shotgun, follow these steps:

Fire one shot at the center of the target (or bull's-eye) from the distance that you expect to be from your quarry (for example, 35 yards if hunting game birds). Repeat this two more times, each time with a new sheet of target paper. On each of the three targets, draw a 30-inch circle around the densest part of the shot pattern. (This is not necessarily the center of the paper.) On each of the three targets, count the number of pellet holes that fall within the 30-inch circle, marking them with the marker as you count each one. Calculate the percentage of the load that is expected to land in a 30-inch circle at the distance that you expect to be from your quarry.Average the pellet counts within the 30-inch circles (add the three counts from the previous step, and divide the sum by three). Then divide the average pellet count by the number of pellets in the load for the ammunition you are using, and multiply this result by 100. The pattern of pellets within a 30-inch circle should be of a proper, even density to ensure a clean kill. The pattern should contain a sufficient percentage of the load, which should be at least 55% to 60%. Continue this process, trying different choke and load combinations, until you get an even pattern density with a sufficient percentage of the load within a 30-inch circle while shooting from the distance that you expect to be from your quarry.

Sighting procedure: minutes-of-angle The standard measurement unit of shooting accuracy; one minute-of-angle (MOA) is 1/60 of one degree, or approximately one inch, at 100 yards

Fire your rifle from a solid bench rest with the forestock resting on a pad or a sandbag. Don't rest the gun on its barrel—it will shoot higher than normal. Ideally, use an adjustable shooting tripod with sandbags. A spotting scope is also useful. Sight-in instructions are printed on some targets available from retail outlets or manufacturers. The sighting-in process for most centerfire rifles begins at 25 yards and then should be repeated at 100 yards. The basic steps involve firing at least three shots carefully and consistently at a target. If the bullets form a relatively small group of holes on the target, but not where you were aiming, the sights will have to be adjusted. When adjusting peep or telescopic sights, the rear sights or dials are adjusted by a certain number of minutes-of-angle, or "clicks," in a certain direction. Read the sight's instruction manual to see how much each click changes the sight at 100 yards. The rear sight is moved in the same direction you want your shot to move on the target. Moving shots from side to side is "adjusting for windage." Moving shots up or down is "adjusting for elevation." Specific instructions about trajectory and what fractions or inches you should be above the bull's-eye at 25, 50, or 100 yards are usually included on sight-in targets. You also might consult a ballistics chart or get help from an experienced shooter.

Gun storage

Firearms must be stored unloaded and in a locked location, separate from ammunition. The storage area should be cool, clean, and dry. Storing firearms in closed gun cases or scabbards isn't recommended because moisture can accumulate. Store guns horizontally, or with the muzzle pointing down. When guns are stored upright, gravity pulls gun oil downward into the action, which forms a sticky film. Oil also can drain onto the stock, softening the wood. Displaying guns in glass cabinets or wall racks is an invitation to thieves and curious children.If guns are stored in an accessible area, such as a closet, put a locking device on each one.Ideally, guns should be hidden from view and locked. Storage devices with hidden compartments are available. For the best protection against theft and fire damage, purchase a safe.

Driving The purpose of the deer drive is to make the deer move, not run, out of their hiding places. Driving involves a group of hunters, some acting as "drivers" and others as "posters."Drivers spread out across a field or woods and push game out of cover.Posters take positions at the end of the cover to intercept game pushed out by the drivers. The success of a drive depends on good organization and being familiar with the terrain. It is critical that everyone involved in the drive is aware of the position of other drivers and posters. Wear fluorescent orange, and never shoot in the direction of another hunter. Trapping Trapping furbearing animals was once a full-time occupation. Today, regulated trapping is an important tool for managing our nation's natural resources. Trapping helps control animal populations by minimizing starvation, reducing spread of disease, and controlling habitat damage or destruction. Trapping helps protect personal property by preventing or decreasing:Flooding caused by beaver damsDamage to homes, trees, gardens, and agricultural cropsKilling of livestock or pets Trapping protects certain endangered or threatened species from predatory furbearers.

Flushing Flushing involves using noise, movement, or dogs to cause game to become nervous and leave cover. Pause frequently when attempting to flush game. When you vary your pace, your quarry may think it has been detected and be more likely to leave cover. Dogs There are several breeds of dogs that can be used for hunting different game species. Some dogs can be used to hunt several types of game animals. Pointers are used primarily for upland game birds. Retrievers are large, hearty dogs used primarily to retrieve waterfowl; they also can be trained to hunt other game birds. Spaniels are used mainly as flushers. Hunting hounds are used to hunt raccoons and rabbits in the Southeast, mountain lions and bears in the West, and deer in some states.

Loading or charging a muzzleloading firearm presents some special concerns because it requires the muzzle to be pointed upward. Steps to Load: Measure powder charge. Pour measured powder down barrel. Place patch and ball on muzzle. Tap ball into barrel with starter. Take out ramrod. Ram ball down barrel. Be sure ball is completely seated. Clear vent hole with pick if necessary. On flintlock muzzleloader, pour powder into pan and close frizzen. On percussion lock muzzleloader, place cap on nipple. steps for in line muzzle loader: Check for load and swab bore dry. Open breechblock to install cap/primer. Point in safe direction and close block. Clear channel by firing cap. Drop in powder or pellets. Place bullet in muzzle. Use starter to push bullet into muzzle. Use ramrod to seat bullet completely. Open breechblock. Install cap or primer. Close block and put on safe or fire.

For rifles, position the butt on the ground between your feet. You should be facing the underside of the barrel. The muzzle should be pointed upward and away from your body. Never work directly over the muzzle. Determine if the gun is already loaded by checking the barrel with a marked ramrod, which has an "unloaded" or empty marking. If you aren't sure, consult an experienced muzzleloader user or gunsmith. Measure out the proper amount and type of powder using the calibrated powder measure. Replace the powder flask's cap, and swing the flask to the other side of your body. Pour the powder into the barrel from the measure. Tap the barrel to make sure all powder falls to the breech end. Center a lubricated precut patch over the muzzle. You can lubricate the patch using a manufactured lubricant or with saliva by placing it in your mouth. Lay the ball on the patch with the sprue or flat side up, if the ball comes with this feature. Then seat the ball and start it down the barrel using the short starter. Use the longer ramrod to push the ball the rest of the way, making sure it's seated well on the powder charge. Push the ramrod in short strokes, gripping it just a few inches above the muzzle. If you use longer strokes, you might accidentally snap the rod and injure your hands or arm. Your ramrod should be marked to show when the ball is properly seated over a specific load, such as 70 grains of FFFg powder. Unloading muzzle loader: There are three ways to unload a muzzleloader. Unload a muzzleloader by discharging it into a suitable backstop. Do not fire into the air or into the ground at your feet in case the projectile ricochets. Use a CO2 discharger to clear the barrel.Percussion Lock Muzzleloader: Slip the discharger over the nipple.Flintlock Muzzleloader: Place the discharger against the touchhole. Modern In-Line Muzzleloader: Remove the breech plug. Then simply push the projectile and powder out the rear of the barrel. When a muzzleloader is unloaded, place your ramrod or loading rod in the barrel before leaning the firearm against a good rest—this will prevent debris from falling down the barrel and blocking the touchhole.

