IB History (Paper 3)

Soweto Massacre

1976 Black school children had also begun protesting about overcrowding and that maths and social studies would be taught in Afrikaans. (few black students and teachers spoke Afrikaans) Demonstrations in Soweto under leadership of SASO. 16 June about 15,000 youths were met by police who used tear gas and the fired on them, killing two. The photograph of the wounded Hector Pieterson being carried through Soweto shocked the world. 10 minute podcast on Soweto: http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p00821br International reaction: UN passed an arms embargo. USA informed Vorster SA had to go to majority rule: one man, one vote. Riots spread from Soweto to other townships. Students destroyed businesses, stoned vehicles and stopped buses. Riots crushed.

Course and Consequences of South African War

1899-1902 Context for Britain: high point of imperialist fervour and loss of the war would mean a loss of international prestige. By March 1900, 200,000 British troops were there to conquer two republics with a total white population of 300,000. 10% of that population died during the war. Despite local advantages of defence, the British eventually won. Kruger went onto exile in the Netherlands in June 1900, but Boer commandoes harried the British for another two years, cutting British communications, and driving deep into the Cape Colony. Britain responded with looting and farm burnings across the High Veld (area north of Lesotho) as well as rounding up Republican Afrikaners into concentration camps, where thousands died of disease and starvation. Half the white population of the republics were either POWs or in concentration camps - and this experience will shape Afrikaner nationalism. Afrikaner land owners help out the longest - hoping to retain their privileges. Perspectives on the War: At the time the British and the Afrikaners mostly assumed the war was between the European powers Africans and coloured had been used as baggage carriers, servants, transport riders.... The British treated captured Africans more harshly than they treated whites, and Boers shot any armed blacks they encountered. Most Africans were highly pro-British. Even after centuries of war with the British, the excesses of the South African Republics policies towards Africans was sufficient to outweigh aversion to British colonial rule. Africans used the destruction of the Transvaal armed forces to retake land, stock stolen for whites and armed themselves to defend farms from whites. So for Transvaal whites, a breakdown of social order. Course: The british expected an easy victory but this was not the case. At the start of the fighting british men were outnumbered but they were quickly fortified with men from the british colonies. The boers had bought weapons and stocks from abroad prior to the fighting but once it began the british navy cut off all their ties to neighbouring ports. British fighting was weakened due to Their orthodox approach, officer and soldier separate, terrible horsemanship and marksmanship did not suit the terrain and warfare. The boers were fighting passionately for their cause whereas the british were less willing to sacrifice. The boer republics resorted to guerrilla warfare, overwhelming small british outposts and seizing their supplies. Lord kitchener adopted the scorched earth policy to fight the boers. Burned crops, destroyed farms, removed civilian populations to camps where nearly 28,000 of them died from sickness and disease. By 1902 the boers had been eroded by death and captures and desertion. Many boers surrendered voluntarily or gone over to the british side. Both sides used blacks heavily in their fighting. Consequences: Context: high commissioner milner had the aim to rule the former republics without popular opinion until they had swamped the lands with british peoples. Then it would be safe to introduce democracy. The treaty of vereeniging included no concessions to the afrikaner demands that might undermine this aim Dutch would not be an official language in the new colonies, but would be taught in school The treaty set no date for institutional changes, "at earliest possible date" Black franchise would be left to the decision of the afrikaners and transvaal after they had been granted self governance Milner made lives for africans even worse, cut wages, used force, imported chinese workers if africans did not work. This was all done in a hope to attract more british settlers. .

Nasser Political Developement

1952: 25 July Free Officers Coup d'etat, the King's government replaced by the Revolutionary Command Council (RCC) and Farouk exiled. Mohammad Naghib (President), Gamal Abdel Nasser (Vice-President) - Feb 1954 Naghib resigned By 1953 the Constitution of 1923 had been withdrawn, the monarchy abolished, political parties banned and the RCC obtained the right to rule for a 'transition period' of three years. 1954 New government signed a deal with Britain to withdraw. Britain out by 1955 - Egypt now truly independent. Achieved what the Wafdists could not. Army officers become the new ruling elite, these officers came from the military academies of the 1930s, mostly recruited from rural areas, lower middle class. The Free Officers rapidly broke the power of the elites & potential opposition: Broke up political parties: as the new regime was populist, alternative political parties were no longer needed - s co-operative state Agrarian reform Cracked down on the Muslim Brotherhood - 1954 attempted assassination of Nasser. Communist Party also suppressed Key features of the Nasser regime: Powerful President - the Free Officers used their military organisational skills Powerless parliament - there were elections, candidates chosen and screened by the ruling party Mass state controlled by the ruling party - which kept changing its name: National Liberation Rally 1953 National Union 1956 Arab Socialist Union 1962 The new regime claimed to be the guardian of the people's interests Centralised economic planning 1957 Mukhabarat (Secret Police) set up. Press Censorship 1958 union with Syria: United Arab Republic (UAR) be sure you are aware of the nature (and demise) of the UAR Nasser: Having come to power in coup, saw conspiracy everywhere Son of postman and originated from the rural poor - wanted an Egypt that would consider the underprivileged. Idea that the Free Officers had started the revolution on behalf of the weak masses (vanguard) Arab Socialism: State run centralised economy Welfare measures

Resistance to apartheid: Sharpeville and the decision to adopt armed struggle

1960: NP government clashes with ANC and PAC. ANC and PAC planned Pass Laws protests for 1960. March 1960: the PAC campaign consisted of large groups of people going to local police stations without their passbooks to invite arrest, and fill up the jails. Hundreds of PAC members were arrested. 21 March: 20,000 people at Evaton, 4,000 at Vanderbijlpark. Crowds dispersed by baton charges and threats from low flying aircraft. But at Sharpeville where 5,000 had gathered and refused to move, the police panicked and fired on the crowd. 69 people were killed, 180 wounded. The government suspended the Pass Laws for 10 days. ANC supported PAC: a nationwide stay-at-home day in mourning for victims, which persisted until police forced people from homes back to work. World shocked. Some protests deterred, but around Cape Town others were encouraged. 30 March, a protest led by PAC was dispersed. Government declared a state of emergency and the ANC and PAC were banned. In response, both groups went underground and started military resistance: ANC: Umkonto we Sizwe (the Spear of the Nation, or MK) PAC: Poqo (Pure) Luthuli the ANC president opposed to violence, but Mandela explained we "could not continue preaching non-violence when the government met our peaceful demands with force" (trial, 1964, quoted in Beck 153) Campaigns of sabotage and in the case Poqo assassinations of some collaborating chiefs. Quickly infiltrated by government and leaders arrested and exiled. 10 minute podcast on the first ANC bomb: http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p00m2519 MK - a sabotage campaign to destroy state infrastructure whilst avoiding injury and death - bombs at jails, pylons, post offices Oliver Tambo in exile - became ANC's president Mandela travelled overseas to raise money for MK and trained for guerrilla warfare in Algeria and Ethiopia Mandela captured August 1962 Sisulu, Mbeki and other ANC leaders captured at a farm at Rivonia, nr Johannesburg in 1963, government found incriminating evidence. Mandela tried with those captured at Rivonia. All sentenced for treason - life imprisonment on Robben Island. Ross p. 134: "...the smashing of African opposition between Sharpeville and the Rivonia trial brought about a hardening of apartheid rule." 10 minute podcast on Rivonia trial: http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p0062yfk

Pan-Arabism

A trans-national movement for the unification of the Arab peoples in order to pursue their common interests and improve their conditions

Effects of Paris peace treaties: territorial and political impact

As Turkish forces surrendered (Armistice of Mudros, 30 October 1918), Allies occupied Dardanelles and Gallipoli peninsula. Sultan fell under influence of the Allies, but the Allies are struggling to maintain security as OE collapses across the Middle East Occupation of Turkey: In the east, Armenian forces entered Turkey, in the south east, French and Armenian troops occupied Adana on the SE coast of Turkey. SW Turkey Italy, in the west at Izmir, Greeks Ottoman army had been 3 million men, now 1/3 injured, killed and hundreds of thousands POWs or deserted. 1 million dead civilians. Half of OE in enemy hands, economy ruined Elsewhere.....Arab territories: Prince Faisal and his Arab army arrive in Damascus 3 October 1918. Faisal had expected that in return for his support he would rule an Arab state stretching from the Persian Gulf to the Mediterranean, including Palestine, Syria and Lebanon. Faisal is then told of Sykes-Picot arrangements, and that a Jewish homeland in Palestine has been guaranteed by the Balfour declaration. In the meantime....the remnants of the Turkish army pulled together - Mustafa Kemal. 1919 Samsun (north of Turkey on the Black Sea coast) - Kemal goes to maintain order, and galvanizes Turkish nationalism and organizes a new army. Declaration of Independence.. Kemal travels across Turkey in 1919 getting support - Turkish troops regroup and get organized. Kemal not well known internationally. By the end of 1919 Kemalists are coming to power in local elections. Converge on Ankara. Far from instability and allied armies/navies. Commit to creating an independent Turkey free of western occupation. Meanwhile in the Levant....Britain 1 million soldiers currently in ME, and 250,000 died/wounded fighting in former OE, French losses less, can maintain order, but many not been home since 1914, and high risk of mutiny in both Allied forces. General Allenby spring 1919 commanded British troops back to U.K. Britain called in another ally, Greece, to send soldiers to help manage the collapse OE. Greeks optimistic that this could enable them to secure hold of western Turkey. Elsewhere: By 1920 about 300,000 British soldiers left in Middle East. As Britain dissolved its ME armies, there were uprising across the ME, and Britain would struggle to impose its will. Italy had left the Paris Peace conference and by 1919 there was political chaos, the USA was already moving to isolationism (and had no troops in the region anyway). In Paris, Faisal agreed that Palestine would not be part of the Arab state. France saw Faisal as a British puppet and Arab independence as British manipulation. In Lebanon battles raged between French troops (diverting them from Turkey), local Arabs and British security forces. The Greek Prime Minister, Venizelos, had made a good impression (!) at the Paris Peace Conference and hoped to build a 'Greater Greece' in Asia Minor. Greece a rival of Italy (and Italy already in dispute with the Allies over Fiume). Greeks landed at Smyrna/Izmir 15 May 1919. Motivated support for Kemal. Turkey now accepted loss of Arab lands, but would maintain the integrity of Turkey. By summer of 1920 as Sèvres negotiations were underway, it was obvious that the Turkish nationalists, and Kemal would need to be defeated if Sèvres were to be imposed. The success of a Greek offensive in July 1920 convinced the Sultan's government in Istanbul to sign the treaty (unwillingly). Treaty of Sèvres signed by Sultan's government (Istanbul), 10 August 1920. Terms of Sèvres: large parts of Turkey to be handed over to Greece, France, Italy and Armenia. Istanbul and Dardanelles will be controlled by an international force. The Turkish economy would come under the international control of a financial commission Levant, Egypt and Arabia to become mandates of Britain and France - a public version of the Sykes-Picot agreement. Ross: The mandate system gave a 'spurious respectability' to British and French ambitions in the Middle East. Kemalist forces focused on driving the Armenians out of the east, then attacked French and Armenian troops around Adana. Feb to April 1920, Turks successful. The French government also under pressure to demobilize troops in ME, whilst holding on to Syria. The Turkish nationalists would not accept the Treaty of Sèvres and continued to fight the Greeks. All attempts by the Allies to mediate (a conference in London, March and April 1921) failed. Italy and France now began to disengage from the Greeks and from Turkey (domestic issues). August 1921 The Battle of Sakarya between Greece and Turkey indicated Greece would not be able to impose military will on the Turks. October 1921 French recognized legitimacy of Ankara government (no more deals with Sultan) cancelled the Treaty of Sèvres. By October 1921, all French and Armenian forces were evacuated from Turkey. British plans came to nothing and British government felt betrayed by the separate deal done by the French. Britain, Italy and France tried again to mediate between Greece and Turkey in March 1922. No joy, Greeks isolated and lacking resources. Turks on the offensive and had captured Izmir by September 1922. The Turkish army by 1921 moved on to Istanbul. PM Britain Lloyd George ready to send troops to Istanbul, but Churchill (now minister of war) proposed a deal with Ankara, believing Kemal to be the best bet to avoid communism spreading to Turkey. (Revolutionary Moscow, fearing the rise of British influence had decided to support the Kemalists, send money and weapons). Lloyd George with no support reluctantly negotiated and led to a truce setting up for the Treaty of Lausanne (July 1923). Lausanne: Turkey maintained its territorial integrity, assumed control of Istanbul, foreign concessions removed. Led to a population exchanges between Greece and Turkey. Ross: 'a determined nationalist movement could resist the ambitions of the powers and play on the differences between them' Want more? https://blogs.commons.georgetown.edu/world-war-i-in-the-middle-east/seminar-participants/web-projects/len-smith-from-sevres-to-lausanne-how-the-game-of-peacemaking-changed-and-who-changed-it/

Origins of the state of Israel: post-war tensions and instability in the mandate

As the Jewish population grew, so did the tension, and hundreds of Arabs and Jews were killed in violent clashes. Some Jews, who were angry that the British had failed to protect them, formed Irgun, a terrorist organisation dedicated to forming a Jewish state by violence if necessary. In October 1945, both extremist and moderate groups worked together: they blew up the Palestine railway system in 153 places to hamper British communications. July 1946 - Irgun blew up British headquarters at the King David hotel in Jerusalem, killing 91 people. It caused outrage. The Haganah publicly condemned the Irgun and the British announced a high state of alert. Palestinian Jews were subject to random searches, military curfews, road blocks, and mass arrests. However, Mandate policy on Jewish immigration to Palestine remained unchanged. SS Exodus: While the Irgun conducted its campaign of terror, the Haganah and the Jewish Agency smuggled Jews into Palestine. They acquired ships, filled them with would-be immigrants and then tried to break them through the British blockade. On one level, the campaign was a failure as very few vessels got through. But in terms of publicity for the Zionist cause, it was a huge success. Every time the Royal Navy turned a ship away, or put refugees into camps on Cyprus, Britain's reputation was damaged and sympathy for the Jews increased. In July 1947, the Haganah bought an old American passenger ship, renamed it Exodus 1947, and sailed it to France. Here, it picked up 4,500 Jews, many of them Holocaust survivors. The Exodus then sailed for Palestine. There it was stopped by the Royal Navy and the passengers were transported back to France. When the passengers refused to disembark and went on hunger strike, the British took them to Hamburg in Germany, where they were forcibly returned to refugee camps. The incident caused worldwide outrage against Britain, and played a major part in swinging sympathy towards the idea of establishing a Jewish state. US support for Zionism: Holocaust survivors' demands for a Jewish state in Palestine had a lot of support in the US, which had over 5 million Jews in 1945. Some volunteers helped to smuggle immigrants into Palestine. Others supported with money: in 1945 alone, Americans gave over $46 million to the Zionist cause. Meanwhile, the US press printed articles that encouraged Jewish terrorism. US Zionists put pressure on President Truman to help Holocaust survivors. The US welcomed 150,000 Jewish refugees immediately after the war. Truman also repeatedly asked Britain to allow into Palestine 100,000 Jews still living in European refugee camps. When Ernest Bevin refused, arguing that it would cause an Arab revolt, the US applied economic pressures. Britain couldn't afford to offend the US since it relied on American aid for its post-war recovery. By early 1947, it was clear that the British position in Palestine was impossible. It couldn't agree to Zionist demands to allow in Jewish refugees without angering Arabs. It couldn't stop Jewish terrorism. It lacked money. Worn out by negative publicity, US pressure, and demands from the British public to end the situation, the British government decided to ask the newly-formed UN to come up with a solution to the Palestinian problem. UN involvement in Palestine: In May 1947, the UN set up a Special Committee on Palestine (UNSCOP) to investigate possible solutions to the problem. That summer, the delegates toured Palestine. They gathered evidence and met British representatives and Jewish leaders. They visited Jewish settlements, where they were warmly welcomed. They talked with Jewish refugees in British detention camps, and some witnessed what happened to the Holocaust survivors aboard the SS Exodus. However, it proved more difficult to get Arab views. Arabs boycotted UNSCOP: they said it was pro-Zionist and had no right to be there. The delegates faced hostility or were ignored in Arab areas, although they did meet privately with a former Muslim mayor of Jerusalem, and they traveled to Lebanon and Transjordan to gather the views of neighbouring Arab states. The UN Partition Plan: In September 1947, UNSCOP reported back. By a majority decision, it recommended the partition of Palestine into separate Jewish and Arab states. The two new states would have the same currency, and transport and communication services would all be run for the common good. Jerusalem and Bethlehem would be under international control, since both had Holy Places that were sacred to Christians, Jews, and Muslims. Reactions to the Partition Plan: - The British government thought the plan was unjust to the Arabs and said that it would lead to war. Britain wouldn't stay to implement the plan: trying to prevent a war would be hugely expensive and the British public were angrily demanding a quick withdrawal from the Mandate. - Arabs completely rejected the plan. They argued that the UN had no right to take away their land. Nor was the Plan even fair. It awarded over half of Palestine to the proposed Jewish state despite the fact that Jews formed only one third of the population. The Jews had also been given the most fertile parts of Palestine. - Most Jews accepted the plan, reluctantly. They had wanted Jerusalem to be their capital, but the plan meant it would be located deep within Arab territory. Also, over 400,000 Arabs would be living in the proposed Jewish state, where Arabs would own 80% of the land. For extremist Jews, the plan was unacceptable. They insisted that Jerusalem had to part of the new state. UN Resolution 181: In November 1947, the Partition Plan was put to the vote in the UN. To be accepted, a two-thirds majority was needed. The US knew that most western European states would vote in favour. There was a lot of sympathy for a Jewish homeland because of the Holocaust. Many European states would also follow what the US wanted because they needed US financial support. However, to gain more votes in favour, the US put pressure on small stated and made promises of economic aid. Equally crucial was the decision of the USSR to vote in favour of partition, since the USSR was able to put pressure on many east European countries. The USSR hoped that the new Jewish state would be an ally in the Cold war. The vote was taken on 29 November 1947, it was clear cut: 33 nations voted for partition, 13 against and 10 abstained. UN Resolution 181 was passed, which meant that the British would end their mandate and the Partition Plan would be put into action by August 1948. The decision was met with joy by most Jews, but with anger and despair by Arabs. The civil war in Palestine, December 1947-May 1948 In December 1947, the British announced that they would withdraw from Palestine on 15 May 1948. For the next five months, Britain stood aside as Palestine descended into violent chaos. At first, Jewish forces were fighting just to hold on to the land that had been allocated to them by the UN. In the 12 days after the UN vote alone, Arab attacks on Jews left 79 dead. Jewish reprisals* then meant further bloodshed. By February 1948 about 100,000 Palestinians had left the country to escape the violence. Plan D In March 1948, the Haganah introduced Plan Dalet, or Plan D. This is much debated by historians. Some think it was a defensive plan that aimed to secure the future of Israel. This meant taking control of all the Arab towns and villages inside or close to the proposed Jewish territory. Their inhabitants would come under military control but, if they resisted, they were to be expelled. Even if it was not the intention, one modern Israeli historian has written that Plan D 'paved the way for the ethnic cleansing* operation in Palestine' that followed, as villages were cleared of their Arab populations. Others think Plan D was an offensive plan: the aim was to take control of all territory containing Jewish settlements, even if that territory would have been in the proposed Arab state. Deir Yassin If Plan D was offensive, then it helps to explain the emphasis put on securing access CO Jerusalem where 100,000 Jews lived. They were virtually besieged. Arab forces controlled all access to the city, preventing food, water and medical supplies getting through. The fierce fighting to control the main road to Jerusalem saw one of the worst acts of the war. The quiet Arab village of Deir Yassin lay high on a hill above this road. It had signed an agreement not to fight with its Jewish neighbours. On 9 April 1948, 100 Irgun and Lehi fighters massacred over 100 of its inhabitants (the exact number is debated), including many women and children. Menachem Begin led the attack and claimed that the action was justified because, he argued, Arab fighters were using Deir Yassin as a base. Hoping to rally all Arabs into revenge, Arab radio stations broadcast details of the atrocity. Arab fighters responded by ambushing a convoy of Jewish nurses and doctors, killing 70. However, the broadcasts also had an unintended effect: panic-stricken that the same fate awaited them as the people of Deir Yassin, some 250,000 Palestinians abandoned their villages and towns and fled to Arab-controlled territory.