Wildlife Categories It is common to categorize wild animals into groups that are similar in some way; for example:Large mammalsSmall mammalsUpland birdsWaterfowl and wetland birdsBirds of prey

Game animals are wildlife that can be hunted legally. To be classified as legal game, the animals must:Be useful, primarily for food.Be abundant with population levels that can be sustained.Offer a unique or traditional challenge for hunters. Species that are listed as "threatened" or "endangered" are protected by law.Some species are protected from hunting because their numbers are small and they produce no surplus to harvest.Examples of protected species are eagles, falcons, and owls.

field dressing large game

Here are some additional tips for dressing large game. Because it's harder to move larger animals, you may need to skin and quarter the animal to pack it out, particularly in a remote area. If you're unable to hang the animal for skinning, begin by making a lengthwise cut and removing one side of the hide. Then turn the animal onto the skinned hide, and skin the other side. To keep dirt off the meat, use the inside of the removed hide as a protective mat as you quarter the animal. Put each quarter in a game sack and attach the sacks to a backpack frame for the hike out.

Types of arrowheads:

Here are some common types of arrowheads. Bullet Point: Steel point used for target shooting and small game hunting. Blunt Point: Used for small game hunting and some types of target shooting; made of steel, hard rubber, or plastic. Field Point: Steel point used for target shooting and small game hunting. JUDO® Point: Designed with spring arms attached to catch in grass and leaves, preventing arrow loss; used for "stump" shooting and small game hunting. Fish Point: Long, barbed or spring-loaded arrowhead that spears fish and secures them until landed with an attached line. Broadhead: Used primarily for big game hunting. The number of steel blades it contains may vary. The only arrowhead that may be used for big game hunting is the broadhead. It must be solidly built and always razor-sharp. Many states have laws governing the minimum diameter and number of cutting edges of the broadhead used to hunt big game. Mechanical (Expandable) Blade Broadhead: Blades are retracted close to the ferrule before the shot. Upon impact, the blades expand to expose the cutting edges. These are recommended for use only with bows rated 50 pounds or more because most require additional energy to open upon penetration.

Handgun-Shooting Position and Grip

Hold the handgun high on the grip so that the recoil is directed back to the hand and arm in a straight line. This allows better repeat shots and more accurate shooting. Use a two-handed hold whenever possible, applying pressure from front to rear. When hunting, use a tree trunk, steady limb, or other stable object as a rest. Placing some padding, such as a hat or a jacket, on top of a hard rest helps with your aim.

Trailing wounded game: It is a hunter's ethical responsibility to stop the hunt and search for any wounded animal. You should wait for at least a half-hour to an hour before trailing a deer, unless the downed deer is in sight. Make a practice of carefully observing every movement of a game animal after you shoot it. Investigate the ground and trail after shooting before assuming you missed. Once at the site of the shot, look for signs: Blood on the ground or vegetation Broken twigs or branches, or scattered leaves A "dew" line if early in the morningTracks Hair, meat, or bone fragments Downhill trails, especially toward water

If you lose a trail, search in a circular or grid pattern, and try to pick up the trail again. Use fluorescent orange flagging to mark the blood trail in case darkness or weather forces you to quit the search and return the next day. Marking the blood trail also shows where to look for more signs if you lose the trail. Be sure to remove the orange flagging after use. A clean kill improves the flavor of game meat. A wounded animal that has to be chased down yields strong-flavored meat because waste products, produced by stress, accumulate in the flesh.

The four main types of hunting-related shooting incidents are: Hunter Judgment Mistakes, such as mistaking another person for game or not checking the foreground or background before firing Safety Rule Violations, including pointing the muzzle in an unsafe direction and ignoring proper procedures for crossing a fence, obstacle, or difficult terrain Lack of Control and Practice, which can lead to accidental discharges and stray shots Mechanical Failure, such as an obstructed barrel or improper ammunition

Importance of Safe Backstops Hunters should always check for a safe backstop before shooting. Make sure the backstop is:Solid enough to capture fired bullets and...Constructed of a material that will not let the projectile ricochet. Remember that projectiles can travel for long distances. Here are some examples.A .22-caliber bullet can travel over 1½ miles.A centerfire bullet can travel several miles.Small shot can travel 200-350 yards.Larger shot can travel over 600 yards.Slugs can travel over 800 yards. Be sure of the target and what is in front of it and beyond it. Making sure you have a safe backstop helps ensure that the projectile cannot hit an unintended target. If you cannot see what lies beyond the target, do not take the shot.

Know your quarry: Of all the steps of preparation, educating yourself about the game you're hunting is one of the most critical. Understanding your quarry will increase your success and add to the enjoyment of the experience as well.

In many cases, knowing your quarry is also necessary to ensure that you're taking legal game. For example, you may need to determine the sex of game birds on sight or quickly recognize protected species as they move into firing range. If you hunt in a region where white-tailed and mule deer occupy the same area, you'll need to know how to identify both. There are many ways that wild animals are classified, but hunters are concerned with four basic categories.Large Mammals: Big game, such as deer, elk, and bearSmall Mammals: Small game, such as rabbits, squirrels, and raccoonsUpland Birds: Turkey, grouse, quail, and doveWaterfowl: Ducks and geese

In the early 1900s, for example, wildlife managers attempted to preserve a mule deer herd in the remote Kaibab Plateau of Arizona. Hunting was banned, and predators were destroyed. The result was severe overpopulation, habitat destruction, and mass starvation. The Kaibab Plateau was opened to hunting in 1929, which brought the population into balance with the habitat. Today, a large, healthy herd of mule deer inhabits the area. Around the same period, a similar event took place in Pennsylvania. Deer had been brought into the state after the native population was thought to be extinct. With most of the predators eliminated and little hunting allowed, the herd grew out of control. As the food supply dwindled, thousands of white-tailed deer starved to death. From these hard lessons, wildlife managers learned that there is more to conservation than just protecting wildlife. They discovered that nature overproduces its game resources and that good wildlife management yields a surplus that can be harvested by hunters.

In the first two decades of the 20th century, sportsmen from the United States and Canada developed a set of guiding principles for managing wildlife resources. Called the North American Model of Wildlife Conservation, these seven principles provide the foundation for the success of fish and wildlife conservation in North America. Fish and wildlife are public property. The government holds them in trust for the benefit of all people. Wildlife cannot be slaughtered for commercial use. This policy eliminates trafficking in dead game animals. Wildlife is allocated by law. Regulations determine how wildlife resources are managed, including hunting seasons and bag limits. The reasons for killing wildlife must be valid. Wildlife shall be taken by legal and ethical means, in the spirit of "fair chase," and with good cause. Animals can be killed only for legitimate purposes—for food and fur, in self-defense, or for protection of property. Wildlife is an international resource. As such, hunting and fishing shall be managed cooperatively across state and province boundaries. Science plays a key role in managing wildlife. Wildlife populations are sustained and scientifically managed by professionals in government agencies. Hunting, fishing, and trapping shall be democratic. Every citizen in good standing—regardless of wealth, social standing, or land ownership—is allowed to participate in the harvest of fish and wildlife within legal limits.

game care kit: Gloves, hatchet, small saw, knife, rope with pulley, game tag, game bags

Other typical items include: Black pepper to repel insects Cheesecloth bags for organs you plan to use as meat (heart, liver) Cooler and ice Disposable plastic gloves Fluorescent orange flagging Foil Gambrel and pulley system Hand towels Large bag for caped or trophy head Plastic bags for cleanup Plastic or cotton gloves Salt (non-iodized) for hide care

Shouldering, Pointing, and Pulling the Trigger of a Shotgun Shouldering the Shotgun When you bring the shotgun to your shoulder, the stock should be brought to your cheek first and then back to your shoulder. A common error is lowering the head and cheek to the stock, instead of bringing the stock all the way up to the cheek. When done properly, with your head naturally erect, the gun butt always should come to the same spot on your shoulder.

Pointing a Shotgun Because targets usually appear suddenly and move quickly, there's no time to "aim" a shotgun. It's designed to be pointed, with the eye sighting along the top of the barrel or rib. The sight is usually a bead on the front of the gun. Your eye must be in line with the barrel, so it's important to position your head properly on the stock. When you bring the gun to your face, the stock should fit snugly against your cheek with your eye on that side above the centerline of the gun. If you can't assume that position comfortably, you may need to adjust the "gun fit." Pulling the Trigger Unlike rifle firing, quick trigger action is important when hunting with a shotgun. To fire, quickly slap the trigger with a firm motion, keeping a firm grip on the shotgun while pulling the stock rearward. Because the trigger is pulled quickly and the body and gun are typically in motion, breath control isn't necessary. Continue the shotgun's swing as you pull the trigger. Stopping the swing as you shoot will cause you to hit behind a moving target.

Transporting game: Keep the dressed game cool and free of insects. A sure way to ruin meat—as well as earn the disdain of non-hunters—is to tie the animal to the hood or roof of a car, where it's exposed to heat, exhaust fumes, road salt, and airborne dust. If you've quartered the animal, pack the quarters in ice chests—don't process the deer beyond quartering until you reach your final destination. Be sure to keep proper "evidence of sex" if required by your game laws. Most hunters take their game to a commercial meat cooler, where a typical white-tailed deer can be properly aged up to three or four days at 40° Fahrenheit.

Primitive equipment: muzzle loader, bow, and crossbow Muzzleloader is the term given to early firearms because they are loaded from the muzzle or open end. Shown here are the parts of one type of muzzleloader—a muzzleloading flintlock rifle. On these early firearms, locks played the role of modern-day actions. Matchlock and wheel lock muzzleloaders are rare and valuable, but they also may be unsafe to use. Flintlocks and percussion locks are the muzzleloaders typically used for shooting competitions and for hunting. They are generally less expensive, lighter, more reliable, and easier to load and maintain than matchlocks and wheel locks. In the in-line muzzleloader, either primer or a percussion cap is placed on the nipple or breech plug. An ignition system that is in direct alignment with the bore of the firearm causes the cap to ignite the black powder charge, and the gun fires. Muzzleloaders are most commonly rifles. However, there are also smooth-bored muzzleloaders—shotguns. Shotgun muzzleloaders can have either a single barrel or double barrels joined side-by-side. When loading the double-barreled muzzleloader, it's critical to avoid putting the two loads down the same barrel. Double-barreled guns usually have two locks, one for each barrel. This allows the shooter to fire each barrel separately before the gun is reloaded. Most double-barreled guns were designed with two triggers. Muzzleloading handguns come as both pistols and revolvers. Pistols are mainly single-shot. The revolvers contain multiple-shot chambers. Chain firing muzzleloading revolvers can be dangerous. When the chamber round is fired, it produces sparks that could accidentally ignite loads in another cylinder(s). Therefore, be sure to protect each load in the cylinder with a coating of grease to prevent sparks from entering the open end of the other cylinders.

Shotgun shooting stance:

Proper shotgun techniques will help you develop the rapid, fluid response you need to hit your target. A shotgun is almost always shot at a moving target from a standing position. You must be able to swing freely over a wide arc and maintain control. That requires a relaxed, balanced stance. Stand with your feet spread about shoulder-width apart and your knees bent slightly so that you are balanced perfectly. Bring your left foot slightly forward (if you're a right-handed shooter), and lean your body in the same direction. The position of the feet is important. The toes of your forward foot should point at about 45 degrees toward the target. Take the time to place your feet properly, even for a quick shot.Keeping your knees slightly bent makes it easier to swing with a moving target. The bent leg to the rear supports the movements of your hips, allowing you to swing smoothly.

Bow hunting: Long bow or stick bow Proper bow selection and fit are essential to your accuracy and performance when bowhunting. The "traditional" bow, which has straight limbs that form an arc when strung Used by those interested in traditional shooting with little additional equipment Arrows have four parts. Shaft: The long spine of the arrow. Modern arrow shafts are made of wood, fiberglass, aluminum, or carbon. The arrow, regardless of shaft material, must have the correct stiffness to match the bow. As an arrow is released, the shaft bends before straightening in flight. Incorrect stiffness will cause the arrow to fly erratically and inaccurately. Fletching: The plastic vanes or feathers on an arrow. Fletching creates wind drag and also can cause the arrow to spin similar to a rifle bullet, providing stability and accuracy in flight. Fletching is made up of three or more vanes or feathers. One of the feathers will be a different color and is called the "cock" feather. The remaining feathers are referred to as the "hen" feathers. Arrowhead: The point of the arrow. Many different kinds of arrow points are available, each with a different purpose and advantage. Nock: A slotted plastic tip located on the rear end of the arrow that snaps onto the string and holds the arrow in position. There is a certain point on the bowstring, called the "nocking point," where arrows are nocked. Fine tuning of this location, by moving it up or down the bowstring, is usually required.

Re curve bow: Much like the longbow, but the limbs curve back away from the belly of the bow, which can provide more power in a shorter bow than the longbow A popular choice because it's smooth and quiet. Compound bow: The most popular bow for both hunting and target shooting A bow with many styles, but they work basically the same way; wheels and cables attached to the limbs make it easier to hold at full draw (pulled completely back) and able to propel an arrow faster than either a longbow or recurve bow A crossbow has a stock that is similar to a firearm, and it shoots shorter arrows than conventional archery equipment. These shorter arrows are sometimes referred to by the medieval term "bolts." Stringing a bow: Bowstringer: The safe and easy way to string a recurve bow or longbow is to use a bowstringer. The push-pull or step-through method can be hazardous to yourself or your bow. A bowstringer is simply a strong cord with a loop or pocket at each end that fits over the limb tip of recurve bows and some longbows. By standing on the loose middle of the cord after it's attached to the tips, the limbs can be flexed as the handle is pulled. This allows the bowstring to be slipped safely into place. Bow Press: To replace compound bowstrings, you must use a bow press. A bow press is used to place and hold tension on the limbs, allowing the strings to be changed. Inexperienced bowhunters should have a qualified dealer or individual replace the string on a compound bow.