Resistance to apartheid: Steve Biko and the Black Consciousness movement

Black Consciousness Movement ANC and PAC banned since 1969 National Union of South African Students (NUSAS) radical, but still dominated by whites South African Students Organisation (SASO) founded 1968 by Steve Biko (a medical student in Natal) as a response to white dominated NUSAS: A Christian movement - individual responsibility for liberation (Beck: self-help, legal aid etc...) Not a rejection of whites, but a recognition that Africans (Indians and Coloureds) should take and not wait to be given 1972 Biko set up the Black People's Convention - an umbrella organisation for ANC, PAC and trade unions Biko 'banned' 1973 Popular in universities and schools Accepted PAC had failed because of impatience, and so not to be too hasty in government confrontation Little contact with African working class until early 1970s when a series of strikes broke out around Durban, and spurred on by the collapse of the Portuguese empire in Angola and Mozambique. 1976 Black school children had also begun protesting about overcrowding and that maths and social studies would be taught in Afrikaans. (few black students and teachers spoke Afrikaans) Demonstrations in Soweto under leadership of SASO. 16 June about 15,000 youths were met by police who used tear gas and the fired on them, killing two. The photograph of the wounded Hector Pieterson being carried through Soweto shocked the world. 10 minute podcast on Soweto: http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p00821br International reaction: UN passed an arms embargo. USA informed Vorster SA had to go to majority rule: one man, one vote. Riots spread from Soweto to other townships. Students destroyed businesses, stoned vehicles and stopped buses. Riots crushed. Schools closed for one month, Afrikaans teaching order rescinded, police arrested student leaders - did not always tell parents, no access to lawyers and in prison with hardened adult criminals - many died. Biko arrested in 1977 beaten and died 12 September. Government doctors said he died of natural causes and no one found responsible. Biko now world famous. Government clamped down and banned many black organisations and newspapers. 10 minute podcast on the death of Steve Biko: http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p00xqj1n Many rioters fled SA and came into contact with the ANC in exile and MK.

Mubarak Economic Developments

Despite a decline in the fertility rate, Egypt's perennial 20c problem of population growth persisted. Kamrava: the state relied on capitalists to finance and oversee state development projects - these capitalists often had ties to Mubarak family. The Egyptian National Democratic Party became the 'party of big business' with steel magnates and members of the chamber of commerce being its top members State intervention in price controls and food subsidies (the bread subsidy cost the government more than the annual income from the Suez Canal!), but reduction in some state welfare schemes hurt the poor - as the state withdrew from welfare, religious welfare and charity organisations filled the gap. Kamrava: in Egypt they [the Islamic charities] did not only grow in opposition to the state, they developed a symbiotic, mutually reinforcing relationship with it. Irony then that a repressive authoritarian state coexisted with a vibrant civil society. In the south of Egypt Mubarak continued Sadat's policy of revival of the rural aristocracy in the south of Egypt, against the interests of the fellahin who had been making progress under Nasser - another explanation for the rise of radical Islam in the south. Private sector growth was encouraged but not privatization. Ochsenwald: Government planners were realistic in the 1980s - encouraged agricultural developments, and the economy fairly diverse: oil, overseas workers remittances, tourism and Suez Canal. BUT all of these activities are variable (especially impacted by conflict) 1980s..increased appearance of Islamic companies and banks based on profit sharing rather than interest. Foreign debt $50 billion by 1991, able to secure debt relief after 1990 Gulf War, and Gulf Arab states resumed their financial aid to Egypt, but war also cost: direct military, Egyptian workers in Iraq came home, loss of tourism. Uneven growth - a few got rich, but many remained extremely poor Egyptian military acquired its own commercial interests 1996 repealed Nasser's 1952 Land Reform law - heightened tensions between the state and the poor who could no longer afford to rent land. Ochsenwald: 'By 1990 Mubarak had retained the foreign policy benefits of the 1979 peace treaty while overcoming most of its drawbacks'

Discovery of diamonds and gold Social Consequences

Divided population Divided families Racial discrimination In 1872 all africans were forced into the Pass System which restricted their freedom and stop desertion. While this was implemented it did not guarantee the uninterrupted labour of african miners. Spread of TB due to bad conditions Closed compounds were introduced in 1885, total control of african workers, cut off from the outside world for the duration of their contract. Later alcohol and women were also banned from the compounds. Created cheap and experienced workers Reduced the threat of an organised working class

Resistance to apartheid: the African National Congress (ANC)

Early Years Response: ANC: reinvigorated by the founding of the Youth League in 1944 -key figures: lawyers Oliver Tambo and Nelson Mandela, trade unionist Walter Sisulu. Since 1952 led by Albert Luthuli SACP: both black and white members who were also members of SAIC and APO. Inspiration of Gandhi Winter 1952 an ANC with SAIC organised a national defiance campaign against the Abolition of Passes Act. Nelson Mandela (in Transvaal) was organiser in chief Intended to fill courts and prisons with people arrested for not carrying passes In 5 months, over 8000 offenders were imprisoned impact varied according to where in the country it was happening This movement made "ANC a mass movement commanding wide spread popular support" (Brown et al. 13) but Ross says there was still a challenge for ANC: conflict was spatially uneven, and people tended to join based on local issues. (e.g: the destruction of Sophiatown led to a spike in activity around Johannesburg in 1956) 1953 general election - a frightened white population voted in larger numbers of the NP. 1955 Congress Alliance: ANC, SAIC, trade unions, communists and others met a Kliptown near Johannesburg. 3,000 delegates met to approve a Freedom Charter - a list of basic rights. Government arrested 156 Alliance leaders, (including Mandela, Luthuli and Kathrada (SAIC))and declared the Freedom Charter a communist manifesto The Treason Trial included people of all races from the Congress Alliance and dragged on until 1961: Over the 4 years of the trial the arrested campaigners strategized and worked together as the met during court recesses The government failed to prove that the Freedom Charter and the Congress Alliance were communist All the accused were acquitted Government frustrated by the executive (most judges were Afrikaners) Bus boycotts had more impact in industrialised areas (Alexandra 1957), employers feared strikes and lost productivity - government forced employers to subsidise buses. Brown p. 15 "[African] people learned an important lesson: they could win concessions if they united in a way that threatened the profitability of the white economy." The Emergence of PAC A mistrust of white involvement in the struggle from some in ANC led to the formation in 1959 of the Pan-Africanist Congress (PAC) led by Robert Sobukwe. PAC founded around Johannesburg, and tended to draw its members from around there, including Soweto. PAC rejected the multi-racial approach of the ANC, inspired by anti-colonial movement. Believed pacifist approach of ANC and Congress Alliance had failed to put enough pressure on the government. PAC called for a 'mental revolution' among Africans to help them lose their 'slave mentality' Some PAC members wanted to expel whites from SA PAC valued individual spontaneity and involvement, the ANC more carefully planned. 1960: Albert Luthuli, leader of ANC received the Nobel Peace Prize. Podcast here: http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p00c8nx1 1960: NP government clashes with ANC and PAC. ANC and PAC planned Pass Laws protests for 1960. March 1960: the PAC campaign consisted of large groups of people going to local police stations without their passbooks to invite arrest, and fill up the jails. Hundreds of PAC members were arrested. 21 March: 20,000 people at Evaton, 4,000 at Vanderbijlpark. Crowds dispersed by baton charges and threats from low flying aircraft. But at Sharpeville where 5,000 had gathered and refused to move, the police panicked and fired on the crowd. 69 people were killed, 180 wounded. The government suspended the Pass Laws for 10 days. ANC supported PAC: a nationwide stay-at-home day in mourning for victims, which persisted until police forced people from homes back to work. World shocked. Some protests deterred, but around Cape Town others were encouraged. 30 March, a protest led by PAC was dispersed. Government declared a state of emergency and the ANC and PAC were banned. In response, both groups went underground and started military resistance: ANC: Umkonto we Sizwe (the Spear of the Nation, or MK) Black Consciousness Movement ANC and PAC banned since 1969 National Union of South African Students (NUSAS) radical, but still dominated by whites South African Students Organisation (SASO) founded 1968 by Steve Biko (a medical student in Natal) as a response to white dominated NUSAS: A Christian movement - individual responsibility for liberation (Beck: self-help, legal aid etc...) Not a rejection of whites, but a recognition that Africans (Indians and Coloureds) should take and not wait to be given 1972 Biko set up the Black People's Convention - an umbrella organisation for ANC, PAC and trade unions

Sadat Economic Policies

Economic Policies: Nasser inheritance: 'no war, no peace' was very expensive, with high military budgets and spending on weapons, and confrontation with Israel cost Egypt tourism, Suez Canal tolls and foreign investment. Liberalization - Aim: expand private sector, reduce state intervention, encourage foreign capital and liberalize the economy. Replace the inefficient public sector with a more competitive private sector, thereby increasing investment incentives. Contrast to Nasser by opening up to foreign investment. Sadat would not dare undo Nasser's welfare reforms, but buoyed in popularity after 1973 war decided to liberalize other aspects of the Egyptian economy. 1974 October: 'al Infitah' (the opening) presented all these aims to the public. al-Infitah: Encourage foreign investment Easier to buy and sell land, and raise rents Infrastructure rebuilding in cities But most investment was in low risk tourist related ventures Suez Canal reopened 1975 The USA responded positively to Egyptian aid requests after 1977, but Moscow refused to reschedule Egyptian debts (a staggering $11 billion) and Sadat abrogated the Egyptian-Soviet Friendship Treaty (see below). With American aid came pressure for economic liberalisation - an end to Arab socialism of the Nasser years. Construction (especially alongside Suez Canal) grew as did tourism. Unemployment also increased Some new desert oil fields - oil prices increasing during 1970s Without govt subsidies for staple products some low income groups struggled. Inflation increased to 20% without price controls Some individuals grew in wealth, as did the army which was a major land owner and investor. Sadat's policy of revival of the rural aristocracy in the south of Egypt, against the interests of the fellahin who had been making progress under Nasser - another explanation for the rise of radical Islam in the south. Disagreements over the Aswan Dam by the 1970s - Dam itself had cost $800 million, electric power generated fell short of what was promised, a number of associated land reclamation projects failed. But...electirc power had been quadrupled, flooding curtailed and the water supply system had saved crops Egyptian professionals and skilled labourers worked overseas (foreign remittances). About 30% of these overseas workers were women.

The end of the apartheid system: release of Mandela and his role in the transition to democracy

F. W. de Klerk becomes state president: Botha mild stroke in January 1989, temporarily resigned and de Klerk stepped in and Botha resigned in August. De Klerk immediately began talks with legitimate leaders: released 8 prisoners including Walter Sisulu 2 Feb. 1990 announced release of Mandela and unbanning of UDF, ANC, PAC, SACP. De Klerk said he planned to open negotiations to develop a new SA constitution based on universal suffrage. A surprise announcement. 11 February 1990 Mandela released from prison. Several speeches thanking supporters, ANC, MK, SACP and signaled his intention to maintain armed struggle. De Klerk disappointed with this, but Mandela wanted to keep up pressure and maintain the ANC support base. 'Talks about talks' May 1990: Government: Pik Botha, ANC: Walter Sisulu, Thabo Mbeki, SACP: Joe Slovo June 1990: State of Emergency lifted everywhere except Natal (continued violence between ANC and Inkatha) Separate Amenities Act (1953) repealed More talks - Pretoria, August, Mandela announced immediate end of armed struggle (though MK remained in existence) A summer of violence: ANC/UDF vs. Inkhatha spread from Natal to Transvaal and trouble in many of the homelands (SADF troops and police deployed) Tripartite alliance between ANC, COSATU (Congress of South African Trade Unions) and SACP. COSATU and SACP agreed not to put forward candidates in elections and run on the ANC ticket. COSATU and SACP far more left leaning than ANC. Also Afrikaner right-wing disruption: assassination attempts, disruption of NP. De Klerk tried to challenge and in August 1991 armed AWB supported tried to stop a NP rally. First time SA police used against a white demonstration. Interim Constitution Some homelands reincorporated immediately into SA Violence in Bophuthatswana Buthelezi held out for guarantees on Zulu kingship and Zulu territory Elections 1994: Violence from ultra-right extremists, car bombs. Once voting began, generally peaceful ANC 63% votes, 252 seats, president and deputy president - not enough to rewrite constitution on its own. NP 20% votes, deputy president and won Western Cape province IFP (Inkatha) 10% and majority in KwaZulu-Natal 10 May 1994 President: Nelson Mandela Deputy Presidents: Thabo Mbeki and F. W. de Klerk

Mandates

How the War ended: Britain was the superior power in the Middle East (ME) - occupying most areas (Syria, Palestine, Iraq) Ottoman Empire (OE) at an end France preoccupied with the frontlines in France, and reconstruction - would only spare token forces - a small force in Lebanon Russia: out of the war, and out of control with the Revolution Middle East/North Africa/OE at the end of the war: Britain in control of much of Egypt and Sudan, strong influence in the Arabian Peninsula France: Algeria (1830), Tunisia (1881), Morocco (1912) Italy: Libya (1911) With the end of WWI and collapse of the OE the European powers could now shape the region more or less as they wished, and the borders of the ME were drawn by European officials (main considerations then Imperial interests and trade offs. But! The 1916 Arab Revolt had made its mark, and colonial imposition was no longer possible - so the 'mandate' idea emerged. Perceptions of the Middle East: Britain saw the ME as a homogenous Arab part of the world. France saw ME as a heterogeneous mosaic of minorities. Britain saw the ME as one theatre on the way to India. France saw the Levant as separate and distinct from North Africa. The system of mandates set up by the League of Nations (LoNs) under Article 22 of its Covenant was unprecedented...it was also a compromise. The victorious powers wished to hold onto the former colonies of Germany and the Ottoman Empire (OE) - they had sacrificed to conquer, after all, but also had pledged: not to hand them back and that annexation of territory was not a war aim. Anglo-French declaration about the former OE provinces. * November 1918 (*some confusion over the date: Mansfield says 5th, other sources say 7th or 9th). Aimed for complete 'liberation of the people' & democratic governments determined by the local populations. Sykes-Picot: Palestine was supposed to be shared, but Britain did not want to share it with the French, Britain also wanted Mosul (in the French sphere according to Sykes-Picot). In return for these concessions by the French, Britain supported France taking control of Syria (which had been in the hands of Faisal, son of Hussein). Britain wanted to keep France on side as an ally against Germany in Europe, so Britain withdrew support from Arab wartime allies. N.B: a different perspective - British officials in Cairo (not London) thought Britain should side with the Arabs and saw the French attempts to gain control in the Middle East as a nuisance. San Remo Conference (Italy) April 1920 France: Lebanon & Syria Britain: Palestine, Transjordan & Iraq Mandates were not colonies but a form of trust: the mandatory power administered the territory under the supervision of the LoNs through a Permanent Mandates Commission. The supreme council of the LoNs defined the terms and boundaries of the mandates. Some British and French statesmen saw little distinction between mandates and colonies. Lord Curzon (Britain, 1920) '...the gift of the mandate ...rests with the Powers who have conquered the territories...' Mandated territories also included former German colonies in Africa and Pacific. Since the mandate principle was that they should be brought to independence as quickly as possible they were divided into three classes: Former Turkish vilayets of Mesopotamia/Iraq, Palestine (including land west of the Jordan river - Palestine and east - Transjordan) and Syria (included present day Lebanon) - deemed most ready for independence Former German colonies in West and Central Africa Former German colonies in Southern Africa and certain South Pacific Islands The class A mandates were awarded to Britain and France after the Treaty of Lausanne - by which time both countries had made de facto arrangements for boundaries and forms of administration - the LoNs had to accept a fait accompli.

Palestine mandate: British responses and policies

In 1922 a constitution for Palestine was drawn up in which a legislative council composed of Palestinians, Jews, Christians and the British themselves was proposed. The Arabs were offered ten out of the 23 seats even though they made up 89 per cent of the population. Most of the leaders of the Arab community did not believe that their community should participate in a political body that in practice gave them no right to alter their situation. Consequently, the Arabs boycotted the elections because they argued that through their participation they would simply be legitimizing the terms of the mandate and the eventual transfer of power to the Jewish settlers. The British therefore decided to govern with a panel of British officials. In 1935 when the Arabs expressed an interest in participating in a legislative council the British, lobbied by the Zionists, rejected the idea.

Consequences of 1948-49 War

Instability of Arab States: Domestic Challenges to leadership, made peace initiatives difficult. Egyptian monarchy overthrown. Arab states increased territory: Transjordan takes West Bank Egypt takes the Gaza Strip, showing that Arab war aims was not as simple as supporting the Palestinians. Development of Israel: Increased by 20% (land) Industrialized Cars, Chemicals, along with defence construction, and irrigation of desert agriculture. Established Foreign relations Aid from USA Tripartite Declaration (1959)Further supports notion of foreign relations between France, Britain, and USA. Law of Return Loss of Land, Refugee Problem : (UNRWA) began operations in 1950, it was responding to the needs of about 750,000 Palestine refugees with the initial mandate to "prevent conditions of starvation and distress... and to further conditions of peace and stability. Passing of Resolution 194: Vague Language exact meaning and timing of enforcement of Article 11 in this resolution did not pertain directly to Palestinian refugees, nor exactly when they'd be able to come home. Tensions  IB Requirement: " Allied diplomacy in the Middle East: McMahon-Hussein correspondence; Sykes-Picot; Arab Revolt; Balfour Declaration" 157-163 142- 148/49 Historians' Interpretations and Views Views/Messages (with supporting quotes) Historian Reasons for Allied Diplomacy Impact of the Allied Diplomacy William L Cleaveland and Martin Bunton The CUP government tried to persuade Husayn to declare his support for the caliphs jihad, and to commit contingents of his tribal levies to the Ottoman War effort. The problem with this was that he was deciding whether or not his personal ideologies would do him better than supporting Ottomanism This resulted in Husayn sending a letter to the British High commissioner in Egypt, Sir Henry McMahon setting the scene to try to persuade him to enter into an alliance with Britain and to launch a revolt against his own Ottoman government. Britain was receptive to the idea of an Arab rebellion against the Ottomans as well as to the opportunity of having a muslim ally. "Great Britain was prepared to recognize and uphold the independence of the Arabs in all the regions lying within the frontiers proposed by the Sharif of Mecca" They agreed to recognize an independent Arab State. Britain also helped fund the revolt Isalmic Solidarity. This was also used when Husayn strived to justify the Arab revolt which started on June, 10th 1916 and ended on October 1st 1918. Inevitable future territorial disputes due to the fact that the language used in the correspondence was vague, and that Husayn did not agree to the fact that Britain wanted to secure their interests in Syria. They ended up not agreeing on a real solution so it was left unanswered. This also led to controversy pertaining to whether or not Palestine was included as part of the future independent Arab states. During the course of the war, it led to a number of agreements pertaining to the disposition of the Ottoman empire without taking into consideration the need of the Arab allies but rather solely meet the needs of the Europeans. Constantinople treaty.. Britain, France Russia gave Russia the right to annex Istanbul, and the Turkish straits. The Sykes Picot agreement which was the treaty that attempted to resolve the matter of Syria. France could not protect their middle eastern claims because of trench warfare on the Western front, and Britain had growing military involvement in the region. Sykes-Picot Agreement Britian+ France--> contravened the Sharif Husayn Awarded France a large zone of direct control and exclusive indirect influence in the syrian interior British control in Iraq was also guaranteed. Along with direct control over the Southern Mesopotamia and was granted a huge zone of exclusive indirect influence from Gaza to Kirkuk. Balfour declaration Establish a Jewish national home in Palestine.

Lebanon Civil Wars

It is a multi-faceted war Context: Growth of Pan-Arabism - especially the appeal to Sunni Muslims. A feeling in Lebanon that Maronite Christians did not see themselves as part of the Arab world. Iraq Revolution of 1958 (pro-western Hashemite govt overthrown in a coup d'etat by the Free Officers - inspired by Egypt 1952) Increasing complaints about the balance of representation provided by the National Pact Impact of the United Arab Republic (UAR). Pressure from Sunni groups for Lebanon to join UAR, including the Pan-Arabist Sunni PM: Rashid Karami Civil War between Sunnis and Christians (July 1958) Opposition to Chamoun, mostly Muslims in the Mount Lebanon area, favoured joining the UAR and wanted to stop Chamoun becoming President for a second term. Chamoun and his supporters wanted a second term and were supported by most Christians. Egypt and Syria helped the rebels - but there was a stalemate as General Shihab (who would become President after Chamoun in 1958) refused to commit the Lebanese Army (why? Army not to get involved in internal politics?, or weak?, or Shihab didn't want to split the multi-confessional army?) Maronite President Camille Chamoun asked the USA for help. USA marines to Beirut in 1958 and situation calmed - but brought a Cold War aspect to a domestic quarrel. Outcomes: Shihab became President, Lebanon did not join UAR, USA troops withdrew, Shihab's policies worked to reconcile with the Muslims. Shihab and his successor Hilu (1958 - 1970) generally aligned with Arab causes, Lebanon largely removed from the disaster of the 1967 war. 1970 Sulaiman Franjieh became President. More combative than Shihab and Hilu, he revived Chamoun's rightist, pro-Christian mindset. 1975 - 1990 The Second Lebanese Civil War Context: Christian community undermined by demographic changes, Muslim community still dissatisfied - with no census impossible to know, but Ochsenwald suggests it might even be 6:4 in favour of the Muslims! Increase in Palestinian refugees to 300,000 by 1975 - in camps, not integrated into the community (impact on Lebanon's confessional state - most Palestinians were/are Sunni Muslims. Also the south of Lebanon - where most refugees settled - was largely Shi'a) By late 1960s Palestinian armed groups in refugee camps were using Lebanon as a base to launch attacks on Israel. Retaliations. Aftermath of Black September (1970): PLO base moved to Southern Lebanon. Further tensions within Lebanon: Sunnis - want a Lebanese Arab state committed to conflict with Israel and support the Palestinians, Maronites - Lebanon as a Christian democracy, pro-western, no interest in the fight with Israel 1973 War: Lebanon maintained official neutrality, to the disgust of most Palestinian groups. Death of Maarouf Saad and the 1975 Sidon Fishermen's strike - confirming the notion that the Christians were rightist and wealthy, the Muslim leftist majority were the party of the poor. Elsewhere...in Syria, the regime of Hafez al-Assad was now stabilised Elsewhere...1975 Egypt-Israel Interim agreement April 1975: Clashes between Palestinians and Maronite Phalange militia. 13 April 1975 two events: Early morning - shots fired a church in East Beirut killing four, including two phalangists. Later morning - a bus of 30 Palestinians was massacred by Christian Phalange militia Lebanese army commanders struggled to manage their forces as soldiers in the army sided with the Civil War groups according to their sectarian origins. (Mostly - Christian senior officers, Muslim junior officers). Most Muslim soldiers sided with leftist Muslim groups and Palestinians, most Christians joined rightist militias or stayed in garrisons. Syrian intervention brought stage 1 of the second Civil War to a conclusion. 1976, facing defeat, Syria intervened to support the Maronite Christians (!). Why...? Enhance Syrian regional control and prevent a radical takeover of Lebanon that would expose Syria to trouble with Israel. Bizarre: Christian militias (supported by Israel) and the Syrian Army were now aligned against Palestinians and Muslim Lebanese leftists! Christian forces (with Syrian support) took control of the Tel al-Zataar refugee camp, killing up to 1,500 - heavy criticism of Syria from the Arab League. PLO and Communist attacks on isolated Christian villages October 1976 Arab League summit in Riyadh: Syria would keep 40,000 troops in Lebanon as part of an Arab Deterrent Force (which ended up being mostly Syrian) PLO fighters required to return to the south of Lebanon An uneasy peace - war not over, killing continued, and one of the key roots of the civil war - confessional representation - had not been addressed By late 1970s, Lebanon divided into sectarian strongholds.. 1978: Israel invaded Southern Lebanon: 'Operation Litani' in revenge for Palestinian attacks (the Coastal Road Massacre March 1978), aim to take control of south Lebanon and destroy the PLO bases there. About 1100 Palestinians and Lebanese died, including 75 who were in a mosque destroyed by an air strike. Most of those who died were civilians, as Arafat had ordered the PLO fighters to move north. world opinion forced a staged withdrawal. Several hundred thousand Shi'a villagers forced to flee (north) Bachir Gemayel - began the consolidation of rightist militias under the name of the 'Lebanese Forces'. Gemayel got help from Israel and America 1982: President-elect Bachir Gemayel (Bashir al-Jumayyil) sought to reassert Maronite authority by seeking an arrangement with Israel

Palestine mandate: Impact of Jewish Immigration and Settlement

Jewish Immigration Aliyah is the Hebrew word that means immigration to Israel. The First Aliyah: from Russia after pogroms and persecution in 1881 By 1900 about 21 Jewish settlements (mostly farming villages) and about 4,500 inhabitants. Small numbers and little attention paid. Increased interest in Jewish migration to Israel after 1897 Zionist Conference Numbers of Jewish immigrants grew and a Jewish National Fund was established to help settlers purchase land in Palestine. By 1906: Jewish settlers organized - political parties, Hebrew newspapers, collective farms, self-defence militia Development of the Kibbutz • The Zionist objective was to build up the Jewish population of the mandate through unrestricted immigration so as to have a credible claim to the existence of a national home ○ In order to settle and feed immigrants, it was necessary to acquire as much cultivable land as possible • The Arabs of Palestine recognised that the goals of Zionism represented a threat to their existence, and they opposed them by attempting to negotiate with Britain to restrict immigration and land transfers; when it failed, they revolted • Jewish immigration happened in aliyahs (series of waves) ○ The first one took place before WWI, the third from 1919-1923 with about 30,000 immigrants (mainly from Eastern Europe) and the fourth aliyah happened between 1924 and 1926 with 50,000 immigrants primarily from Poland ○ The influx of immigrants slowed considerably until 1933 with the rise of Hitler and the Nazi Party ○ In the fifth aliyah, from 1933 to 1936, 170,000 Jews immigrated to Palestine § The German immigrants included a significant number of educated professionals and business people who often brought with them substantial amounts of capital and were less interested in working the land • The organisation chiefly responsible for negotiating land purchases was the Jewish National Fund, which bought land it regarded as belonging to the Jewish people as a whole and leased it exclusively to Jews at a nominal rate ○ The Jewish National Fund also provided capital for improvements and equipment, a practice that enabled impoverished immigrants to engage in agricultural pursuits immediately upon arriving in Palestine ○ Zionist interests usually acquired land by purchasing it from absentee Arab owners • The transfer of cultivated land from Arab to Jewish ownership had a devastating effect on the Palestinian peasantry, which in 1936 still composed two-thirds of the Arab population of the mandate ○ The usual outcome of such a transaction was the eviction of the Arab tenant farmers and their addition to the growing ranks of the unemployed ○ The conditions of small proprietors also worsened during the mandate § British taxation policy, which required direct cash payments in place of the customary Ottoman payment in kind, forced peasant farmers to borrow funds at high rates of interests from local moneylenders- who were frequently the large landholders □ As a result of the crushing burden of indebtness, many small proprietors found it necessary to sell their lands, sometimes to Zionist interest but often to one of the landed Arab families Communal Conflict and the British Response • The two major eruptions of communal violence during the interwar years of the mandate- the Wailing Wall disturbances of 1929 and the great revolt of 1936-39- were directly related to the dislocations caused by immigration and land transfers • Repeated British investigations into the causes of these incidents only served to highlight the unworkable nature of the mandate White Paper

Lebanon economic, religious and social tensions

Lebanon's Economy Tourism, commerce, service, overseas, remittances Impact of Civil War (1975-1990) Party country With no natural resources, Lebanon concentrated on commerce and service industries, and a large tourism sector. Beirut became a commercial and social centre with a cosmopolitan reputation An open and unregulated economy - a haven for the wealthy to invest in across the Middle East 1950 - 1974 Lebanese economy grew (approx. 3% a year) Prospered on wealth of neighbours: oil pipelines from Iraq and Saudi Arabia (rent) Many Lebanese worked abroad in oil producing neighbours Wealth inequality led to strikes and demonstrations Uneven national development: rural poor vs. wealthy urbanites, poor south vs. rich north, wealthier Maronites vs. poorer Shi'a and Palestinians Economy struggled in the 1980s as civil war raged and central government collapsed (see Syria section below): inflation 500%, high unemployment, falling personal income Some recovery by the mid-1990s - construction boom and infrastructure replacement after years of neglect and war Government borrowing high - by 2002 Lebanon was one of the most indebted countries in the world. Destabilization of the demographic equilibrium: Christian emigration and lower birth rate Higher Sunni and Shi'a birth rate Increase in Palestinian refugees Presence of PLO after 1970 - southern Lebanon became a base for attacks on Israel and Israel retaliated (a challenge to Lebanese sovereignty) Migration of Shi'a community to the north of Lebanon The Christians Maronites well organised and organised into a political party in 1936: The Phalange (Kataeb), and had formed a militia by the 1960s (in response to growing Palestinian presence). The Phalange military leader at the start of the Civil War was Bachir Gemayel Though secular, the Phalange mostly represented Christian interests Phalange believed Palestinian presence in Lebanon threatened Lebanese sovereignty and brought the Arab-Israeli conflict into Lebanon Other Christian militias: South Lebanon Army The Druze: Druze is a monotheistic faith in the Abrahamic tradition and incorporates elements of Islam, Judaism and Christianity among other faiths. Habibi describes the Druze as a 'dissident branch of the Isma'ili Shi'a sect'. Druze mostly live in central Lebanon - population about 200,000 Disagreed with the National Pact Defended the Palestinian presence in Lebanon Often fought against the Phalange and sometimes with the PLO The Shi'a: Migrated from southern Lebanon as Palestinians (mostly Sunni) arrived, moving to poor areas in southern Beirut Mid 1970s the group Amal (Hope) formed aiming to rally Lebanese Shi'as, expel foreigners from Lebanon and defend the Shi'a community 1982 (after the second Israeli invasion) Hezbollah (the Party of God) formed. Hezbollah targeted Israel. Pappé notes that the Islamist Shi'a groups seem to be more cohesive than Sunni groups as the more radical nature of Shi'a Islam has a socio-economic background (rooted in the National Pact?) as Sunni politicians tended to have more standing and wealth in society, and adopted more traditional modes of action (not spectacular attacks such as hostage taking and guerrilla bombing). Lebanese Society: Culture Social Developments: Beirut a cosmopolitan hub in the Middle East: publishing houses, cinemas, theatres, radio and TV*...and this carried on all through the wars and still into the 1990s a much freer intellectual atmosphere than say...Syria... *Pappé notes that the 'never ending civil war eroded the power' of government control over TV and a local non-government channel was able to emerge as other groups funded TV channels Rapid population growth Lebanon the most 'western oriented' nation in the Middle East Literacy rates high for the region Most schooling was based around religion - creating separate religious identities rather than a common Lebanese identity? History since 1943 not regularly taught in Lebanese schools. Women: right to vote in 1953, increased opportunities to work outside the home, literacy rates increased Dissent controlled through the use of internal security forces 1980s: continued conflict encouraged migration between 1975 and 1989 over 1 million Lebanese emigrated - slowed in 1990s, and some Lebanese returned No official census taken in Lebanon since 1932 for fear of upsetting the balance of the National Pact - although Shiis had clearly replaced Maronites as the largest community they were generally too divided. Sectarian divisions: religious groups still live separately Lebanese Society: Demographics Maronite Christians Sunni Muslims Shi'a Muslims Druze Other groups: Orthodox Christians Protestants Armenian Christians Jews Alawites

Hertzog Policies

Legislation in favor of the Afrikaners; financial support for white farmers, protection of white workers, white women enfranchised (percentage of black votes in Cape reduced) More economic and political autonomy for South Africa Afrikaans and Afrikaner culture promoted

Nasser Social Policies

Massive population growth also led to urbanisation Education made a high priority but achievements modest: Illiteracy rates 75% 1950, dropped to 53% 1982, 28% in 2016 Universities expanded to feed the government bureaucracy (graduates guaranteed a government job). University education free. Women: 1956 female suffrage 1957 state education opened to both sexes 1962 National Carter stated women were equal to men 1963 Equal pay Family laws not updated Investigate Doria Shafik (doria-shafik.com) Free Officers were mostly secular: Sharia courts closed 1956 Sufism banned 1961 The University of al-Azhar (religious centre) brought under government control After 1955, Jews banned from working as teachers, doctors, lawyers. About 25,000 Jews emigrated as a result Foreign Relations: Details on Arab-Israeli Wars in other notes. 1955 April: Bandung Conference that led to the development of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM 1961). Egypt a leading country in the NAM - looking for a middle course between west and east during the Cold War. 1955 September: Czech arms deal 1956 May: Egypt recognised the People's Republic of China 1956 June: USSR offered a loan to Egypt to build Aswan Dam 1956 October Suez War: Distanced Egypt from the west Improved relations with USSR and Eastern Europe Egypt takes on a leadership role in the Arab world After 1967: Disillusionment amongst the Egyptian public - for the first four days of the war most Egyptians believed that they were winning. Pan-Arabism failed...two contradictory trends emerged The entrenchment of the territorial state The rise of political Islam Nasser offered his resignation - two days and nights of pro-Nasser protests - he stayed War of Attrition 1968 - 1970 Nasser died aged 52 in 1970 from a heart attack. Mariam Habibi: '...a dynamic and charismatic President...he broke with Egypt's past and transformed its society...but [Egypt] has been left with economic inefficiency, an oversized bureaucracy and a political system centred around one person' Hussein Dhu'l Fiqar Sabri: 'He pushed Egypt ahead, but soon let his fantasy take over...Suez was the turning point. It led him to believe that revolutionary Egypt vanquished Imperialism..." Omar Khalifah Nasser in the Egyptian Imaginary Notes from book launch 18th March 2017 at Georgetown University, Qatar. Nasser a unique leader in Egypt - no one else with his stature, not even Muhammad Ali In the Egyptian consciousness, Nasser is now separate from the regime he installed Many Egyptians wrote letters to Nasser - informing him of success, continued requests, hoping for his understanding - there was a personal engagement with Nasser Pivotal moment: 1967 Resignation Speech (after defeat in 1967 War). Only Nasser and one other knew the contents of the speech - even Nasser's family were surprised by the news. Nasser offered a 'total withdrawal from the political role'. Two nights of protests led to his reinstatement - Nasser in a strong position now in Egypt, and the Arab world (what alternatives were there?) The Resignation Speech is the most frequently played archival footage of Nasser (not Suez, not Aswan, not welfare reforms, not funeral). A contrast between bombastic, nationalistic Nasser and the quiet resignation of his Resignation speech. 'The wound of 1967 is not yet healed' (for Egypt and the entire Arab world?). Khalifah suggests Egypt and by extension the Arab world is still looking for a replacement for Nasser...had this vacuum been filled by Islamist groups? Nasser's charisma long lasting, and Nasser provided a focus for anti-Imperialists world wide including Fidel Castro and Che Guevera. Kwame Nkrumah even named his son after him. The image and notion of Nasser to this day in Egypt will evoke ideas of social justice and equality.