Shooting fundamentals: Aim carefully, aligning your sights. Take a deep breath, and then release about half of it. Squeeze the trigger slowly. Follow through. parallax Optical bending of telescopic crosshairs in relation to the target There are four standard rifle-firing positions: prone, standing, sitting, and kneeling.

Shooting From a Rest: When shooting in the field, the safest and most accurate shots are taken from a rest—a log, large rock, or other stable object. Don't rest the barrel directly on a hard surface, or the rifle will fire higher than normal—put some padding, such as a hat or a jacket, under the rifle. Breathing: Your breathing can move the rifle just enough to throw off your shot.When you're ready to fire, draw a deep breath, and exhale about half of it.Then hold your breath as you squeeze the trigger.Bear in mind that if you hold your breath too long, your heart beats faster, which increases your pulse and causes the rifle to move. If you notice this happening, take another breath and start over.At times the excitement of spotting game will make it more difficult to control your breathing. Try to relax and follow the correct procedure. Trigger Squeeze: Jerking the trigger or abruptly clenching the trigger hand can move the gun enough to cause a miss.To squeeze the trigger without jarring the gun, simply apply slow, steady pressure until the gun fires.Practice makes breath control and proper trigger squeeze habitual. Follow Through: After the bullet fires, it's important to continue the squeeze or follow through. That prevents you from jerking the gun before the bullet has left the barrel.

Shot Angles: Quartering-Toward The quartering-toward shot angle is when the animal is facing toward you but at an angle. Because the animal is typically looking your way, it most likely will spot your movements. Firearm: The quartering-toward angle presents a clean shot to the vital organs. A shot can be taken at this angle if the gun is already trained on the animal. For an effective hit, aim at the front of the shoulder of the near front leg. Caution: A light bullet may deflect off the shoulder bones of large game, such as elk, deer, or large bears. Be certain to use a firearm and ammunition adequate for the game you hunt and the angle of shot you might select. Bow: This angle offers a poor shot opportunity and should not be taken. Heavy shoulder bones shield the majority of vital organs from broadhead-tipped arrow penetration. Also, bowhunters should never fire an arrow at an animal that is looking at them.

Shot Angles: Head-On The animal will certainly detect your movements with a head-on shot angle. Firearm: A head-on shot can be effective if you have an adequate firearm and your firearm is already positioned for the shot. However, head-on shots rarely result in a clean kill and ruin a lot of meat. Aim at the center of the chest to hit the vital organs. Bow: These angles offer very poor shot selection and should not be taken. Heavy bones in front and muscle mass and non-vital organs in back block penetration of the main vital areas. Shot Angles: Rear-End The rear-end shot should not be taken by hunters using firearms or bows. It's difficult to hit a vital area on an animal that is running or moving straight away from you. Rather than risk crippling the animal or ruining the meat, wait for a better shot.

Sight Alignment

Sight alignment is the process of lining up rear and front sights. The sight picture is the image you see when the sights are aligned correctly with the target. To ensure that the bullet will travel to the target in your sight, it's necessary to sight-in your rifle or handgun. With an open sight, you line up the target with the blade or bead of the front sight within the notch of the rear sight. With an aperture sight, you line up the target so that the front sight is within the rear peephole. With a telescopic sight with a crosshair reticle, you line up the target with the crosshairs of the sight. With a telescopic sight with a dot reticle, you line up the target with the dot of the sight. The dot must be centered.

Still Hunting: As the name implies, still hunting is walking stealthily through an animal's habitat, stopping frequently—sometimes for long periods—to scan and listen for game. Typically, big-game hunters use this method in unfamiliar terrain or where stands are impractical or forbidden. As a general rule, spend at least 10 times longer being still and observing than walking. Keep a low profile; a human silhouette will spook many game species. Use binoculars in open terrain to identify movement properly. If you still hunt effectively, game will be unaware of your presence, but so will other sportsmen. To avoid being mistaken for game by other hunters, always wear fluorescent orange.

Stalking: The difference between still hunting and stalking is that when stalking, you follow signs leading to a particular type of game or group of animals, or close the distance to game already spotted. You may follow tracks on trails or a morning "dew" trail through leaves and brush. Or you may follow sounds or scents of animals, such as elk, sheep, or collared peccaries. Or you may simply need to sneak closer to an animal for a better shot. Stalking requires total focus because you must remember to keep downwind, stay quiet, stay alert, and remain patient. When turkey hunting, the sound you hear may be another hunter "calling." For safety, you should not stalk turkeys.

The Four Primary Rules of Firearm Safety Point the muzzle in a safe direction. Treat every firearm with the respect due a loaded gun. Be sure of the target and what is in front of it and beyond it. Keep your finger outside the trigger guard until ready to shoot.

Statistics show that more than half of the fatal firearm incidents reported each year occur in the home. Since almost all incidents are caused by carelessness and lack of knowledge, it's the hunter's duty to help prevent firearm mishaps in the home. Most importantly, lock guns away where children can't reach them, and store ammunition in a separate location. Check to see that a firearm is unloaded before allowing it in any building or living area. Practice these safety rules if handling a firearm in the home.Immediately point the muzzle in a safe direction when you pick up a firearm.Keep your finger off the trigger. Always check to see that the chamber and the magazine are empty.If someone shows you a firearm you are not familiar with, do not handle it until the action is opened and you are certain the gun is unloaded. If a gun is taken from storage to show friends, be sure they understand safe gun handling rules. When you are with others, pay attention to what everyone is doing, particularly children. Know where everyone is at all times.Anticipate when and where they will move.

Shot Shells: gauge Diameter of the bore of a shotgun and the designation for the size of ammunition for different bores You also must choose the correct type and size of shot for the shotshell. In general, as the size of your target decreases, you should decrease the diameter of the shot you use. As pellet diameter decreases, more shot can be placed in a standard shotshell. The smaller the shot "number," the larger the pellet diameter. Shotshell marked as magnum means the shell has more shot or more gunpowder than a regular shell. Magnum and regular shotshells are interchangeable if the correct gauge and shell length are used. Non-toxic shot is required throughout the U.S. for waterfowl hunting. Studies showed that many waterfowl died each year because of lead poisoning. Lead pellets from traditional shotshells were picked up and digested by waterfowl. The toxic effect spread to other birds, such as the bald eagle, which consumed the poisoned waterfowl. To reduce this problem, conservationists worked with shotshell manufacturers to produce effective alternatives to lead shot—steel, tungsten alloy, or bismuth shot.

Steel Shot Steel shot pellets react differently than lead when shot. Because steel shot pellets are not as dense, they weigh about one-third less than lead shot pellets of the same size. Also, steel is harder, does not deform, and is not as unstable in flight as lead. It will produce a tighter pattern than lead shot. If using steel shot for hunting, choose a steel shot size one to two sizes larger than the lead shot you would select and choose a less constrictive choke. Shotgun shells (shotshells) use different projectiles and come in different sizes. Shotshells use a slug or shot as the projectile(s).A slug is a solid projectile, usually of lead, used for hunting big game with a shotgun.Shot are multiple pellets fired through a shotgun barrel. Shot size is adaptable to the game being hunted. This type of projectile is used typically to hunt game birds and small game animals. The shotshells must match exactly the gauge and shell length specified by the manufacturer. This information usually is found on the barrel of the shotgun. Shotguns may be chambered for 2½-inch, 2¾-inch, 3-inch, or 3½-inch shells. This refers to the length of the shell after it has been fired. Never load a shotshell that exceeds the approved shell length stamped on the barrel of your shotgun.

Heat Exhaustion Heat exhaustion is the opposite of hypothermia—the core body temperature increases, usually as a result of hot and humid conditions, plus a lack of water. Prevention of Heat Exhaustion Drink plenty of water. Take frequent breaks if you're hiking to or from your hunting spot, especially when carrying a large load. Dress in layers, and shed layers as physical activity increases.

Symptoms of Heat Exhaustion Pale and clammy skin Dry mouth Fatigue Weakness Dizziness Nausea Headache Muscle cramps Treatment of Heat Exhaustion Move the victim to a cooler place. Have the victim drink water or sports drinks. Keep the victim inactive. Fan to lower body temperature, but don't over-chill. In severe cases, seek medical attention. Heat Stroke Heat stroke should be treated as a medical emergency—it can be fatal. Symptoms of Heat Stroke Dry, hot, and flushed skin—dark or purple in color Dilated pupils Rapid, weak pulse Shallow breathing High temperature—may be in excess of 106° Fahrenheit Treatment of Heat Stroke Wrap in a sheet and soak with cool—not cold—water. Fan, but don't over-chill. Get to a hospital immediately.

The Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration Act, popularly known as the Pittman-Robertson Act, was approved by Congress in 1937.

The act provides funding for the selection, restoration, and improvement of wildlife habitat and for wildlife management research. The act was amended in 1970 to include funding for hunter education programs and for the development and operation of public target ranges. Funds for the act come from an 11% federal excise tax on sporting arms, ammunition, and archery equipment, as well as a 10% tax on handguns. One-half of the excise tax on handguns and archery equipment is used for hunter education and target ranges. These funds are collected from the manufacturers and are distributed each year to the states and territorial areas by the Department of the Interior. Each state's proportion of the federal funds is based on the area of the state and the number of licensed hunters in the state. The state covers the full amount of an approved project and then applies for reimbursement through federal aid for up to 75% of the project's expenses; the state is responsible for the other 25% of the project's cost. Non-hunting nature lovers equally benefit from this funding since it supports the management of wildlife areas and wetlands as well as game and non-game wildlife. "Robertson's 29 words" are a clause in the act's language to prevent states from diverting license fees paid by hunters away from their intended purpose: "... And which shall include a prohibition against the diversion of license fees paid by hunters for any other purpose than the administration of said State fish and game department...."

Firing procedure of muzzle loader: Cleaning: Firing a muzzleloader leaves a corrosive residue inside the barrel that causes pitting and reduces accuracy. The buildup of residue, called fouling, also will make loading difficult. To avoid fouling, swab the barrel with a moist patch after each shot. The patches or cleaning rags used to wipe the barrel must be the correct size and should be made of cotton or approved synthetic materials. Follow the recommendations of retailers who sell muzzleloaders or those who regularly use muzzleloaders. Thoroughly clean a muzzleloader after each shooting session. Black powder residue can damage the barrel if left overnight. Clean the gun's lock periodically. Normally it's held in place by one or two bolts. Once the lock has been removed, scrub both sides with an old toothbrush and hot water. Make sure the entire lock is completely dry, and then lightly oil and replace it.

The firing procedure depends on the type of muzzleloader you are using. Percussion Lock Muzzleloader: When you're ready to fire the muzzleloader safely, place the percussion cap on the nipple. Be sure that your surroundings and your backstop are safe. Then aim and fire. Flintlock Muzzleloader: When priming a flintlock, pull the hammer to a half-cock position and open the priming pan cover. Check your flint, making sure the setting is tight and properly adjusted. Insert a vent pick or fine wire into the barrel's touchhole to make sure the opening is clear. With your pan primer, fill the pan about three-fourths full of FFFFg powder. Close the frizzen and pull the hammer to full cock when you're ready to fire the shot safely. After firing, place the hammer in the half-cock position and swab the barrel to remove sparks that might be inside. Sometimes a muzzleloader will not fire immediately when the trigger is pulled. This is known as "hang fire" and requires great caution because the gun might fire some time after the cap or flint created the initial sparks. Keep the gun pointed in a safe direction, preferably downrange. Don't take it anywhere that it could injure someone or damage property if it fires. If a muzzleloader doesn't fire properly, get help from an experienced shooter to unload it using a ball discharger.

The use of the bow and arrow is recorded as early as 3000 BC. The Egyptians used bows shorter than a man's height, with arrows two feet long or more. Early bows were C-shaped. When shooting these bows, the archer would pull the string with a ring held around the thumb. The early longbow was 5-6 feet in length and was usually made of yew. The legend of Robin Hood romanticized the longbow. Native American Indians were America's first bowhunters. European settlers brought their skills to America and contributed to the development of bows and arrows in the U.S. In 1879, the National Archery Association was founded. It initiated the first U.S.-sponsored tournament in 1879. Bowhunting did not really take off until the 1950s and 1960s as hunters learned more about this sport and about newer bows that were being developed. Like other methods of hunting, the bowhunter first must acquire the knowledge and skills necessary to be a safe and responsible hunter.

The first firearms were tubes closed at one end, usually made of brass or cast iron. Early firearms were loaded by pouring black powder and shoving a projectile into the tube from the muzzle end, and then igniting the powder using a lighted wick or match. The powder burned, creating pressure that launched metal objects or arrows. These firearms are called "muzzleloaders" due to their loading process. Advances in ignition systems were the major changes that brought about modern firearms.Matchlock ignition was developed in the early 1400s. When the trigger is pulled, a lighted wick is lowered into a priming pan located next to a vent hole drilled into the closed end of the barrel. When the priming powder ignites, it lights the main charge.Wheel lock ignition replaced the wick of the matchlock in the 1500s. When the trigger is pulled, a coiled spring forces the rough-edged steel wheel to spin against a piece of iron pyrite, creating sparks to ignite the powder in the priming pan.Flintlock ignition appeared in the late 1600s. When the trigger is pulled, the hammer holding a piece of flint falls against a steel cover (the frizzen) sitting over the priming pan. The hammer knocks the cover out of the way, and the collision of flint and steel causes sparks that ignite the powder in the priming pan. The percussion lock (also called "caplock") replaced the flintlock in the early 1800s. Early percussion locks used priming compounds inside a metallic foil cap placed over the vent hole. When the hammer strikes the cap, the resulting spark ignites the main charge. The next advance, in 1835, was to arrange a series of percussion locks and barrels on a rotating wheel (cylinder) to allow a rapid succession of shots (Paterson revolver). With a single hammer and trigger, multiple shots can be fired without reloading—a repeating firearm. The percussion cap revolvers are the forerunners of modern revolvers. The percussion cap also paved the way to the self-contained ammunition we have today—cartridges and shotshells. In the mid-1800s, gunpowder, the projectile, and the primer were put together into a single housing that could be loaded quickly. Actions were developed to allow shooters to load cartridges and shotshells at the rear, rather than the muzzle, end of the barrel.