Mubarak Social Developments

Mubarak came to power in a time of insurrection after the assassination of Sadat: Islamic militants had taken control of some cities, state of emergency. Army restored order pretty quickly. Mubarak seemed uncertain how to handle Islamic fundamentalists and after a brief moderate stance, he reverted to Sadat's iron fist policy. Despite their growing support, Mubarak's tough policy against Islamists had mostly succeeded by the late 1990s (but economic issues saw a rise in activity of Islamic welfare charities) Fundamentalist religious movements on the rise in Egypt and the Middle East amongst Muslims, Jews and Christians. In Egypt most movements peaceful and included a revival in scriptural study, a growth in Sufi activities and increased appearance of Islamic companies and banks based on profit sharing rather than interest. Increase in private mosques and religious figures appeared on TV and home cassette recordings. Rise of Islamism: by mid 1980s government was allowing Muslim Brotherhood to operate quietly, and splinter groups emerged. Radical groups often based their ideas on Sayyid Qutb (executed in 1966 during Nasser years). Qutb wanted a total renovation of Muslim societies and restoration of Sharia law to deal with the power and temptations of the west. Fundamentalists assassinated speaker of Parliament in 1990, attacked Coptic Christians, foreign tourists. Particularly active in southern Egypt. In 1996 - 7 radical fundamentalists had killed 1000. Government repression was eventually successful (fundamentalists fled to Afghanistan and USA, taking an active role in al-Qaida). Government regained control of mosques and imams but the Islamisation of public life continued as moderate Islamists gained public support and penetrated state institutions such as judiciary, media and education. Challenges of population growth, urbanisation, over 2 million Egyptians working overseas Women: Quotas in parliament ended in 1986 - number of women declined. 2000 about 30% of those working outside the home were women Culture: Egypt still leading Arab producer of books, newspapers, TV, radio, film and music (despite more competition from Gulf countries, and conservative Muslim attempts at censorship) Multiple state owned channels developed as well as satellite TV Impact of western styles after 1990s Education: 1985 about 75% of girls aged 6 - 12 in school, about 94% of boys. By 2003 illiteracy at 17% for males, 40% for females. Poor student teacher ratios in school. 1990 Mubarak decided to rebuild the famous library at Alexandria - placed the project in the hands of an international consortium.

Lebanon Mandate

N.B: In both French mandates (Lebanon and Syria) there were diverse populations that made the formation of cohesive states difficult. In both countries 'in the early years...France behaved in the manner of a colonial government.' (Mansfield 225), the press was controlled and demonstrations were suppressed. Diverse Population and inaccuracies regarding religious status of Lebanese subjects: About: 25% Sunni Muslim 25% Shi'a Muslim 20% Maronite Christian 10% Greek Orthodox Druze, Greek Catholic, Armenian Orthodox, Armenian Catholic Maronite Christians give Lebanon a unique Catholic identity - most other Christians in the Middle East (ME) are Orthodox. Maronites are a compact minority, (a community situated in a well defined area) at Mount Lebanon. Saint Maron lived in 5 century CE. Maronites have an historical affinity with France (trade from the Crusader times), a formal link to the Catholic Church and had long periods of autonomy within the Ottoman Empire (OE). In the 1840s tensions between the Druze and Maronites at Mount Lebanon led to a civil war which the Druze won. Whilst there were atrocities on both sides, by 1860 over 20,000 Maronites had been killed by the Druze. This led to the military intervention of France in 1860 on behalf of the Maronites and and the subsequent international accord established an autonomous province (within the OE) for Maronites at Mount Lebanon. Mount Lebanon was about 80% Christian, with two-thirds of the Christians being Maronite. Greater Lebanon was established in 1920. Much larger than Mount Lebanon. The Maronites had lobbied intensively at the Paris Peace Conference for more land - they needed more agricultural areas to the east and north of Mt. Lebanon. BUT! The population ratio shifted as a result as Lebanon expanded, taking in more Sunni, Shi'a and Druze. In 1920, the Christians made up just over 50% of the population of Greater Lebanon. France expected that Lebanon, with its dominant Francophile majority would be easier to control than Syria (again, impact of Greater Lebanon) Demographic challenges will remain a constant theme of Lebanon in the 20th century. Over time Christian emigration and higher Muslim birth rate meant the population shifted - especially in favour of the Shi'a. The last official census was done in Lebanon in 1926. Sunni Muslims in Greater Lebanon had been part of the majority in OE and were now separated from Syria (majority Sunni) and subordinate to Christians in the new state. 1926: Lebanese Constitution drafted in Paris. A bicameral parliament and a President and in an attempt to ease sectarian tensions, the principles of the Confessional state were laid down: a Maronite President, a Sunni PM, a Shi'a speaker...but the President had the right to choose the PM. Mansfield: 'Emotionally, a large part of the Lebanese population both rejected French control and saw themselves as part either of Syria or of a wider Arab nation.' However fragile the political system some national identity did begin to emerge. The prosperity of Beirut as a trade hub enabled the development of a Christian and Muslim middle class, which partly transcended sectarian loyalties. There was a small independence movement wanting the end to French interference in the government, this was also joined by some Maronites, and in 1936 the Maronite patriarch published a memorandum containing criticisms of the French. The French Popular Front government proposed a treaty similar to the Syrian treaty to move Lebanon to independence, but as with the Syrian treaty this was not ratified when the Popular Front government fell. Outside of politics the 'achievements of the French mandatory in Lebanon and Syria were far from negligible.' (Mansfield 229): Modern administrative systems, customs organisation, land registration Roads, urban amenities Department of Antiquities established to administer archaeological heritage Some agricultultural development But: Local currency pegged to the French franc which was chronically weak in the 1930s Monopoly business awarded to French companies (who sent profits to France) Education boosted but French language, culture and history heavily promoted. Mission schools in Lebanon were protected (and as a result, Lebanese people were more literate than anywhere else in the former Ottoman Empire).

Syria Mandate

N.B: In both French mandates (Lebanon and Syria) there were diverse populations that made the formation of cohesive states difficult. In both countries 'in the early years...France behaved in the manner of a colonial government.' (Mansfield 225), the press was controlled and demonstrations were suppressed. The terms of the mandates promised a constitution in three years. Like Lebanon, Syria is a mosaic of minorities, but without a core group like the Maronites. In 1920s population about 2 million. Sunni Arabs 60% Alawites 11% Sunni Kurds 8% Greek Orthodox 5% Armenian Orthodox 4% Druze 3% Greek Catholic 3% Ismaili Shi'a 2% Also, significant divide between rural and urban communities. There was an overlap between sect and social class: Sunni landowners (often urban dwellers), whereas the Alawites were an underclass (rented land, day labourers). General hostility towards Christians (relatively affluent, links to Europe). France divided Syria in order to control it more easily. Map shows the early French division of Syria. The states of Aleppo and Damascus were united in 1924, and the autonomous regions granted to the Druze and Alawites incorporated into Syria in 1936. Mansfield: 'France considered the creation of a unitary state in Syria to be a very distant goal.' Always concerned that concessions in Syria (and Lebanon) would play out in France's North African colonies. Syria was ruled by the French with an emphasis on minority autonomy. Frequent local rebellions: The Great Syrian Revolt 1925 - 1927 A tribal affair that began amongst the Druze rebelling against French authority. The revolt spread to other communities, including nationalists in Damascus, but lack of coordination meant it was ultimately put down by the French. In 1928 though there were elections for a Constituent Assembly, won by the nationalists (based in Damascus) who formed a cabinet and then tried to publish a constitution that failed to recognize French control! This was overruled by the French in 1930 and the French High Commissioner made Syria a parliamentary republic, with France retaining control over foreign affairs and security. Confirmed and justified French opposition to Arab nationalism in Syria (remember Arab nationalism growing from Egypt and into French territory such as Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia). French continued to appoint Christians into bureaucracy and as army officers. By 1936...the left wing Popular Front government had come to power in France, and Britain had granted independence to Iraq and reached a treaty agreement with the Egyptians. Italian territorial ambitions (Mussolini) also heightened tensions in the Mediterranean and negotiations made progress and treaty in 1936 was signed providing for Syrian independence....but whilst ratified in Syria, the Popular Front fell from power in France and the new French government wanted to keep control of the Levant for political (German war threat) and economic (oil prospects) reasons. By 1939 it was clear France would not ratify the Franco-Syrian treaty, and on the eve of WWII the Syrian President Atassi resigned, the constitution was suspended, and Syrian independence deferred until after WWII. Outside of politics the 'achievements of the French mandatory in Lebanon and Syria were far from negligible.' (Mansfield 229): Modern administrative systems, customs organisation, land registration Roads, urban amenities City planning in Damascus and Aleppo Department of Antiquities established to administer archaeological heritage Some agricultural development But: Local currency pegged to the French franc which was chronically weak in the 1930s Monopoly business awarded to French companies (who sent profits to France) Education boosted but French language, culture and history heavily promoted. In Syria a state education system constructed and a University was established in Damascus. There was great difficulty in consolidating the Syrian state, it was the most unstable and doesn't really achieve any meaningful stability until the Ba'athists emerged in the 1960s

Transjordan Mandate

Note: In the Vilayet system of the Ottoman Empire, most of Transjordan was part of the Syria Vilayet. The history of the Transjordan Mandate is closely linked to the Palestinian Question. The Balfour Declaration of 1917 had included the notion that Palestine needed to be defined as a separate territory. A separate mandate for Palestine would require French agreement (Sykes-Picot 1916). Britain was also looking for ways to compensate the Hashemites (the family of Sharif Hussein) for their role in the 1916 Arab Rebellion - so asked the Hashemite Abdullah to come to Iraq, then Transjordan. Britain made concessions to the French over Syria - exclude the Hashemites (Faisal deposed - see Syria notes). In return Britain got: Mosul for Iraq French agreement that Britain would have influence in Palestine - Did Britain need to prepare to deliver the spirit of the Balfour Declaration? So, after Britain received the whole mandate of Palestine and Transjordan, they decided to split the mandate into two - along the River Jordan (aiming to fulfill promises to both Jews and Arabs?) Susser: Transjordan was established as a separate entity by the British primarily so it would NOT be included as part of the Zionist programme. Indicating Britain was expecting that the Zionists would cause difficulties in Palestine? 1920: Abdullah (the older brother of Faisal & leader of the Arab Rebellion) came to Transjordan. Abdullah had been defeated by the Saudis and had left Hejaz, then he was offered and he refused the throne in Iraq (taken by Faisal). March 1921: Abdullah agreed with the British that he would become the Emir of Transjordan. His rule was temporary (Abdullah had to commit to NOT attacking the French in Syria) - he wanted revenge for the removal of Faisal and dreamt of a "Greater Syria". But he kept his cool, and his status as Emir. At this time, Britain began to exercise increased separate control over Palestine. March 1923 Britain recognised Transjordan as independent state, subject to British obligations under the Palestinian mandate. Transjordan's borders: Unhelpful - 'duck's bill' towards Iraq Gave a land border with Iraq - a link to India and oilfields, control of oil pipeline from Iraq to Palestinian ports Separated the Levant from Saudi Arabia (already under the control of the Saud family and Wahhabism) Susser 'the most artificial of the mandates' - no urban centre like Damascus or Baghdad. In 1920 the population of Amman was just 2000. A link and affinity with Palestine: rivers make east-west travel across the River Jordan fairly straightforward. Family ties across the river Higher levels of education in Palestine meant Palestinians often recruited to join the Jordanian bureaucracy (in early 1920s) BUT! Unlike Syria, Lebanon and Iraq, Transjordan was not a country of minorities. It's low population was 90% Sunni Muslim Arabic speakers, and in the long run Transjordan will be the most stable of the new states of the Levant (Susser). In 1920 about half the population was nomadic. Abdullah was dissatisfied with his small desert principality of a few hundred thousand people. Mansfield: 'The country was poor, undeveloped and thinly populated.' He dreamt of ruling 'Greater Syria' from Damascus. In 1948 Transjordan did expand (into Palestine). He did however establish a ruling elite and made effective settlements with the Bedouin tribes of Transjordan, setting up an effective military and security system. With the help of British officers Jordanian forces saw off tribal dissent and incursions from Wahhabi warriors from Nejd (central Saudi Arabia) in the 1920s. Experienced in dealing with the Bedouins in Iraq, the British advisers guided the Jordanians to use some tribesmen to keep an eye on their fellow Bedouins - this gained their confidence and many Bedouins eventually came to serve in the regular Jordanian army. By 1930 this Arab Legion was one of the most significant forces in the Middle East (mostly funded by the British). Effective against raids by the Saudis and maintained the corridor for the oil pipeline that ran from Iraq to Palestine. Ochsenwald: With better security and improved roads (and improved weather as the droughts of the 1920s ended) Jordanian agriculture expanded - Bedouins settled and raised sheep rather than camels, and the government ensured land ownership, thereby securing loyalty. 1928 Treaty with Britain: Emir Abdullah to be guided by British advice in the matters of foreign relations, finance British advisers Small British subsidy - slow progress building roads and schools. Only one secondary school until mid-1930s though, so education standards very low! Mansfield: [Abdullah had] 'remarkable political skills' (236) and by 1934 the British allowed the Emir increased autonomy in foreign affairs - appointing consular representatives and forming a cabinet of Ministers. By 1946 Transjordan had become independent, and Abdullah took the title of king. Also a sense of national identity, of 'Jordanianess' is achieved. Ideas of Petra and a glorious inheritance (compare with Egypt). By 1930s, government posts were only for Transjordanians. Abdullah built up his powerbase in Transjordan (smaller and poorer than its neighbours), but its unified population and his skills and pedigree meant he could rule through personal authority. He never gave up on pan-Arab ideas, but with the French clinging on to Syria and the Sauds in the Arabian peninsula his hopes focused on Palestine. Abdullah was shrewd (Mansfield 237) and saw in the 1920s that the Zionists were a force to be reckoned with, and believed a time would come when the Palestinian Arabs might seek his protection. This is why he urged acceptance of the 1937 Peel commission's proposal for partition and the joining of Arab Palestine to Transjordan. It also led western leaders to see Abdullah as a 'moderate'. Clearly this brought Abdullah enemies, but he was prepared to wait out to see the Palestinian situation unfold. Ochsenwald: Abdullah 'performed well for the British and they sustained him in a dignified manner' Abdullah's policies consolidated the state and aided the people Maintained links with Palestine