Shot angles broad side: The broadside shot angle is the preferred shot angle for both firearm and bow hunters for larger game animals, such as elk, deer, and bear. Firearm: The broadside position offers several excellent shots for a firearm hunter. The best target is the shoulder and chest area. A bullet of the correct weight that is fired from a firearm adequate for the game will break the shoulder bone and enter the lungs or heart. Bow: The broadside angle offers the best shot for the largest big game animals, such as elk, deer, and bear. For most big game, the aiming spot is straight up from the back side of the front leg, one-third of the way up from the bottom of the chest. An arrow will penetrate the ribs but not the shoulder bone; wait until the near leg is forward, and aim behind the shoulder.

The most effective firearm shot for a turkey is to the head and neck. The preferred shot angle for bowhunters is broadside, aiming for the heart or lungs. The preferred shot for larger game animals, such as elk, deer, and bear, is broadside. Shot Angles: Quartering-Away The quartering-away shot angle is when your target is facing away from you, but at an angle. The animal is usually looking away from you. Firearm: For firearm hunters, the quartering-away position offers several aiming spots on all big game. The area just behind the shoulder is the best aiming spot for direct penetration of the vital organs. Focus on hitting the chest area above the opposite front leg. Bow: The quartering-away shot angle offers a good opportunity for a clean kill on antelope, white-tailed deer, mule deer, black bear, and other big game of similar size or smaller. This is not a good shot for bowhunters on larger game because their massive stomachs and intestines will block a clean shot to the lungs or heart. The opposite front leg is a good reference point for aiming.

Where to shoot:\ Every hunter wants to bring home the game he or she is seeking; true sportsmen strive to do it by inflicting a minimal amount of suffering. To achieve these twin goals, it's essential that you understand the anatomy of the game you're after and learn how to place a shot for a clean kill.

The most effective shots are delivered to an animal's vital organs—heart and lungs. In large game animals, these organs lie in the chest cavity behind the front shoulder. A lung shot is the most effective shot for big game. The area of the vital organs also contains major blood vessels and arteries. A shot in this area causes considerable bleeding. If the animal doesn't die immediately and tries to flee, it will leave a blood trail that's easy to track. Aside from being a good marksman, the key to a clean kill is patience. Hunters should limit shots to the vital organs only. If you do not have a clear shot to the vital organs, wait until the animal presents the best possible shot.

leading targets: Snap-Shooting Snap-shooting is a technique to use if you must make a quick shot and the target is straight ahead at close range. You simply raise the shotgun, and point where you think the target will be when the shot arrives.

The two most common methods of leading targets at long distances are swing-through and sustained lead. Swing-through is the best technique for the beginning student. Point your shotgun at a moving target and swing with it. Increase the speed of the gun so that the muzzle passes the target, and then fire. In other words, literally "swing through" the target and fire at a blank space in front of the target. The sustained lead method is a little more challenging because it requires more experience. You estimate the length of the lead necessary to hit the target, and maintain that lead as you swing with the target, fire, and continue the swing.

Safety accessories for bow hunting, nocking, drawing, and shooting: To protect the three fingers that draw the bowstring, archers wear three-fingered gloves or finger tabs, or use mechanical releases. A mechanical release snaps onto the string and is pulled back with the shooting hand. The archer pulls a trigger to release the string. An armguard protects the inner part of the bow arm during release as the string snaps back. The armguard prevents the bowstring from hitting loose clothing and also helps protect the arm if an arrow breaks during release. A nocked arrow should be positioned about a quarter inch above the arrow rest on the bow handle. On most bows, a small brass band called a "nocking point" is crimped onto the bowstring to mark the correct position. To nock the arrow:Grasp the arrow between the thumb and index finger of the right hand (if you're a right-handed shooter).With your left hand, hold the bow parallel to the ground about waist high, string toward the body.Lay the arrow shaft on the bow's arrow rest.Align the slot in the nock with the string, while making sure that the cock feather points up (while the bow is parallel to the ground).Pull the arrow back until the string snaps into the slot. When the arrow is nocked and the bow is raised, the cock feather points to the left if you are right-handed. To draw the bow: If you are right-handed, grip the bow handle firmly in the left hand, but don't squeeze. With your bow arm straight, raise the bow to a point that your arm is parallel to the ground. At the same time, draw the string back to your "anchor point" with the three drawing fingers of your shooting hand.The anchor point may be the corner of your mouth, your cheekbone, or your chin.Practice will help you determine your best anchor point—one that's both comfortable and provides the most accurate shooting.Your fingers should touch the same anchor point each time you draw the bow.

There are two main methods for aiming bows—bow sights and instinctive aiming. Bow sights work best when the distance to the target is known. For instance, when hunting from a tree stand or blind, you can measure the distance to the area where you expect the game to appear. Then it's a matter of lining up the appropriate sight pin on the target. In hunting situations where it's hard to know the exact distance to the target, bow sights may not work well. The key to using bow sights is to practice judging distances. Instinctive aiming is more versatile than the bow sight method. You simply look at the intended target with both eyes open and release. You adjust the aim for different distances by instinct developed with practice. Instinctive aiming takes longer to perfect than the bow sight method, but it eliminates much of the guesswork from shooting under some hunting conditions. To release the arrow: Allow your fingers to slip quickly away from the string. This gives the arrow a straight, stable flight. Keep your bow arm pointed directly at the target after the release. If the bow is jerked on release, the arrow will fly off target. Follow through by leaving your drawing hand at the anchor point well after the string is released.

Understanding declination: Topographic maps are drawn to true north (North Pole), which is indicated by the grid lines on the map. However, a compass will always point to magnetic north, which is in the Hudson Bay area. The difference between true north and magnetic north is called "declination." When true north and magnetic north are aligned, you're at zero degrees declination. Your compass needle will point to true north. However, if you're east or west of zero degrees declination, your compass will not be in line with true north.

To compensate for declination:Center the north arrow (the N) of the compass dial along a north/south line of the map.Check the diagram at the bottom of the map that shows whether magnetic north is to the left or right of true north.Turn the compass dial the correct number of degrees left or right as indicated on the map. The N is now pointing at magnetic north.Hold the compass level in front of you and rotate your body until the tip of the compass needle aligns with the N on the compass dial. The direction arrow on the base plate now points in the direction you want to go.

loading while hunting Even something as simple as loading or unloading a firearm can result in tragedy if it isn't done properly. To load a firearm safely: Point the muzzle in a safe direction. If the firearm has a safety, put the safety on if you can open the action and load the firearm with the safety on. Keep your finger off the trigger and outside the trigger guard. Open the action. Make sure the firearm's chamber and barrel are clear and unobstructed. Load the correct ammunition into the chamber or magazine. Close the action. Put the safety on if it is not on already. To handle a hang fire or misfire: Maintain safe muzzle control at all times. Keep the action closed and the muzzle pointed at a safe backstop. Wait to see if the firearm fires. With a rifle, handgun, or shotgun, wait 15 seconds. With a muzzleloader, wait 60 seconds. If the firearm still has not fired, remove the cartridge or shotshell from the chamber.