Palestine Mandate: economic, social and political developments

Palestinian Mandate 1919 - 1945 Notes Notes based on 'An Introduction to Middle East Politics' by Benjamin MacQueen, 'A History of Europe and the Middle East' by Mariam Habibi et al. and 'The Middle East 1908 - 2011' by Michael Scott-Baumann Wider contexts: Zionism/Revisionist Zionism Agreements made during World War I: Hussein-McMahon, Sykes-Picot, Balfour Defeat of the Ottoman Empire Ideas of the Paris Peace Conference: self-determination Relationship between Britain and France over the Middle East. MacQueen: 'the status of the Palestinian Mandate [was] in a highly ambiguous state on the eve of World War II' Jewish Immigration Aliyah is the Hebrew word that means immigration to Israel. The First Aliyah: from Russia after pogroms and persecution in 1881 By 1900 about 21 Jewish settlements (mostly farming villages) and about 4,500 inhabitants. Small numbers and little attention paid. Increased interest in Jewish migration to Israel after 1897 Zionist Conference Numbers of Jewish immigrants grew and a Jewish National Fund was established to help settlers purchase land in Palestine. By 1906: Jewish settlers organized - political parties, Hebrew newspapers, collective farms, self-defence militia Development of the Kibbutz The King-Crane Commission refer to King-Crane Commission notes (in separate document). Issues to do with Germany took precedence, and disagreements over Europe delayed decision making on the Middle East WWI agreements - disparities between Treaty of London (1915), Sykes-Picot, Balfour and Husain-MacMahon, the 14 points.... British and French imperial ambitions in the region Zionists had managed to incorporate a version of the Balfour Declaration into the peace treaties, but the Wilsonian policy of self-determination seemed to block Zionist aims (Ochsenwald) 1918: Jews less than 15% of the population of Palestine, but Jewish migration increasing At Paris Wilson proposed a commission of inquiry to go to Syria. France, Britain and Italy initially agreed, but withdrew when they anticipated the commission's findings would clash with their imperial aims. The American appointees Henry King and Charles Crane proceeded alone, and delivered their report in 1919 (which was not published until 1922). King and Crane set out to determine: what Arabs wanted as their political future, whether to be independent or subordinated to a foreign power; and how Arabs viewed British and French plans to divide their region and the intention of Britain to support the Zionist movement's goal of establishing a "Jewish Homeland" in Palestine (Zogby). King and Crane were guided by the British Army, who also selected their interviewees and the translators. Both the British and the French tried to influence the findings of the commission. The Findings of the King-Crane Commission Findings argued for the USA to replace the British and French occupying the region: region 'not ready' for independence Questioned the viability of a Jewish state in the area of the Palestinian Mandate - their surveys indicated largely hostile attitudes from the local Arab community to the growing Jewish presence. But also recognised the rising popularity of the Zionist movement The Commission concluded that the only way a Jewish state could be established would be through 'a practically complete dispossession of the present non-Jewish inhabitants of Palestine' Argued that the 'extreme Zionist program' would require 'serious modification' to prevent war between Arabs and Jews. among the residents of what was to be Palestine, "if...the wishes of Palestine's population are to be decisive as to what is to be done with Palestine, then it is to be remembered that the non-Jewish population of Palestine - nearly nine-tenths of the whole - are emphatically against the entire Zionist program. ...there is no one thing upon which the population of Palestine were more agreed upon than this." So the Commission proposed instead a 'Greater Syria' (with King Faisal as the head of state) including the Syrian, Jordanian and Palestinian Mandates that would ensure protection of minorities in its constitution If that was not possible then the Commission grudgingly accepted the British mandates for Mesopotamia and Palestine, and France's for Syria. This was recommended not because it was the desire of the people (it wasn't) but 'on the international need of preserving friendly relations between France and Great Britain' The King-Crane report was submitted in August 1919, after President Wilson had left Paris (and the Treaty of Versailles was being widely criticised in the US press). After the US Senate refused to ratify the Treaty of Versailles, the Report of the King-Crane Commission was moot. It was suppressed until 1922 as it ran counter to the arrangements Britain and France preferred. It had no impact of the post World War I negotiations, but it did feed into the growing antagonism between the communities. Why does it matter? The King-Crane Commission was the first survey of Arab opinion in the region (even if the interviewees were 'selected'), interviewing over 1800 people King and Crane recognised solutions imposed from outside, without the agreement of the affected people would not work (Zogby) If the King-Crane findings had been heeded, the Zionist program could have been modified (not disbanded), and ways would have been found to seek early reconciliation between those who sought a Jewish refuge and the aspirations of the indigenous people of the Arab East. (Zogby) Although King-Crane was suppressed it showed the depth of antagonism between the two communities. Questioned the viability of a Jewish state in the area of the Palestinian Mandate - their surveys indicated largely hostile attitudes from the local Arab community to the growing Jewish presence. Recognised the rising popularity of the Zionist movement The King-Crane report was suppressed and not published until 1922. 1917 - 1922 1917 British troops entered Jerusalem 1920 (San Remo) Britain would be given the mandate to govern Palestine May 1921 Anti-Jewish violence in Jaffa spread to other towns, leading to the deaths of about 200 Jews and 120 Arabs. As a response to the violence a Jewish paramilitary organization was formed to protect Jews: the Haganah 1922 League of Nations confirmed Britain was responsible for establishing a Jewish national homeland while protecting the rights of all those living in Palestine (see Scott-Baumann p. 13 Source E) Political Representation within the Mandate Power with British High Commissioner (in Palestine) and the British government (in London) and both communities began to organize their own affairs. Jews: better organized, international representation from the World Zionist Organization - later the Jewish Agency, organized immigration, settlement and taxes Arabs: little international organization. 1922 Supreme Muslim Council formed. White papers are policy documents produced by the British Government that set out their proposals for future legislation. White Papers ... may include a draft version of a Bill that is being planned. This provides a basis for further consultation and discussion with interested or affected groups and allows final changes to be made before a Bill is formally presented to Parliament. (www.parliament.uk) 1922 White Paper (Churchill) Restated British support for Balfour Declaration but also Sought to distance the British from the establishment of a separate Jewish state - used the phrase 'national home' Clarified position from Hussein-McMahon that the area to the west of the River Jordan was never discussed, so Britain formally separated the two mandates in 1922 Proposed limits to Jewish immigration and guaranteed the right of the Aliyah process. (contradictory?) 1929 Violence and the Shaw Commission Wailing Wall and Hebron Haganah grew in size The Shaw Commission which investigated the violence concluded that: the cause of the rioting was based in Arab fears of continual Jewish immigration and land purchases, particularly resonating from a growing Arab landless class. 1930 The Passfield White Paper proposed setting land aside for landless Palestinians and a restriction on Jewish immigration 1930 - 1935 Jewish immigration continued, and by now one-third of the population in Palestine Many arriving immigrants were skilled and educated refugees fleeing anti-Semitism in Europe. They boosted the economy. As more educated Jews arrived they settled in the northern coastal towns like Jaffa. Cheaper world food prices were causing economic problems for many Palestinian farmers In general, the Jewish sectors of the economy were growing more quickly and Jews were paid more for doing similar jobs. (Habibi 204) Jewish schools were opening and two Jewish universities were founded See Cleveland p. 255 for details on demographic changes and how land was purchased (Jewish National Fund bought land from absentee Arab owners, and Jews willing to pay high prices would also buy land from local notable families). Nature of the tax system imposed by the British encouraged local farmers into debt. Arab tenant farmers were evicted after purchase - became landless. 1936-1937 The Arab Revolt High tension A series of strikes in 1936 led to a wide-spread but disorganized insurrection that left between 4000 - 5000 dead. By 1937 the Palestinians had organized the Arab Higher Committee under the Mufti of Jerusalem, Amin al Husseini and demanded: End Jewish immigration End of land transfers to Jewish owners A representative, democratic government By 1938, over 10,000 Arabs were involved Attacks on the British and Jews Militant Haganah members broke away and formed Irgun Sept 1937 Assassination of Lewis Andrews, a British district commissioner led to a further deployment of 20,000 British soldiers, the Arab Higher Committee being banned and the Mufti was forced out of Palestine. (What did this mean for Arab representation in the future? Amin al Husseini goes to Beirut, Iraq and then during WWII, Italy and Germany) 1937 The Peel Commission (Palestinian Royal Commission) Peel dispatched to establish the causes of the Arab Revolt This report will be the first to discuss partition. Abolish the Palestinian mandate Jewish state along the central and northern coast, including Galilee Arab state the south and the West Bank An international zone around Jerusalem stretching to Tel Aviv in the west. A population exchange (similar to Greece/Turkey in early 1920s) Arabs: rejected - it was all their land Zionists: divided - the partition did not achieve the aims of Eretz Israel, with others arguing it was a start (a similar argument later in 1948 as well) A subsequent Partition Commission (1938) concluded transfers too costly and whole situation too fragile. 1939 The White Paper (MacDonald) WWII looming in Europe, Britain sought a conference. MacDonald hoped to court Arab opinion in the lead up to war in Europe Britain detached itself from the establishment of a Jewish state, while supporting the idea of Jewish rights in any post independent Palestinian arrangement. Jewish immigration was to be restricted. In 1939, about 30% of the Palestinian population was Jeiwsh, owning between 5 and 7% of the land. During WWII Italy bombed Palestine in 1940. Threat to Palestine from North African war - fighting in Egypt. What would happen to the Jews in Palestine if Germany launched a successful invasion? British agreed to the formation of Palmach an elite force within Haganah Many Jews volunteered to fight with and for the British (against Nazi Germany) and were equipped and trained by the British Little unanimity between the Arabs - many leaders believed an Axis victory would secure Palestine back from the British and the Zionists. After 1943 Mufti Amin al Husseini stayed in Nazi Germany The British Army: one Jewish Brigade formed (fought in Yugoslavia), and two Palestinian regiments (one Jewish, one Arab - fought in Italy) and also an international Jewish force (from Yemen, Europe and Abyssinia) In 1922 a constitution for Palestine was drawn up in which a legislative council composed of Palestinians, Jews, Christians and the British themselves was proposed. The Arabs were offered ten out of the 23 seats even though they made up 89 per cent of the population. Most of the leaders of the Arab community did not believe that their community should participate in a political body that in practice gave them no right to alter their situation. Consequently, the Arabs boycotted the elections because they argued that through their participation they would simply be legitimizing the terms of the mandate and the eventual transfer of power to the Jewish settlers. The British therefore decided to govern with a panel of British officials. In 1935 when the Arabs expressed an interest in participating in a legislative council the British, lobbied by the Zionists, rejected the idea. The 1930s saw a widening gap between the Jewish and the Arab communities. In the years 1930-5 the Jewish population had doubled in size. By the end of the 1930s they constituted one third of the population of Palestine. Many of the new immigrants were highly skilled refugees fleeing anti-Semitic persecutions in Europe. They brought with them knowledge and funds to boost the Palestinian economy. While the world was plunging into the Great Depression, in Palestine the economy was thriving. Haifa, the terminus of the oil pipe lines linking Mosul to the Mediterranean, had become a major industrial centre. Tel Aviv had expanded from a population of 46,000 in 1931 to 135,000 by 1935. Palestinian postage stamp issued in 1927 depicting the Dome of the Rock. (Islamic symbol) Economic growth was, however, not evenly distributed between the two communities. Palestinians, whose farm product was mainly staple crops, suffered from the absence of tariffs imposed on imported goods. When Palestine became the dumping ground for such food Economic grievances products the Palestinian landowners, unable to compete with the cheaper world prices, were forced into bankruptcy. Many farm workers had to abandon their jobs and seek employment in the local towns or neighbouring countries, and many farm owners had to sell their land. The figures provided by Rachid Khalidi, a Palestinian-American historian of the Middle Bast, underline the gap between the two communities. Between 1922 and 1947, the annual growth rate of the Jewish sector of the economy was 13.2 per cent, while that of the Arab was 6.5 per cent. Per capita, these figures were 4.8 per cent and 3.6 per cent respectively. Capital invested in Arab industrial establishments was two million pounds as opposed to 12.1 million pounds in Jewish industrial establishments. By 1936, Jewish individuals earned 2.6 times as much as Arabs. An official census in 1937 indicated that an average Jewish worker received 145 per cent more in wages than his Palestinian Arab counterpart. For women in the textile industry the difference was 433 per cent. By July 1937 the real wages of the average Palestinian Arab worker decreased by ten per cent while those of a Jewish worker rose by the same amount. This situation only increased the resentment of the Palestinians towards the Jewish settlers. The Jewish community was also more proactive on the social and cultural level. In 1919 they established a centralized Hebrew school system. By 1925 there were two Hebrew universities: the Itchnion University founded in 1924 and the Hebrew University founded in 1925. Consequently, figures taken in 1932 showed a wide gap in the literacy rates of the two communities: whereas the Jewish literacy rates stood at 86 per cent, it was only 22 per cent for the Palestinian Arabs. I. ti jto The Great Arab Revolt 1936-9 -N The revolt was triggered off by the murder of two Jews on 15 April 1936, which immediately incited retaliation with the murder of two Arabs. Within a few days thousands were mobilized; there were mass demonstrations and mob attacks against each community as well as guerrilla attacks directed against British installations. The 1936-9 revolt was different to prior revolts in the following ways. The Palestinians were far more united than on prior occasions. The 1936 Arab revolt A key position at the jut roads, with a detachment of steel-helmeted B Palestinian guards. The Arab Higher Committee, formed soon after the beginning of the revolt, rallied important Palestinian families under the chairmanship of the Mufti of Jerusalem, Amin al Husseini. The committee provided the revolt with the leadership and organization that had been lacking on previous occasions. This meant that the revolt could be sustained for a longer period of time and involved more Arabs than before. At its peak in 1938 over 10,000 people were involved in the revolt. The Arabs had a dear set of demands. These were: 4, An end to Jewish immigration. ▪ An end to transfers of land to Jewish owners. • A representative government based on democratic rules. This last demand was new In 1922 the Arabs had refused participation in a legislative body. The change of position was because they now felt empowered through their struggle to bring about change democratically. There was a significant change of tactic in the revolt. Whereas previously the attacks were more spontaneous and reflected sheer anger, this time they were better organized and aimed at more long-term objectives. Crops were destroyed, pipelines sabotaged, roads mined, transportation disrupted. The Arab Higher Committee called for the non-payment of taxes as well as a general strike. The long-term objective was to bring everyday life to a standstill through civil disobedience and sustained violence. The general strike lasted from April to October 1936. The revolt was met with an escalation of violence on the part of the Jewish settlers. A group of more militant settlers split from the Haganah to form the Irgun. Irgun stood for the national military organization in the land of Israel". Its ideology, as expressed in the following statement, was further proof of the irreconcilability of the two communities: "Every Jew had the right to enter Palestine; only active retaliation would deter the Arabs and the British; only Jewish armed force would ensure the Jewish state."

Treaty of Vereeniging

Signed in May 1902 Compensation to Boer farmers for property losses The two Boer republics incorporated into the British Empire as colonies Promise of self-government "The question of granting the franchise to natives ... would not be decided until after the introduction of self-government" Some African farmers had regained some of their lost land due to the wartime conditions → white farmers and mine owners complained about insufficient labor right after the war Milner's goal with the war had been to create "... a self-governing white Community, supported by well-treated and justly-governed black labour from Cape Town to Zambesi." (Thompson 144) → Afrikaner landowners restored; African tenants "transformed into wage laborers" (Worden 36) → in the towns, pass laws were tightened, wages cut, force use to retain workers, Chinese laborers brought in → gold-mining profitable, abuse of the African worker Britain annexed the Transvaal and (as it was now known) the Orange River Colonies. The colonies of Natal, Cape Colony, Transvaal and the Orange River Colonies, as well as the protectorates of Basutoland (Lesotho), Bechuanaland (Botswana) and Swaziland were not united, but all were under the ultimate authority of the British High Commissioner, Lord Milner. The British had gone to war to secure British pre-eminence in South Africa, and did not abrogate property rights and the legal supremacy of whites of the country's black majority. Blacks were disarmed (compensated for their guns), and landowners in the Transvaal and Orange River Colonies regained their farms. The British did try to settle English South African farmers in the former republics, but to little effect. Land control and Labour issues: Land owning companies in the north of the republics rented to Africans on a share cropping basis. African farms were often the most productive. Plenty of money to made selling to the growing gold towns in Transvaal. Independent, productive African farms in Natal and eastern Cape Colony. Some of these farmers had also converted to Christianity. So, in the years after the war 'increasing numbers of Africans [could] avoid working for whites' (Ross) Natal - introduced a poll tax to get Africans back into the formal labour market. Led to the Bambatha Rebellion (1906). Easily crushed. Labour shortage also affected the gold mines of Witwatersrand. After the war an influx of Afrikaners to Johannesburg might have changed the labour market but... White wages higher than black White workers could exert political pressure Racial hierarchy would not survive the sight of whites enduring the same hardships as blacks. Solution: 60,000 indentured labourers from China were brought in Political Issues: The British had promised Transvaal some type of representative assembly in a few years. Milner concerned that without sufficient British immigration to Transvaal this wouldn't happen. But immigrants hard to come by - depression after the war, and labour issues in the mines would not be solved by white immigration. Emergence of Het Volk (led by Louis Botha and Jan Smuts Boer war heroes) - a populist Afrikaner political party. 1907 Transvaal election. Het Volk success - a defeat the British imperialist programme. Labour issues at the centre of Het Volk's campaign (repatriate the Chinese).

Policies of Smuts and Hertzog (1910-1948); discrimination and protest

The "racial question" was about Boer vs. British; the "native policy" was about the Africans The first election in South Africa, 1910, was won by the South African Party; a united Afrikaner party opposed by the Unionist Party, a pro-British conservative party Hertzog split from the South African Party in 1914 and established the National Party, committed to the Afrikaners' interests (as opposed to the British) The dividing line was pro- or anti-British 'One-Stream' Botha or 'Two-Stream' Hertzog Botha was faced with the problem of what to do with General J B M Hertzog, a controversial but influential figure among the Afrikaners, whom Free Staters especially, regarded as their own spokesman. Botha tried to fob him off by offering him a judgeship instead of a cabinet post but Hertzog turned it down. Botha was torn, and believing that Afrikaner leaders in his government might accommodate Afrikaner interests, he reluctantly appointed Hertzog minister of Justice and Native Affairs. This alienated many English-speakers, particularly when Hertzog delivered a number of speeches stressing that South African interests should come before those of Empire and that a 'two-stream' policy should be followed regarding Dutch and English-speaking white South Africans. Botha agreed that South Africa came first, but he disapproved of Hertzog's speeches on these issues for being tactless and inappropriate political wrangling. Minister of Commerce Colonel G Leuchars resigned in protest over Hertzog's speeches and Hertzogism divided Botha's party. English-speakers were against the bilingualism clause in the Civil Service and Pensions Bill presented before Parliament in April 1912. Minister of Finance H C Hull and Minister of Railways J W Sauer clashed on overlapping railway and financial matters and Hull resigned. Botha then dissolved his cabinet and excluded Hertzog and Leuchars. By 1913, the Afrikaner people were completely divided and nationalism carried its own momentum. The National Party was founded in 1914 with Hertzog, as leader, defining a 'two stream policy' -two nationalities flowing in parallel channels of cultural and national development - in contradiction of Botha's avowed 'one stream' policy to merge the two races into one people, the object of union. Rand Rebellion 1922 he Rand Rebellion (or Rand Revolt, or Second Rand Revolt) was an armed uprising of white miners in the Witwatersrand region of South Africa, in March 1922. Jimmy Green, a prominent politician in the Labour Party, was one of the leaders of the strike. Following a drop in the world price of gold from 130 shillings (£6 10s) a fine troy ounce in 1919 to 95s/oz (£4 15s) in December 1921, the companies tried to cut their operating costs by decreasing wages, and by weakening the colour bar to enable the promotion of cheaper black miners to skilled and supervisory positions.[2] The rebellion started as a strike by white mineworkers on 28 December 1921 and shortly thereafter, it became an open rebellion against the state. Subsequently the workers, who had armed themselves, took over the cities of Benoni and Brakpan, and the Johannesburg suburbs of Fordsburg and Jeppe. The young Communist Party of South Africa (CPSA) took an active part in the uprising on grounds of class struggle while opposing racist aspects of the strike,[3] as did the syndicalists.The racist aspect was typified by the slogan; "Workers of the world, unite and fight for a white South Africa!" and by several pogroms against blacks.[4] Several communists and syndicalists, the latter including the strike leaders Percy Fisher and Harry Spendiff, were killed as the rebellion was quelled by state forces.[5] The rebellion was eventually crushed by "considerable military firepower and at the cost of over 200 lives".[6] Prime Minister Jan Smuts crushed the rebellion with 20,000 troops, artillery, tanks, and bomber aircraft. By this time the rebels had dug trenches across Fordsburg Square and the air force tried to bomb but missed and hit a local church. However, the army's bombardment finally overcame them.[7] Smuts caused a political backlash and he lost the following elections in 1924 to a coalition of the National and Labour parties. They introduced the Industrial Conciliation Act 1924, Wage Act 1925 and Mines and Works Amendment Act 1926, which recognised white trade unions and reinforced the colour bar.[8]Under instruction from the Comintern, the CPSA reversed its attitude toward the white working class and adopted a new 'Native Republic' policy.[9][10]

The Aftermath of the 1967 War

The Arab defeat was costly in both material and psychological terms Each of the three Arab belligerents surrendered territory to the Israelis Egypt was deprived of the revenues from the Sinai oil fields and the Suez Canal, which remained closed to shipping from 1967 to 1975 To add to the humiliation, Egypt was forced to make up these lost revenues by accepting subsidies from Saudi and Kuwait, monarchies Nasser had roundly criticized in the recent past Jordan not only lost the West Bank, its most productive agricultural region, but also the tourist sites of Jerusalem and Bethlehem The Golan Heights wasn't a major economic loss for Syria, but Israel's occupation of them placed the Israeli forces within easy striking distance of Damascus The armed forces of the Arab states were decimated Egypt lost 12,000 men and 80% of its air force and armour, Syrian losses were 2,500 killed, and the Jordanian army was temporarily put out of action as a fighting unit Though the war lasted 6 days, it created another tragic Arab refugee situation and a complex demographic dilemma for Israel Jordan, in surrendering the West Bank, lost a large portion of its settled Palestinian population, but at the same time it received 300,000 new refugees fleeing the West Bank and Gaza Strip In Syria, about 80,000 inhabitants were uprooted from the Golan Heights, and in Egypt the continued fighting along the Suez Canal reduced the cities of the canal zone to ruins and forced the evacuation of their inhabitants to other areas of the country Israel, with the capture of East Jerusalem, the West Bank, Gaza Strip, Sinai and the Golan Heights, suddenly found itself administering a new Arab population of 1.5 million people It raised important questions about the character of the Israeli state in terms of its religious composition as well as its democratic traditions Another aspect was its revelation of the disparity in the military capabilities of the Arab and Israeli armed forces The speed and totality of the Israeli victory imparted to the Israeli military am aura of invincibility Daring young generals like Ariel Sharon became national heroes, and the almost perfect performance of all the components of the Israeli armed forces made them an object of study by envious military organizations throughout the world The marked superiority of the Israelis gave them a certain arrogance and removed any urgency for compromise and negotiation in the wake of their sweeping victory The Arab armed forces, especially those of Egypt, were made to appear incompetent In the aftermath, investigations were brought to fight a level of corruption and mismanagement in the Egyptian military that disgraced the entire Nasser regime The psychological shock at the apparent hollowness of the new Arab regimes, perhaps, had the most profound effect of the world The 1967 debacle tarnished the reputations of the military regimes that came to power in the 1950s with their programmes of social reform and their promises of strength through Arab unity By June 11, 1967, the new regimes seemed every bit as corrupt, dysfunctional and inept as their predecessors Arifs Iraqi regime fell to a Ba'thist coup in July 1968; the Syrian regime survived fora time, but in November 1970, it was also overthrown, and Hafiz al-Asad began his long rule in Damascus Nasser somehow managed to retain his authority and a large measure of his personal popularity during the bitter, soul-searching aftermath of the war The solidarity of the officercorps on which the regime was built collapsed in the wake of the purges, attempted takeovers and the arrest and suicide of Nasser's longtime confidant and commander in chief of the armed forces in June 1967, Field Marshal Aid al-Hakim Amr As the result of an extensive Soviet effort, Egypt's air force and armor were restored to their prewar levels by the end of 1967 At the same time, the Soviets increased their military mission to several thousand advisers, making Egypt completely dependent on the USSR font military survival The peace that usually follows wars didn't come to the Middle East after 1967 Increased Palestinian guerrilla activity in Jordan me with Israeli retaliation in force On the Suez Canal front, sporadic artillery exchanges erupted into full-scale combat in 1969 when Nasser, in an attempt to salvage Egyptian pride and to determine if the country's ability to fight wasn't destroyed, launched what he called a war of attrition It consisted of heavy artillery shelling of Israeli positions, to which the Israelis responded with barrages of their own, reducing the Suez Canal cities to ruins By 1970, the war of attrition had escalated to the point where Israel was launching more than 150 air strikes a day, sometimes against targets deep within Egypt The problem with would-be peacemakers was that the Arab states wouldn't negotiate from a position of weakness, and Israel saw no need to make concessions from its position of strength A basic framework for regional peace was put forth in the famous Resolution 242 adopted by the UN Security Council on November 22, 1967 The resolution asserted the inadmissibility for war to gain territory and called fora just and lasting peace based on the withdrawal of Israeli forces from territories occupied in the June War and the acknowledgment of the right of every state in the area to We in peace within secure and recognized boundaries Though Egypt, Jordan and Israel endorsed Resolution 242, Syria and the Palestinian organizations rejected it Since the document was so ambiguous and open-ended, even the accepting parties interpreted it quite differently, making the resolution fail to provide a consensual basis for a peace settlement Secretary of State William Rogers of the US managed to put together a peace plan that Egypt, Jordan and Israel supported The plan included provision fora 90-day cease-fire that went into effect in July 1970 Though the cease-fire was renewed several times and was successful in bringing an end to the war of attrition, the US couldn't convince Egypt to sign a peace agreement with Israel nor persuade Israel to withdraw from occupying Egyptian territory Another significant result of the June War was the impetus it gave to the rise of Palestinian military and political organizations In September 1970, clashes in Jordan between Palestinians and the Jordanian army prompted Nasser to offer his personal mediation of the crisis An Arab summit meeting convened in Cairo and worked out a cease-fire that was acceptable to the Palestinians and King Husayn On September 28, the day after the conference concluded, Nasser, who had been involved in round-the-clock negotiations, died of a heart attack Despite of the blows to his prestige, Nasser's death was greeted with outpourings of genuine grief and shock

National Party: Verwoerd and Grand Apartheid: the Bantustan system

The Minister of Native Affairs: Dr. Hendrik Verwoerd (1950 - 1958). "The architect of apartheid" Verwoerd had had a career as a psychologist and philosopher and had helped revive the NP in Transvaal, edited a newspaper. 1948 he was appointed to the Senate, and in 1950 made Minister of Native Affairs. Verwoerd attempted to solve the problems inherent in the demands of apartheid through the Urban Labour Preference Policy. Three main drives to this policy: No Africans could come to work in a town until all those there had been absorbed by the labour market. Urban Space - in some towns Africans had managed to acquire and hold on to landed property, and suburbs had been created. Most notable was Sophiatown, NW of Johannesburg. Sophiatown was 'not a slum' and the 'kernel of Johannesburg's black cultural life' (Ross 119) and the SACP was strong there. Sophiatown was razed (1956) and residents moved to Medaowlands, part of Soweto township. (N.B: Many of SA's most famous music exiles like Miriam Makeba, Hugh Masekela and Abdullah Ibrahim (aka Dollar Brand) emerged from the Sophiatown music scene) Black education - before 1948 black education had been in the hands of missions. A few good schools including the University of Fort Hare, but only a miniscule proportion of Africans stood any chance of going to university. In 1949 only 30% of African children aged between 7 and 16 attended school. In 1953 Bantu Education Act: low quality education, but more students did go to school acquiring some degree of numeracy and literacy Urban issues for blacks: Group Areas Act (1950) forced people who lived in towns and cities to move to townships. Asian and Coloured townships were closer to the cities than African townships. Small 2/3 homes, often without electricity, water, sewage Soweto: South West Township, outside of Johannesburg became one of the largest African townships Commutes of 2/3 hours from township to city job. Rural issues for Africans: Overcrowding, overgrazing, but actually agricultural production of the Reserves remained steady (it was declining in per capita terms, as the populations of the Reserves increased) Government officials wanted to concentrate populations in villages and redistribute land to farmers Government realised that white only cities would require the Reserves to have viable economies. They also hoped to diffuse African nationalism by fostering loyalty to tribal groups and attempted to impose nationalities on mostly unwilling Africans. 'Natives' now renamed 'Bantu'. Tribal chiefs were put on the government payroll (losing their credibility) and had to carry out orders or risk dismissal Rural uprisings from 1950 onwards, most dramatic in Pondoland (Transkei), 1960. Ross points out, in the early years, the Reserves were neglected by the ANC as potential sources for political activism. (p. 126) Energies focused on SA's cities, and white SACP members little experience of SA's countryside. (Rural successes of China not yet absorbed, Cuba yet to come.) Early Years Response: ANC: reinvigorated by the founding of the Youth League in 1944 -key figures: lawyers Oliver Tambo and Nelson Mandela, trade unionist Walter Sisulu. Since 1952 led by Albert Luthuli SACP: both black and white members who were also members of SAIC and APO. Inspiration of Gandhi Winter 1952 an ANC with SAIC organised a national defiance campaign against the Abolition of Passes Act. Nelson Mandela (in Transvaal) was organiser in chief Intended to fill courts and prisons with people arrested for not carrying passes In 5 months, over 8000 offenders were imprisoned impact varied according to where in the country it was happening This movement made "ANC a mass movement commanding wide spread popular support" (Brown et al. 13) but Ross says there was still a challenge for ANC: conflict was spatially uneven, and people tended to join based on local issues. (e.g: the destruction of Sophiatown led to a spike in activity around Johannesburg in 1956) 1953 general election - a frightened white population voted in larger numbers of the NP. Control of the media: Eliminate opposition statements Prevent liberal and socialist ideas from abroad Preserve moral purity Children's book Black Beauty banned, radio controlled and no TV service established (fear of imported shows). But SA could not be totally sealed off. Pop music came in from Mozambique radio stations. Development of the Homelands concept: Non-whites (except Indians or Coloureds) belonged to a group that had their own homeland - and could develop according to their tradition. Fragmented and except for Transkei not contiguous. Administrations were set up, elections held and some of the Bantustans did become independent - but none were recognised by any country other than SA and all depended on SA for budget and security. 1954 Tomlinson Report - how to make reserves viable - huge cost, would need to be expanded, and jobs would need to be created nearby. Rejected by Verwoerd due to expense. So...every African was thought of, not as a South African, but as a citizen of some separate country within its borders - therefore they could be deported. Beck (p.145): "According to Verwoerd, there could be no racial discrimination against Africans in South Africa because there were no African citizens; African rights in white South Africa were not restricted because of race but because they were foreigners." With the exception amaZulu people in the KwaZulu Bantustan, the idea of different national consciousness for Africans did not take off. NP carefully managed elections to ensure that they always won. The UP was represented and went along with most apartheid legislation. But one seat was held by the Progressive Party, and between 1961and 1974 Helen Suzman was the sole anti-apartheid voice in Parliament. 1961 Referendum: South Africa became a Republic and left the Commonwealth.

National Party: nature and impact of apartheid policies of Malan

The National Party's early years in power: To ensure it remained in power: Whites in the mandated territory of South West Africa (today Namibia) were enfranchised, giving the NP 6 extra seats in parliament. Began the long and messy process of removing coloureds from the roll in the Cape Province - would finally be achieved by Strijdom in 1956. Continued gerrymandering to maintain the rural bias towards constituency weighting. Apartheid meant (and this wasn't clear at the time, according to Ross): Recognition and separation of specific groups of people NP ideology emphasised the importance of ethnicity - all nations of SA God-created entities, and these ethnicities had to preserved in all their purity 1949 Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act Whites and members of other racial groups could not marry. 1950 Group Areas Act Zoned the country, and about 3.5 million people (10% of the population) were living in the wrong place. Mostly blacks living in white areas and were forced to move to Bantustans and commute 2-3 hours to work, pay for rent and water and high rates. This act also applied to Indians and Coloureds, even though Indians could not be said to have 'homelands' in SA. Whites held the best land and 86% of the total land area. 1950 Immorality Act Made heterosexual intercourse illegal across the colour line 1950 Population Registration Act Assigned every South African to one of the national categories - and would 'freeze' these categories for all time given the previous laws. Families broken up if relatives to assigned to different categories. People got reclassified based on appearance as well as heritage. Asians were classified as coloured. Preventing communication between the different groups became a major element of apartheid. 1950 Suppression of Communism Act Cold War context - as well as the ideas of equality in communist ideology. Communist Party of South Africa (CPSA) made illegal...in 1953 the South African Communist Party (SACP) would form. In practice the government could ban all its opponents (not just communists) from all forms of political activity. It created the concept of a banned person, as well as organisations. 1951 Bantu Authorities Act Gave tribal leaders authority in the homelands - a step towards segregating Africans onto the homelands. 1951 Separate Representation of Voters Act Removed the right of Coloured voters in the Cape Province to vote in ordinary constituency elections, and allowed them to instead elect four MPs in segregated elections. 1952 Native Laws Amendment Act and Abolition of Passes Act Part of the Urban Labour Preference Policy: no Africans could come to work in a town until all those there had been absorbed by the labour market. Abolition of Passes Act*: required Africans to carry a reference book (a pass by any other name) which helped their employment and residence rights. Native Laws Amendment: accepted some Africans were now urbanized and under Section 10, granted permanent residence rights to some Africans who met particular conditions. (Ross p122: Africans with Section 10 rights were seen as more politicized and less pliable, so many employers still relied on migrants for unskilled tasks) 1953 Separate Amenities Act Segregated public facilities - train cars, park benches 1953 Public Safety Act empowered the government to declare stringent states of emergency and increased penalties for protesting against or supporting the repeal of a law 1953 Bantu Education Act African education under control of the state, not the missions. Learn skills needed for the white run economy. But many more children did go to school. Afrikaans was to be used in half the classes. 1953 Native Labour Act Made African strike action illegal 1953 Criminal Law Amendment Act In response to the 1952 Pass Laws defiance campaign: high fines, flogging for violation of any law in protest against the government. Aimed to make mass noncompliance strategy of the defiance campaign costly for future violators. 1954 Native Urban Areas Act limited the category of blacks who had the right to permanent residence in urban areas Indians: Indian community about 200,000 mostly in Natal and southern Transvaal Free descendants of indentured labourers (sugar plantations), or traders and business people. Mostly Hindu and significant class of Muslim merchants - some quite wealthy Mohandas Gandhi organised a protest over Indian voting rights in Natal 1894 and remained a major voice in South African politics. 1907 Gandhi organised protests against pass laws - the start of satyagraha (truth force) active, non-violent resistance. 1913 Gandhi success resistance to a tax on formerly indentured labourers Gandhi returned to India in 1914, and the South African Indian Congress (SAIC founded 1923) carried on. Little contact with African or Coloured communities. Coloureds: Diverse, about 500,000 mainly living in Cape province. Mostly poor, many illiterate. With industrialisation in the north, most Coloured worked on farms or at urban menial jobs African People's Organisation (APO) set up from 1905 to represented Coloured interests Main concern for APO was to protect the limited civil and franchise rights Coloureds had in Cape province, which were threatened after the Union of SA (1910) Beck 124: "Many Coloureds felt a closer affinity to whites than to Africans" Perspectives: Richard van der Ross (quoted in Scher, Pretorius p 279): "...they [the coloureds] did little else other than protest - they did not resort to action." Africans: About 4 million, mostly rural, but with a migration to urban areas in search of employment African newspapers, and an African delegation had travelled to London in 1909 to protest the racist provisions of the SA Act. 1912 South African Native National Congress formed - later the African National Congress (ANC). Many founders had been educated at mission schools or in Europe/USA, and after 1915 to South African Native College in eastern Cape. First President of ANC: John Dube, educated in USA and influenced by ideas of Booker T. Washington - individual advancement through education. ANC called for: removal of the colour bar and African representation, mutual help and end to tribal feuds Beck 125: "The delegates were products of Western education and believed white South African Christians would respond humanely to their attempts to bring about change" Protested 1913 Natives' Land Act - no success 1919 Transvaal ANC organised strike brutally repressed - the ANC stopped sanctioning violent activity and went back to petitions as protest 1920s a women's passbook protest in Transvaal was successful

PLO

The PLO was founded in 1964 under the auspices of the Arab League. Its creation represented an attempt by the Arab states to restrict Palestinian resistance activity and to prevent the Palestinian movement from operating independently. The PLO was based in Cairo, where it was closely scrutinized by Nasser's security agencies. The Arab governments selected Ahmad Shuqayri, a lawyer from one of Palestine's established notable families, to be chairman of the organization. The majority of the members of the PLO's World War II to the 1970s executive council were, like Shuqayri, from the traditional Palestinian notability; they were individuals whose lives as exiles were far removed from the experiences of the refugee camps. PLO comes 1970 (King Hussein kicked them out from Syria) leave 1982 (got kicked out by Israel) Aftermath of Black September (1970): PLO base moved to Southern Lebanon. 1978: Israel invaded Southern Lebanon: 'Operation Litani' in revenge for Palestinian attacks (the Coastal Road Massacre March 1978), aim to take control of south Lebanon and destroy the PLO bases there. About 1100 Palestinians and Lebanese died, including 75 who were in a mosque destroyed by an air strike. Most of those who died were civilians, as Arafat had ordered the PLO fighters to move north. world opinion forced a staged withdrawal. Several hundred thousand Shi'a villagers forced to flee (north) PLO needed Lebanon as no other country neighbouring Israel would accommodate their bases (Syria? Challenge of the topography of the Golan Heights). Reminder: Israel had returned the Sinai to Egypt by the spring of 1982 - a much more secure southern border. Israeli objectives: - Expel the PLO from Lebanon - Instal Bachir Gemayel (leader of the Christian Phalange) as President of Lebanon - Re-establish a Maronite Christian supremacy in Lebanon 6 June 1982 Israel invaded Lebanon, reached the outskirts of Beirut 13 June (see Map in Ochsenwald p. 635). Huge air/land battle between Israel and Syria. Beirut divided by the 'green line': Muslim west, Christian east. Muslims besieged by Israeli troops 21 August PLO started to evacuate West Beirut and a multi-national force guaranteed security Lebanon's Neighbourhood: PLO - The PLO used Southern Lebanon as a base 1970-1982 - Israel invaded Lebanon in 1982 and evicted the PLO - Increase in Palestinian refugees Presence of PLO after 1970 - southern Lebanon became a base for attacks on Israel and Israel retaliated (a challenge to Lebanese sovereignty) 1988 PLO accepts Res. 242 Oslo Accords, September 1992 - Two State Solution - Israel recognized the PLO as the sole legitimate representative of the Palestinian people. For its part the PLO once again recognized Israel's right to exist in peace and security