To unload a firearm safely: Point the muzzle in a safe direction. If the firearm has a safety, put the safety on if you can open the action and unload the firearm with the safety on. Keep your finger off the trigger and outside the trigger guard. Remove the magazine. Open the action. Eject cartridges or shells if it is the only way to remove them. Make sure the firearm is empty by physically and visually checking both the chamber and the magazine well. Put the safety on if it is not on already. General Rules Always unload and case firearms before transporting them. In many states, this may be the law. The action should be open or the gun broken down, whichever makes the firearm safest if it's mishandled. Firearms should not be displayed in window gun racks because the display may provoke anti-hunter sentiment. It's also an invitation to thieves. Lean a firearm against a secure rest only. A vehicle does not provide a secure resting place. A gun that falls over might accidentally discharge or be damaged. The area in which a hunter can shoot safely is referred to as a zone-of-fire. Before setting off in a group, hunters should agree on the zone-of-fire each person will cover. A zone-of-fire depends on many factors, including the hunter's shooting ability, the game being hunted, the hunting environment, and the hunting strategy being used. A hunter's zone-of-fire changes with every step. This is particularly true of groups hunting birds, rabbits, or other small game. A hunter must never swing or shoot outside the safe zone-of-fire. For safety purposes, it's best to have no more than three hunters in a group. For new hunters, two is a safer number until they become familiar with maintaining a proper zone-of-fire.

Symptoms of Hypothermia Uncontrolled shivering—usually the first obvious symptom, but ceases as hypothermia progresses Slow, slurred speech Memory loss Irrational behavior, such as removing clothing Lack of body movement Sleepiness Unconsciousness, which could lead to death

Treatment of Hypothermia Find shelter for the victim. Remove wet clothing, and replace with dry clothing and other protective covering. If there is no dry clothing, use a fire to dry one layer at a time. Give warm liquids to rehydrate and rewarm, but never give the victim alcohol to drink. Quick-energy foods also produce inner body heat. For mild cases, use fire, blankets, or another person's body heat to warm the victim. In more advanced stages, rewarm the victim slowly by placing one or more persons in body contact with the victim. Place canteens of hot water insulated with socks or towels on the groin, armpits, and sides of the neck of the victim. A victim at or near unconsciousness must be handled gently and not immersed in a warm bath or exposed to a large fire, which can lead to traumatic shock or death. Immediately contact emergency medical personnel to evacuate the victim to a hospital for treatment.

Proper Field Carries: Trail Carry: The trail carry leaves a hand free for balance, but don't use it when you're behind someone. This carry is not recommended when walking in snow or brush—debris can get in the barrel. Sling Carry: The sling carry is an easy carry for long treks through open country. Keep a hand on the sling when walking so that it doesn't slide off your shoulder if you trip. This carry is not recommended for thick brush because the gun could be knocked from your shoulder. Elbow or side carry: The elbow or side carry is comfortable, but it has the least muzzle control. It also can snag in brushy terrain. Use it when no one is in front of you.

Two handed or ready carry: The two-handed or ready carry provides the best control, particularly in thick brush or weeds, or when you need to fire quickly. If you fall, this carry gives you better control of the gun and helps you keep the muzzle pointed in a safe direction. It can be used as either a right- or left-handed carry. Use this carry only if your gun would not be pointed at others while walking side-by-side. Cradle carry: The cradle carry is comfortable and secure, and it reduces arm fatigue. Like the two-handed or ready carry, the cradle carry can be used as either a right- or left-handed carry. Do not use this carry if your gun would be pointed at others when walking side-by-side. Shoulder carry: The shoulder carry is a good choice when walking beside or behind others. Don't use it if someone is behind you. Always unload guns before crossing fences or other obstacles or before negotiating rough terrain. When crossing fences, logs, or other obstacles alone: Unload the firearm. Cover the muzzle or place something under it to help keep out debris. Place the firearm on the other side of the fence or obstacle to be crossed, with the muzzle pointed away from you and your crossing point. Cross the obstacle. If you are crossing a wire fence, cross close to a fence post to prevent damage to the fence. Retrieve the firearm, keeping the muzzle pointed away from you. Check the barrel for obstructions. Reload and continue the hunt.

Trapper's Code of Ethics When used properly, trapping can be an alternative method to hunting for harvesting furbearers and an effective tool for wildlife management. Trappers should learn about the type of traps appropriate for the animal they're seeking and follow the trapper's code of ethics: Obtain the landowner's permission. Avoid setting traps in areas where domestic animals may be caught. Set traps to capture the target animal in the most humane way possible. Check traps at least once every 24 hours, preferably in the early morning. Record trap locations accurately. Identify all traps with waterproof name and address tags. Use as much of the animal as possible. Dispose of animal carcasses properly. Make an effort to trap only the surplus animals from each habitat. Assist landowners who are having damage problems with wildlife. Dispatch trapped furbearers in a humane manner. Obtain all required licenses, tags, and permits. Because trapping laws vary by state, check the state's regulations before you go trapping.

Types of Traps Traps can be set either on land or in or near the water. Some types of traps are designed to kill the trapped animal, and others are designed to capture the animal alive and unharmed (live-restraining devices). The most common type of killing devices are bodygrip traps. Live-restraining devices include foothold traps, enclosed foothold devices, cage traps, and some types of cable devices. With these traps, you are able to release non-target animals. Some furbearers are found more often in or near water. For these animals, trappers use submersion trapping systems, which hold the animal underwater until it dies.

Small Mammals Two of the most common small game animals are rabbits and squirrels. By studying these animals, you can learn to recognize their tracks. Some small mammals that are sought after primarily for their pelts are called furbearers. Two popular breeds are fox and mink.

Upland Birds Popular upland birds that are found across the country include turkeys, pheasants, grouse, and quail. The term "upland" refers to where they are often found. The basic shape of upland birds is similar to chickens. They also have short rounded wings that are good for short flights and strong legs that are good for running. Most male upland birds have more colorful feathers than females. The female's plain feathers help her provide camouflage cover for her nest.

Hauling hunting equipment into a tree stand: Never carry your hunting equipment up or down the tree with you as you climb. Always use a haul line. Before attaching the haul line to your hunting equipment:If using a firearm, unload it, and open the action.If using a bow, put the arrows in a covered quiver secured to the bow.

Use a haul line of heavy cord attached to your stand to bring up your hunting equipment or to lower it prior to climbing down from your stand.If using a firearm, attach the haul line to the firearm's sling so that the firearm hangs with the muzzle pointed down.If using a bow, attach the haul line so that the arrow fletching points down when raising your equipment and points up when lowering it. Slip the end of the haul line through your belt—leave it untied so that it can pull free if you fall. Put on your FAS full-body harness, secure yourself to the tree, and climb to your stand. After you are in the stand and secure, haul up your hunting equipment, and untie the haul line.