Egypt after the First World War: Nationalism

The rise of Egyptian nationalism at the turn of the twentieth century was associated with an urbanized, anti-colonial, educated elite which was deter-mined to end Britain's hold over the largest country in the region. During the First World War London proclaimed Egypt a British protectorate and the country was subordinated to British strategic, military and political interests. Opposition among Egyptians to the British centred on mobilizing opinion and developing strategies to oust the British from their country. Egyptian consciousness-raising centred on the belief in the unity of the Arab people in the face of damaging foreign interference. The goal of the national move-ment was an end to British control, independence and self-determination. This vision was articulated by the leaders of a new political group led by prominent Egyptians and named the Wafd. The British basically refused to legitimate the call for independence and instead pursued policies of suppres-sion. This refusal to allow greater political freedom for Egyptians only served to intensify hostility towards them in the aftermath of the war. From 1918 to 1922 Egyptian opposition increased, through Arab nationalist and pan-Islamic political platforms. Pressure was so great that eventually the British were forced to concede some ground for fear of full-scale national revolt. In February 1922 the protectorate was terminated and the British decreed that Egypt was a 'constitutional monarchy'. Technical independence may well have been declared, but Britain still remained firmly in control. This technical and titular Egyptian head of state did not satisfy nationalist demands. While many differences existed within Egyptian society, for example between the peasant population and land-owning classes, all were agreed on one thing - that Britain should relinquish its political power over the country and let the Egyptians rule. Negotiations did take place, but by and large the position on key issues changed little and British influence remained significant. A new Anglo-Egyptian Treaty signed in 1936 shored up Britain's interests. The Second World War proved a turning point in Anglo-Egyptian relations. Britain used the war situation to impose its security apparatus over the Egyptians, and military rule was supported by press censorship, suspension of the Egyptian legislature and government as well as the further imposition of martial law. All this took place in a country acting as an important base and ally for the British. In post-war Egypt the nationalists and their Islamic counterparts took advantage of the relaxation of various war restrictions to push their agenda into the public arena. Indeed, during the period from 1945 to 1950, mass-based demands for independence from the British were articulated throughout the country, ultimately making British rule increasingly untenable. The movement for independence in Egypt was difficult to withstand, and public protest and demonstration became an almost daily occurrence. Although Britain extended its coercive powers, it was compelled to enter into talks with Egyptian nationalists to determine the country's future. By 1951, however, the talks had stalled and the Egyptians broke the treaty with Britain. Public demonstrations and disorder became the rule of the day, as ordinary Egyptians took to the streets in cities and towns throughout the country. By early 1952 even the Egyptian police, who were employed by the British, had turned against their overlords and, once again, the British announced martial law across the whole country. In July 1952 a military coup d'etat led by Gamal Abdel Nasser took place. King Farouk abdicated, the constitution of 1923 was abolished, political parties were dis-solved and banned. A new political era was born and British days were numbered. Gamal Abdel Nasser, the Egyptian nationalist leader, ranks as one of the most significant political figures in the Middle East in the twentieth century. His sustained vision of a united Arab world was rapidly translated into popu-list support which spread throughout the region in the 1950s and 1960s. For better or for worse, Nasser and his supporters shaped the future of Arab nationalism both within the region and in the international arena. Indeed, the ideology of nationalism which became associated with this era became known as Nasserism. It was largely an expression of the marriage between revolutionary socialism and pan-Arabism on Egyptian, or rather. Nasser's terms. The Suez Crisis of 1956, despite the military defeat of Egypt, projected Nasser's vision of pan-Arab unity and nationalism throughout the region and encouraged him to promote further his agenda for Arab unity. It can be asserted that from this point 'Nasser himself made Arab nationalism his personal message. especially in the sense that he was its natural leader and Egypt the nucleus state of the Arab world' (Hopwood, 1985. p. 98). The reality of promoting the Egyptian state as the 'nucleus' of the pan-Arab model was somewhat different from the ideas developed by Nasser and his supporters. While it is true that Nasser did enjoy widespread mass and popular Arab support, the same could not be said of levels of support for Nasser's pan-Arab ideals among the political elite and leaders of a variety of Arab states. Indeed, while on one hand Nasser promoted unity in practice, on the other his unwillingness to compromise and his quest for Egyptian supremacy in any regionally integrated order created new tensions and fissures between the leaders of Arab states, which would ultimately kill the unity dream from within and leave the Arabs, post-1967, in a state of disarray. Nevertheless, by the mid-1960s even the leaders of the conservative Arab regimes found it increasingly difficult to resist the tide of change which Nasser appeared to have inaugurated within the region. Pressure and populist sentiment was so great that conservative regimes whose governing ideology represented the antithesis of Nasserism were goaded and compelled into siding with Nasser in his decision to wage war against Israel in the name of the Palestinians. The greatest illusion created by Nasser on the eve of the Arab war against Israel in June 1967 was the myth of Arab unity in the face of a common enemy - Israel. In reality, there was no sense of unity among the Arab states of Egypt, Jordan and Syria which would lead the attack against Israel. Nasser, for example, taunted and goaded Jordan into the war and again used the notion of Arab unity to legitimate his aggressive stance vis-a-vis other Arab states. The defeat became Nasser's defeat, and the illusion of unity which had prevailed in the region was shattered for ever. While Nasserist movements are still present in the regional landscape of politics, the 1967 watershed effectively ended the dream associated with Nasser's rhetoric. Pan-Arab political integration would never deliver the Palestinians from Israeli rule, nor act as a bulwark against superpower rivalry in the region. Arabness, post-Nasser, would be reconstituted according to a different agenda.

Ataturk and the Turkish Republic: aims and policies

The Six Arrows: Reformism Reformism summed up the need to revolutionize Turkey and the Thrkish way of life according to the model conceived by Mustafa Kemal. This principle symbolized Kemalism because its aim was to bring about slate-controlled, orderly change and it demanded the willing and active participation of the people. Kemalism was a paternalistic ideology. Atatiirk, as the father of the Turks, prescribed remedies, which he thought would better the life of the Turks. Just like a father, he was at times disappointed when his flock showed little appreciation. The reforms had two aspects, a cultural and a political one. Culturally, Kemalism aimed to bring 'flukey close to the Western European nations. For Mustafa Kemal the model of the Western cations was the model for progress. Therefore, the doser the Turkish People came to resemble their European neighbours, the better their fives would be. Politically, the reforms aimed to strengthen the state through establishing a state ideology that united the citizens of 'turkey under a uniform and centralized model. Among the changes were strict laws restricting people's clothing. Men were no longer allowed to wear the traditional headgear, the Fez or the turban and women were strongly discouraged from wearing the veil. Instead the people were encouraged to dress in the Western European style, like the leader himself. Culturally, this had the effect of reducing the outward differences between a Turk and a Western European. Kemal wanted the word 'Mirk- to represent a new modern man as opposed to an outdated and exotic person. Politically, it served the purpose of eliminating regional and ethnic-al differences. The Kurds, for example, were strongly discouraged to dress in their traditional clothes. This helped introduce a mono-ethnic, modern Turkish identity for all the people. In 1926 The European calendar replaced the Islamic lunar calendar. Sundays replaced the Friday as the day of rest. With this reform, the Turkish national identity was shifting Westward and the break with the past was further underlined. In 1928 a new Turkish alphabet using Latin letters replaced the Ottoman alphabet which was written from right to left and used Arabic letters. At the same time schools became free and compulsory. Between 1923 and 1940 the number of schools doubled; the number of teachers increased by 133 per cent and the number of students by 300 per cent. Culturally the ability to write in a similar style as the Western European helped bridge the gap between the Turk and the Western European. Politically, the inability to read the Ottoman script ended the new generation's relationship with the past. It would therefore be a dean start for Modem Turkey. Furthermore the language of the Qur'an is also in Arabic letters, and even though the holy book was translated into Turkish, for the many devout Muslims, it needs to be read in the original language. The new generation, brought up on the new alphabet, would have difficulty reading the Qur'an in Arabic. The new alphabet therefore had the effect of secularizing the Kemalist youth. In 1924 the Turkish Women's Union was formed to promote women's rights. In 1930 women were given the right to vote in municipal elections. In 1934 they obtained the right to vote in national elections and present themselves as candidates. The union was disbanded in 1935 because it was stated that with the right to vote, parity had been achieved. Women were also encouraged to pursue their education and enter public life. Mustafa Kemal set a personal example: his adopted daughter, Sabiha Gokcen, (1913-2001), became Thrkey's first female combat pilot. These measures had the dear cultural objective of modernizing the Turkish woman and politically they distinguished Kemalist Turkey from the Ottoman era. Republicanism On 29 October 1923, following the signing of the Treaty of Lausanne, Turkey was prodaimed a Republic with Mustafa Kemal as its first president. Symbolically, in order to break with the past, Mustafa Kemal changed the seat of the government. The capital of the country moved from Istanbul to Ankara. In 1924 a new constitution was passed which confirmed the move from a hereditary constitutional monarchy to a republic. According to the 1924 constitution, sovereignty lay with the people, who elected a parliament, the Grand National Assembly, which then elected the president, who chose the prime minister. Though a Republic, civil liberties were severely restricted under Kemalism. Prom 1925 a one-party system—the Republican People's Party (RPP)—was established and all opposition came under severe attack. A law called The Law of the Maintenance of Order, was introduced in March 1925 with an aim to crush the Kurdish rebellion (see below), but was then used extensively to rid the Kemalists of all form of dissent. This law remained in force until 1929. Kemal was conscious of the danger of opposition. That is why even within the Republican People's Party he introduced strict discipline. Discussions were only allowed in closed meetings and once the decision was taken, all members were bound by that decision. Consequently the state and the party were often indistinguishable. Discussions in the National Assembly were rare and the votes were often dictated by the party decision. Elections were held every four years, but the candidates were presented by the party. In 1930 for a few months, a new party, the Free Republican Party, was given the go-ahead to be formed. This was with Mustafa Kemal's total approval. In the October 1930 local elections, the new party obtained 30 of the 502 local councils. Their success was enough to bring about its closure. In November 1930, the Free Republican Party was forced to close down. Liberty of the press was severely restricted. In 1931 a new Press Law was adopted which gave the government the right to dose down any newspaper that published anything contradicting the 'general policies of the country". Kemalism intended to use the press as a means to spread its message and not to allow any adverse information to be spread. Secularism For Mustafa Kemal Islam represented the past and was a reminder of the Ottoman Empire. One of his first moves was to separate the caliphate (religious authority) from the sultanate (political authority). After the departure from office of Mohammad VI, Abdul Majid, the sultan's cousin, was designated as caliph. Though this post was now void of any political responsibility, it nonetheless had a great deal of potential influence over the Muslim population. On 3 March 1924, the Grand National Assembly passed a law abolishing the caliphate. This put an end to a position of religious authority, which the Ottomans had held for over 400 years. It was an extremely risky move, but it fulfilled the new credo. Politically it completed the break with the Ottomans and culturally it was a major step towards a modern Turkey. To succeed the measures taken under this principle aimed to reduce the influence of Islam in the daily lives of the Turkish people. These measures induded the closure of religious schools, the abolishment of the Turkish Ministry of Religious Endowments (with all its property handed over to the state) and the replacement in 1926 of Islamic courts by civil courts based on the civic codes of such European countries as Switzerland, Italy and Germany. As a consequence, the Islamic jurists lost their authority and gradually fewer people chose to become Islamic jurists. Worship at tombs and shrines was prohibited. Following the translation of the Qur'an into Ilirkish, the call to prayer was read in 11irkish. The family code was changed, banning religious marriages and polygamy. In 1928 the words `official religion of the country is Islam' were barred from the constitution. This of course did not mean that Turkey stopped being a Muslim country or that the Turkish people stopped practising their religion. It succeeded however in reducing the power of the clergy in such a devoutly religious country. Following the model in many Western countries, Kemalism had established a clear separation of religion from the State and religion now belonged to the private sphere. Nationalism § Greek-Turk population exchange § Kurds 1925 rebellion 1925 Hat Law (men were to wear hats with brims) A cultural significance - secular dress, western style Under the title of nationalism came the promotion of Turkish history and culture. In 1925 the Thrkish Historical Society was founded. Its main job was to emphasize Thrkey's pre-Islamic history and show the importance of the Turkish people before their association with Islam. Kemalist ideology also aimed to develop the cult of Mustafa Kemal. This was done through reinterpreting history and emphasizing his role in the nationalist movement. In 1926 Mustafa Kemal's memoirs were published. In his memoirs he depicted himself as the one who led the nationalist movement from the start and presented all former colleagues as incompetent. In a speech in October 1927 he outlined the history of the Turkish national movement and criticized once again many of his former collaborators. This speech was translated into German, French and English and became the official version of the history of Modern Turkey both in Thrkey and outside. While offering the public a one-sided interpretation of history, Kemalism also aimed to make the Turkish people proud of Turkey. Its aim was to make people have faith in and be loyal to a new national identity. After 1934 "History of the Turkish revolution" became a compulsory subject at school. Also in 1934 the title Atatiirk was bestowed upon Mustafa Kemal. In that way he was in some ways inventing the notion of Turkishness through rewriting the past and placing himself as its founder. In the 1982 constitution the principle of nationalism still stands and it is defined as the "material and spiritual well-being of the Republic". Mustafa Atatiirk is also described as "the immortal leader and incomparable national hero". Populism This principle emphasized the common interests of the nation over the interests of a group or a class. Kemalist reforms were benefidal to all and did not limit themselves to a privileged group. Kemalism reached out to the people and spread its ideology beyond the elite. For that purpose the Ministry of Education organised lectures and exhibitions throughout the country to spread nationalist and secularist ideas. This was called the Turkish Hearth Movement. In 1932 these were replaced with People's Homes and People's Rooms, to carry out the same activity. By the end of the Second World War there were 500 People's Homes throughout Turkey. These "homes" served also as recreational centres or sports dubs. They fulfilled both a cultural and a political purpose, spreading Kemalist thinking to reach out to people in their leisure time. Statism Central to the concept of "Reformism/Revolutionism", one of the aims of the Kemalist ideology was to strengthen the state. Under the principle of "Statism/Etatism", centralized economic planning was introduced and the state came to supervise much of the economic sector. Statism gave the state the predominant role in the economic field. It should be underlined that centralized economic planning was not so unusual in the inter-war years. On the one hand, given the state of Turkey immediately after the war, and the massive shortages, the state was the only force that had the ability to redress the situation. On the other hand, with the economic depression of the 1930s many countries, such as the United States and Germany, had also opted for centralized planning. The model taken up by Kemal was in fact a mixture of Roosevelt's New Deal and Hitler's planned economy. Education: While some key universities like the army college and civil service academy moved to Ankara, their functions remained the same Madrassas (Islamic schools) were closed in 1924 Turkification: During the decade 1915 to 1925, the country experienced large population transfers--a substantial movement outward of minority groups and an influx of refugees and immigrants. The first major population shift began in 1915, when the Ottoman government, for a variety of complex and in some instances contradictory reasons, decided to deport an estimated 2 million Armenians from their historical homeland in eastern. The movement of Greeks out of Turkey, which began during the 1912-13 Balkan Wars, climaxed in the 1920s with an internationally sanctioned exchange of population between Turkey and the Balkan states, primarily. In accordance with the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne, Turkey accepted approximately 500,000 Muslims, who were forced to leave their homes in the Balkans, in exchange for nearly 2 million Greeks, who were forced to leave Anatolia. By special arrangement, Greeks living in Istanbul and Turks living in the Greek part of Thrace were exempted from the compulsory exchanges. After 1925 Turkey continued to accept Muslims speaking Turkic languages as immigrants and did not discourage the emigration of members of non-Turkic minorities. More than 90 percent of all immigrants arrived from the Balkan countries. Between 1935 and 1940, for example, approximately 124,000 Bulgarians and Romanians of Turkish origin immigrated to Turkey.... Basically, Turkey's policy on minority rights is outlined in the Lausanne Peace Treaty of 1923. Turkey argues that national minorities are those that are recognized by international treaties. Under the frames of the Lausanne Treaty the definition of minorities was made as 'non-Moslems'and their rights were granted as follows: "The freedoms of living, religious beliefs and migration, The rights of legal and political equality, Using the mother tongue in the courts, opening their own schools or similar institutions, The holding of religious ceremonies". It refused any distinct status for non-Turkish Moslems. Only Greeks, Armenian Christians and Jews were formally acknowledged as minorities. Greeks Since 1924 the status of the Greek minority in Turkey has been ambiguous. Most Turks do not accept the country's Greek citizens as their equals. Beginning in the 1930s, the government encouraged the Greeks to emigrate, and thousands, in particular the educated youth, did so, reducing the Greek population to about 48,000 by 1965.

The Suez Crisis, 1956

The Suez Crisis, 1956 Nasser's repeated claim was that his rule took legitimacy from the support of the people. There was no stage where the support was more genuine and intense than at the time of the Suez Crisis. It brought Nasser's leadership to the brink of disaster, but it ended giving him his greatest triumph and gave him a hero status in Egypt and the admiration of the Arab world. Nasser developed a relatively harmonious relationship with the UK since the 1952 revolution, like the Anglo-Egyptian agreement of 1954 indicated. Nasser was promised US and UK loans for the construction of the Aswan High Dam on the upper Nile, which Nasser steaked his own and Egypt's future. When the Western powers learned Nasser also approached the Soviet bloc countries for aid, they suspended their original offer. Nasser faced political and economic ruin id the Dam wasn't completed so, using the only mean left, he nationalized the Suez Canal The nationalization of the Suez Canal In July 1956, with massive popular acclaim in Egypt, Nasser announced that Egypt was to take over the Canal Company with all of its assets In addition, foreign ships had to pay to pass through the now Egyptian waterway The fees raised by it wouldn't go to the Company shareholders but directly to the Egyptian government to help pay for the Dam's construction Nasser's four motives in seizing the Canal were to: Acquire desperately needed finance Inspire the Egyptian people Impress the Arab world Strike at European neo-colonialism British Prime Minister Anthony Eden began to plan a way to bring Nasser down The French, who were for a long time resentful of Egypt's support of the Arab nationalists in French Algeria, were willing to join Britain in opposing Nasser Eden led to believe the US would at least give at least a moral backing to the Anglo-French attempts to free the Canal, and the US did join Britain and France to put pressure on Egypt to create the Canal Users' Association Nasser refused to budge even though there was the international line-up against him He could do little else since it was a short climbing down and destroying his leadership Britain and France then referred the issue to the UN Security Council It was fruitless since the USSR used its veto to block proposals in the Council to have Egypt condemned internationally The invasion of Egypt, 1956 Eden's failure to get the support from the UN confirmed him to his belief that the only thing that could shift Nasser was force He began secret discussions with the French and the Israelis, who were eager to strike a major attack on Egypt Plans were prepared for a combined military invasion of Egypt The strategy was finalized in mid-October 1956, where the Israelis would attack Egypt across the Sinai After allowing sufficient time for the Israelis to reach the Canal, France and Britain would mount a joint assault on the Canal region from the north, under the pretense of forcing Egypt and Israel to observe a cease-fire On the 29th of October, the Israelis attacked across the Gaza strip; on the 30th of October the Anglo-French ultimatum was delivered and on the following day the two European allies began their invasion of Egypt Nasser didn't fight them since Egypt didn't have a chance of surviving militarily. As it happened, it was indeed world opinion, or at least the opinion of the superpowers, that saved Egypt and Nasser The UN's response The UN called an emergency debate in which the US government, infuriated by Eden's failure to inform them of the intended invasion, led the condemnation of Israel and her two allies Deprived of US backing, Britain used its veto power for the first time to defeat a UN resolution demanding an immediate cease-fire Besides the resentment of not being informed of Britain's intentions, what angered the US was the fear that Eden's actions would allow the USSR to seize the initiative After some days' delay while it dealt with the Hungarian Uprising, the USSR made a dramatic move On the 5th of November, it issued a diplomatic note to Britain, condemning the Anglo-French invasion of Egypt and warning that the USSR was prepared to use nuclear missiles against the cities of the Western invaders It's unlikely they would've done this, but it was one of a number of considerations that combined to break Eden's resolve, namely: The opposition of the US, which feared the tripartite attack would allow the USSR to exploit the situation to gain influence in the Middle East UN condemnation of the action Deep divisions within Britain over it Opposition to it from the majority of members of the British Commonwealth A devastating withdrawal of their British funds by foreign investors, which threatened to leave Britain bankrupt Faced with those factors, Britain accepted the UN demand for disengagement and Israel, France and Britain began withdrawing their forces Benefits for Nasser from the Suez affair If Nasser's decision not to fight had been a gamble, it brought him huge returns Eden's decision to personalize the Suez Crisis had a remarkable unintended result for Nasser With Eden saying that their quarrel was with Nasser and then losing the war, he made Egypt's survival a great personal victory for Nasser Disregarding how close they were to being defeated, the Egyptians hailed their leader as the man who successfully defied Western imperialism and repulsed Zionism Nasser's reputation also soared in the Arab world