Posting: Posting involves sitting or standing in one spot. The location may offer a vantage point or a spot near the animal's trails. The key to setting up a posting site is finding a location that allows you to freely swing your firearm or draw your bow. Posting is effective when you know where game is traveling each day and you're not allowed to use a blind or stand.\ game calling: Calling is an effective technique for most animals. There are hundreds of sounds that can attract all types of wildlife. A skillful hunter uses these sounds to attract animals close enough to him or her for an effective shot. Here are some of the sounds that can be imitated to draw game to you.Territorial sounds: Deer "rattle," elk "bugle," or a turkey "gobble"Feeding sounds: A duck's feeding "chuckle"Distress sounds: Inviting coyotes, bobcats, or foxes to feed

Using ground blinds: Ground blinds are makeshift or temporary structures located on the ground that conceal the hunter. Ground blinds can be as simple as a natural blind built behind a tree, bush, log, or rock or as sophisticated as a portable, enclosed camouflage-cloth blind. You should situate ground blinds:Downwind, based on the normal wind pattern during a given time of day, such as morningAway from the sunWhere the foreground and background are safest For safety when you are entering or exiting a ground blind:Keep the firearm's muzzle pointed in a safe direction and...Safely unload the firearm and put the safety in the "on" position.

Waterfowl Waterfowl are warm-blooded animals that live on or near water, and include diving ducks and puddle ducks. Puddle ducks are found primarily on the shallows of lakes, rivers, and freshwater marshes. Puddle ducks prefer to feed on or near the water's surface. They launch themselves directly upward when taking off. Diving ducks inhabit large deep lakes and rivers, coastal bays, and inlets. Diving ducks obtain most of their food by diving. They must run across the water to build up speed to take off.

Wetland Birds Wetland birds live close to water in marshy and coastal areas. Examples are cranes and snipes. Birds of Prey Birds of prey feed on other birds or mammals. Examples are eagles, falcons, and owls. Birds of prey are found throughout North America. All of these birds are protected. Rare, Protected, or Endangered Species Some species are protected from hunting because their numbers are small and they produce no surplus to harvest. Animals that are labeled "rare," "threatened," or "endangered" are all fully protected by law. Continue Your Wildlife Education The publication Today's WildlifeTM gives the identifying characteristics, habitat, and range of most of the wildlife you may encounter.

Shotgun choke and shot string

When a shotshell is fired from a shotgun, the pellets leave the barrel and begin to spread or scatter. The farther the pellets travel, the greater the spread of the group of pellets (shot) both in length and diameter. This spread is called the shot string. To control the shot string, shotgun barrels have a choke that will affect the shot pattern when the shot string hits the target. choke The degree of narrowing at the muzzle end of the shotgun barrel shot pattern The spread of shot pellets after they hit a non-moving target shot string The three-dimensional spread of shot pellets after they leave the barrel

When using an FAS following these guidelines:

With an adult present, practice adjusting and using your FAS, including the suspension relief strap, at ground level before hunting from an elevated stand. To protect yourself if you fall, always wear your FAS full-body harness, attaching it to the tree at ground level and keeping it attached throughout your hunt.Attach one end of the FAS lineman's-style belt to one side of the FAS full-body harness, wrap the belt around the tree, and attach the other end of the belt to the other side of the harness.Use the FAS lineman's-style belt with your FAS full-body harness when you are installing or uninstalling the stand or the climbing aids for a hang-on tree stand. Also use the belt with your full-body harness when you are climbing into or out of a hang-on stand. When you are in any tree stand, including a ladder stand, use the FAS tree strap and tether to attach your FAS full-body harness to the tree. Attach the tree strap to the tree so that the strap is at, or above, head level when you are standing. After attaching the tether, adjust both the tree strap and tether so that you have no slack in the tether while seated in your stand. If you fall, you do not want to drop below a level that would keep you from returning to the platform. Discard any FAS that shows signs of wear and tear or has been worn during a fall. Also adhere to the expiration date sewn into the FAS by the manufacturer. Due to the risks of injuries or death, hunters who choose not to wear and use their FAS properly should stay on the ground to hunt.

Determining dominant eye

You need to aim with the dominant—or master—eye for the most accurate shooting. Usually your dominant eye is the same as your dominant hand, but not always. You should determine which is your dominant eye before you sight-in your rifle or handgun. To determine your dominant eye:Form a triangular opening with your thumbs and forefingers.Stretch your arms out in front of you.Focus on a distant object while looking through the triangular opening and keeping both eyes open. Bring your hands slowly to your face, keeping sight of the object through the opening; the opening will come to your dominant eye naturally.If you're not sure, close one eye at a time. The weak eye will see the back of your hand; the strong one will be focused on the object in the triangle.

The basic components of ammunition are the case, primer, powder, and projectile(s). Shotshells have an additional component called wad. When selecting the ammunition for your firearm, remember the following. It is critical that you use the correct cartridge or shotshell for your rifle, handgun, or shotgun. You should also consider the species being hunted, the hunting environment, and the hunting regulations. load The amount of gunpowder in the cartridge or shotshell together with the weight of the bullet or shot charge

case The container that holds all the other ammunition components together. It's usually made of brass, steel, copper, paper, or plastic. gunpowder A chemical mixture that burns rapidly and converts to an expanding gas when ignited. Modern smokeless powder will burn slowly when ignited in the open (outside of the case). Black powder is less stable and can be explosive when impacted or ignited in the open. primer An explosive chemical compound that ignites the gunpowder when struck by a firing pin. Primer may be placed either in the rim of the case (rimfire) or in the center of the base of the case (centerfire). projectile The object(s) expelled from the barrel. A bullet is a projectile, usually containing lead, fired through a rifle or handgun barrel. A slug is a solid projectile, usually of lead, fired through a shotgun barrel. Shot is a group of lead, steel, tungsten alloy, or bismuth pellets fired through a shotgun barrel. wad A seal and/or shot container made of paper or plastic separating the powder from the slug or shot in a shotshell. The wad prevents gas from escaping through the shot and holds the shot together as it passes through the barrel.

Shock can result from any serious injury. Symptoms include pale, cold, clammy skin; rapid pulse; shallow breathing; and fear in the victim. To treat shock:Keep the victim lying on his or her back.In some cases, shock victims improve by raising their feet 8-10 inches.If the victim is having trouble breathing, raise the victim's head and shoulders about 10 inches rather than raising the feet.Maintain normal body temperature, and loosen any restrictive clothing.Try to keep the victim calm and comfortable, and get medical help as quickly as possible.

conservation Wise use of natural resources, without wasting them preservation Saving natural resources, but with no consumptive use of them carrying capacity The number of animals a given habitat can support all year long without damaging the animals or the habitat biological surplus The number of animals in a population beyond the carrying capacity birth rate The ratio of number of young born to females of a species to total population of that species over one year death rate The ratio of number of deaths in a species to total population of that species spanning one year predator Animal that kills other animals for food succession Natural progression of vegetation and wildlife populations in an area; for example, as trees grow and form a canopy, shrubs and grasses will disappear along with the wildlife that use them as cover