Resistance to apartheid: township unrest in the 1980s

Unprecedented Violence: Sharpeville, Sept 1984 - The newly elected African deputy mayor was killed by other Africans - and the violence spread to other townships Throughout September, another 26 Africans murdered: strangled, burned to death ('necklacing': a tire filled with gasoline placed around the neck and set alight) Churches, schools, houses, buses all destroyed Black councilors, police and other collaborators with the regime were killed, injured and forced to resign Many perpetrators young black men calling themselves 'comrades' Some of the violence was related to gang control, but a later report revealed some of the worst atrocities were committed by government agents in a 'dirty tricks' campaign Uitenhage, March 1985 police fired on a peaceful black crowd commemorating Sharpeville (1960), 19 killed. By late 1985 many townships had fallen under 'comrade' or informal black control. Very disparate in terms of authority and philosophy: some ANC, some UDF, black consciousness, Africanists (these regimes mostly collapsed during the 1986 state of emergency) Beck 184: 'the so-called black-on-black violence hurt the image of the black liberation struggle' Resistance to apartheid: Steve Biko and the Black Consciousness movement Black Consciousness Movement ANC and PAC banned since 1969 National Union of South African Students (NUSAS) radical, but still dominated by whites South African Students Organisation (SASO) founded 1968 by Steve Biko (a medical student in Natal) as a response to white dominated NUSAS: A Christian movement - individual responsibility for liberation (Beck: self-help, legal aid etc...) Not a rejection of whites, but a recognition that Africans (Indians and Coloureds) should take and not wait to be given 1972 Biko set up the Black People's Convention - an umbrella organisation for ANC, PAC and trade unions Biko 'banned' 1973 Popular in universities and schools Accepted PAC had failed because of impatience, and so not to be too hasty in government confrontation Little contact with African working class until early 1970s when a series of strikes broke out around Durban, and spurred on by the collapse of the Portuguese empire in Angola and Mozambique. 1976 Black school children had also begun protesting about overcrowding and that maths and social studies would be taught in Afrikaans. (few black students and teachers spoke Afrikaans) Demonstrations in Soweto under leadership of SASO. 16 June about 15,000 youths were met by police who used tear gas and the fired on them, killing two. The photograph of the wounded Hector Pieterson being carried through Soweto shocked the world. 10 minute podcast on Soweto: http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p00821br International reaction: UN passed an arms embargo. USA informed Vorster SA had to go to majority rule: one man, one vote. Riots spread from Soweto to other townships. Students destroyed businesses, stoned vehicles and stopped buses. Riots crushed. Schools closed for one month, Afrikaans teaching order rescinded, police arrested student leaders - did not always tell parents, no access to lawyers and in prison with hardened adult criminals - many died. Biko arrested in 1977 beaten and died 12 September. Government doctors said he died of natural causes and no one found responsible. Biko now world famous. Government clamped down and banned many black organisations and newspapers. 10 minute podcast on the death of Steve Biko: http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p00xqj1n Many rioters fled SA and came into contact with the ANC in exile and MK. township unrest in the 1980s

Post-war Iran western influence

Western Influence: 1953 Coup- role of CIA The post 1953 oil settlement Cold War context/Iran's aim to become a regional power Iran's role in strengthening OPEC: Western countries had had cheap oil for far too long (1967, 1973 wars) USA aid and security support 1977 Carter presidency USA- Human Rights

National Party: reasons for the election victory of 1948

White anxieties high Smuts now a major world figure. He had helped draft the preamble of the UN Charter, promising fundamental human rights, none of which he guaranteed in SA. However some challenges eroded confidence: Seen as an 'old man' When India challenged SA legislation restricting Indian rights, SA suffered an economic boycott, and India opposed SA's request to the UN to incorporate SWAfrica (mandated to SA after WWI) Urbanization of Coloureds, Africans and Indians concerned whites, growth of shantytowns, and white workers feared competition, white farmers feared loss of black labour, white town dwellers feared for their lives and property. Malan on the rise in SA: Supported by the Brotherhood, the Church and Afrikaner nationalists NP's segregationist policy was clear - racial purity and white dominance. The Apartheid platform: Indians declared to be 'permanent aliens' and called for them to be repatriated Africans temporary visitors to white areas and should be restricted to reserves Quotas on African migration to towns End missionary education for Africans and establish a separate curriculum Abolish Natives Representative Council and African representation in Parliament But - there is a contradiction: while calling for increased segregation of Africans on reserves, African labour had to be available for industry and farming 1948 Election: Smuts poorly prepared, tired and out of touch. With African migration to urban areas seemingly irreversible, the NP won the propaganda war. The United Party did receive more votes than the NP BUT! That clause in the 1910 Act of Union that gave extra weight to rural areas gave the advantage to the NP, who won with 70 seats to the UPs 65. Malan formed a government dominated by Afrikaners, who made up less than 12% of the population. Perspectives: Scher, Pretorious p 280: "Historians differ over the degree to which race played a role in the NP victory...Malan decided upon a strategy that would ensure the racial issue took central stage..." Perspectives: Giliomee, Pretorius p 311: "It was not apartheid, but the controversial declaration of war in 1939 and the turmoil that the war brought, which proved decisive in the Afrikaner nationalists' victory at the polls."

Sykes-Picot

Sykes-Picot Agreement May 1916 Secret treaty between the French and the British Secret because British agree to French getting control of Syria but they had already promised it to Husayn the Amir of Mecca British territorial gains French territorial gains Direct control of Iraq and in direct control from Gaza to Kirkuk Direct control of Syrian coast from southern Lebanon to Anatolia and indirect control of Syrian interior A secret agreement between Britain (represented by Mark Sykes) and France (George Picot). Russia - Constantinople and the Dardanelles (after the Russian Revolution 1917 the new communist government rejected the spoils of imperialism) France - area where Syria and Lebanon are today Britain - area where Iraq, Transjordan are today, also influence in Aden and the Arab Gulf sheikhdoms International control for Palestine and Jerusalem Yemen and what would become Saudi Arabia to be independent. And in the hinterland 'An independent Arab state or confederation of states under the suzerainty of an Arab chief' - yet under the influence of Britain/France In early 1917 Sharif Hussein became suspicious of Allied intentions and Sykes was sent to Jedda to reassure him. Britain provided the Hashemites with money, arms and military advice. November 1917 - the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia. Communists discovered documents referring to the Sykes-Picot Agreement in the Tsar's imperial archives and these details were eventually passed to the Arabs - proof of treachery against the Muslim peoples of the OE by the Christian powers. When confronted by Hussein the British said the agreement was provisional, and Russian withdrawal from WWI changed everything - but not in the Arabs favour (regardless of the debate about the 'success' of the Arab revolt?) By early 1917 the British had a huge base in Egypt, and were in control of Palestine and Mesopotamia (Iraq) - and were by far the strongest power in the ME. British priority always the preservation of the British Empire. 30 October 1918 OE signed armistice with Allies at Mudros

Camp David (1978)

- Jimmy Carter steps up ○ Asks both people to come - Carter and his secretary of state (Cyrus Vance) spend the next 2 years seeing an opportunity - Jimmy Carter see an opportunity to see the Egyptian and Israeli delegations to come to Camp David (Sadat and Begin) 5 areas of disagreement - Sinai between Egypt and Israel - the ownership of the West Bank and Gaza areas bordering Israel - the role that Palestinian people would have in governing themselves. - How they overcome it ○ Carter met with Sadat and Begin separately, as they weren't talking with each other (for Sinai) 4 key players roles Begin, Jimmy Carter, Sadat, David 3 suggestions from Jimmy Carter- that wanted - Removing Jerusalem from the single text 2 reasons why Camp David was a good location 1 single text: what was it - "Framework for a Settlement in the Sinai"- it was a proposal of peace for both sides (Israel and Egypt) - " Carter worked with a team led by Secretary of State Cyrus Vance and National Security Advisor Zbigniew Brzezinski to draft an American proposal. President Carter implemented a "single text" strategy. The draft incorporated the needs and requirements of both sides. Then he took this draft separately to each party for points of agreement and disagreement. After twenty-three drafts and continuous debates on wording, the U.S. delegation came up with a final framework agreement on Sunday, September 17, that the Egyptians and the Israelis could agree on. The points of disagreement were left out of this framework and instead were written in letters to each other. Resulting in the comprehensive Camp David Accords, these meetings laid the groundwork for further negotiations, and for the Egyptian-Israeli Peace Treaty."

Lebanon: outside interference and reconstruction

1975 - 1990 The Second Lebanese Civil War Context: Christian community undermined by demographic changes, Muslim community still dissatisfied - with no census impossible to know, but Ochsenwald suggests it might even be 6:4 in favour of the Muslims! Increase in Palestinian refugees to 300,000 by 1975 - in camps, not integrated into the community (impact on Lebanon's confessional state - most Palestinians were/are Sunni Muslims. Also the south of Lebanon - where most refugees settled - was largely Shi'a) By late 1960s Palestinian armed groups in refugee camps were using Lebanon as a base to launch attacks on Israel. Retaliations. Aftermath of Black September (1970): PLO base moved to Southern Lebanon. Further tensions within Lebanon: Sunnis - want a Lebanese Arab state committed to conflict with Israel and support the Palestinians, Maronites - Lebanon as a Christian democracy, pro-western, no interest in the fight with Israel 1973 War: Lebanon maintained official neutrality, to the disgust of most Palestinian groups. Death of Maarouf Saad and the 1975 Sidon Fishermen's strike - confirming the notion that the Christians were rightist and wealthy, the Muslim leftist majority were the party of the poor. Elsewhere...in Syria, the regime of Hafez al-Assad was now stabilised Elsewhere...1975 Egypt-Israel Interim agreement April 1975: Clashes between Palestinians and Maronite Phalange militia. 13 April 1975 two events: Early morning - shots fired a church in East Beirut killing four, including two phalangists. Later morning - a bus of 30 Palestinians was massacred by Christian Phalange militia Lebanese army commanders struggled to manage their forces as soldiers in the army sided with the Civil War groups according to their sectarian origins. (Mostly - Christian senior officers, Muslim junior officers). Most Muslim soldiers sided with leftist Muslim groups and Palestinians, most Christians joined rightist militias or stayed in garrisons. Syrian intervention brought stage 1 of the second Civil War to a conclusion. 1976, facing defeat, Syria intervened to support the Maronite Christians (!). Why...? Enhance Syrian regional control and prevent a radical takeover of Lebanon that would expose Syria to trouble with Israel. Bizarre: Christian militias (supported by Israel) and the Syrian Army were now aligned against Palestinians and Muslim Lebanese leftists! Christian forces (with Syrian support) took control of the Tel al-Zataar refugee camp, killing up to 1,500 - heavy criticism of Syria from the Arab League. PLO and Communist attacks on isolated Christian villages October 1976 Arab League summit in Riyadh: Syria would keep 40,000 troops in Lebanon as part of an Arab Deterrent Force (which ended up being mostly Syrian) PLO fighters required to return to the south of Lebanon An uneasy peace - war not over, killing continued, and one of the key roots of the civil war - confessional representation - had not been addressed By late 1970s, Lebanon divided into sectarian strongholds.. 1978: Israel invaded Southern Lebanon: 'Operation Litani' in revenge for Palestinian attacks (the Coastal Road Massacre March 1978), aim to take control of south Lebanon and destroy the PLO bases there. About 1100 Palestinians and Lebanese died, including 75 who were in a mosque destroyed by an air strike. Most of those who died were civilians, as Arafat had ordered the PLO fighters to move north. world opinion forced a staged withdrawal. Several hundred thousand Shi'a villagers forced to flee (north) 1988 President Gemayel's term finished - and lack of agreement meant Lebanon ended up with two PMs and no President...but the chaos opened the door to the end of the civil war....refer to notes on the Taif Accord (Lebanon Wars and Conflict) Taif Accord a success for Shi'a and Syria and the new 1990 administration under President Hrawi set about reuniting Beirut, disbanding militias and physically rebuilding Beirut. Remember Israel had invaded Lebanon during the Lebanese Civil War. 1982 The USA and Israel worked to support the Lebanese central government (headed by Amin Gemayel). This action alienated the Shi'a community May 1983: Gemayel approved a 'peace' treaty with Israel - end the war with Israel, Israel withdraw and special security region in south Lebanon. Many Lebanese and Syria opposed this arrangement. Syria supported the Druze and Shi'a - most fighting was in west Beirut and central Lebanon. Islamic Jihad (links to Syria and Iran) guerrillas attacked US/French barracks October 23, killing over 300 people - 'Beirut Barracks Bombing' - and the USA withdrew leaving a power vacuum.... The Shi'a group Amal now controlled much of Lebanon, so President Gemayel asked Syria for help. Gemayel abrogated the May 1983 agreement with Syrian support. Exhausted by the Lebanese internal situation Israel withdrew by 1985 - most of Lebanon now under Syrian control. As the Lebanese state collapsed, so did most other groups: Maronites now disagree with Gemayel giving Syria such influence Shi'a now split internally regarding Iranian influence PLO and other leftist groups also infighting Hezbollah will form in 1982 from Amal, and Amal and Hezbollah will have intermittent conflicts as they fight for control of Shi'a areas. The Taif Accord of 1989 brought a Syrian sponsored stability, though there were rumbles, these were put down quickly by Syrian forces in Lebanon. 1990s Syria managed Lebanese foreign policy and permitted groups in Lebanon to attack Israel, leading to some fierce reprisals from Israel - forcing southern Lebanese to flee north for safety. In 2000 Israel withdrew its troops from southern Lebanon, Hezbollah, with the backing of Syria, took control FYI: Syria withdrew from Beirut in 2003 under UN (USA/France) pressure and with the assassination of Hariri in 2005 (believed to have been caused by Syria) Syria withdrew from Lebanon that same year (The Cedar Revolution) Israeli objectives: Expel the PLO from Lebanon Instal Bachir Gemayel (leader of the Christian Phalange) as President of Lebanon Re-establish a Maronite Christian supremacy in Lebanon 2 June 1982: 3 Palestinians attempted to assassinate the Israeli Ambassador in London. They were not members of the PLO, but Israel launched 'Operation Peace for Galilee' (6 June) in order to destroy the PLO and its bases in southern Lebanon. 6 June 1982 Israel invaded Lebanon, (700,000 soldiers, 800 tanks, 350 fighter jets) reached the outskirts of Beirut 13 June (see Map in Ochsenwald p. 635). Israel exceeded aims for invasion: 300,000 Lebanese lost their homes 12,000 killed 40,000 wounded Huge air/land battle between Israel and Syria (remember Syria had occupied Lebanon since 1976). PLO occupied residential areas of Beirut - hoped civilian presence would deter the Israelis. 2 month bombardment of Beirut, 20,000 Lebanese killed Beirut divided by the 'green line': Muslim west, Christian east. Muslims besieged by Israeli troops 21 August PLO started to evacuate West Beirut and a multi-national force (USA, France, Italy) guaranteed security. PLO to Tunis - Yasser Arafat and 11,000 PLO fighters 23 August Bachir Gemayel elected (under Israeli supervision) President of Lebanon 14 September 1982: Bachir Gemayel assassinated with Syrian support 16-18 September 1982: Revenge for the assassination of Gemayel. Sabra and Shatila Massacre: Phalange supported killed between 460 and 3,500 (numbers disputed) Palestinians and Lebanese Shiites in the Sabra neighbourhood and nearby Shatila refugee camp. Israeli military in the area and criticised for not preventing massacre. PLO evicted from Lebanon by Israel: Many PLO fighters had withdrawn from Lebanon by September 1982 Syria backed PLO leaders who opposed Arafat PLO HQ moved to Tunis (where's the area of decision now: armed struggle increasingly challenging) PLO loses political independence (seeks a rapprochement with Egypt) Significant consequence: Centre of Palestinian politics shifts from the Palestinian diaspora and the PLO in Tunis (i.e: those outside of Palestine) to the West Bank and Gaza PLO in decline regionally and internationally Impact on Lebanese politics: 21 September Amin Gemayel (Bachir's brother) a more moderate figure, elected President Bachir succeeded by his brother, Amin Gemayel. (not so popular as Bachir). Amin saw Bachir's attempts for an alliance with Israel had ended in disaster: the massacres at Sabra and Shatila showed the Lebanese that it was impractical to hope the Israel could bring stability, and also Israel now tired of the complexity of Lebanese domestic politics. May 1983 A semi-peace treaty between Lebanon and Israel - would leave Israel with a security zone in the south of Lebanon. Opposed by Syria and many Lebanese. Shii and Druze militias (with Syrian support) continued to battle the Lebanese army for control of central Lebanon. (23 October 1983 US Barracks attacked and 241 US marines killed - USA withdraws 1984) Mid late 1980s - the Lebanese state had collapsed, and even the Shia influence waned. Infighting over Iranian influence, hostage taking. PLO fought with other leftist Lebanese groups.

Lebanon Confessional State

:Lebanon's the only country that has a confessional system in the world Last survey for religions is 1952 Maronite Governing Lebanon The National Pact: The Lebanese Constitution is based on Confessionalism 1943 National Pact of Lebanon (an unwritten agreement) President: Maronite Prime Minister: Sunni Muslim Speaker of Parliament: Shia Muslim Parliament: A 6:5 ratio in favour of Christians No foreign influence Diverse population divided on ethnic and religious lines: Sunni, Shi'a, Druze Muslims, Catholic, Orthodox and Protestant Christians. Christian Maronite community isolated around mount Lebanon, developed strong ties with Europe as seafarers then Muslim neighbors. Sunnis mostly in the east on the Syrian border. Shi'a mostly live in the south. Each religious group traditionally has a policy party associated with it. Many of these political parties would also have a paramilitary wing. Colonialism disrupted the equilibrium between the two religious communities because the Europeans regarded the Christians as natural allies. Maronites given important roles in colonial administration, many travelled to France for education, enjoyed privilege, came to dominate the Muslims politically. Background 1926 Lebanon Constitution. Based on Confessionalism - power divided between the religious communities based on their population size...in 1926. Population and confessional censuses still very politically sensitive in Lebanon to this day. 1952 was the last official confessional census. Lebanese population 51% Christian. High birth rates and Muslim immigration (as well as Christian emigration) has shifted the demographic balance in favour of Muslims, especially Shiites. How can Christians maintain their rights when numbers are decreasing? 1943 National Pact of Lebanon (an unwritten agreement) President: Maronite Prime Minister: Sunni Muslim Speaker of Parliament: Shia Muslim Parliament: A 6:5 ratio in favour of Christians No foreign influence (sever the colonial attachment, especially France)

South African War (1899-1902): causes—economic, political, strategic

Causes: The discovery of gold on the Witwatersrand (Transvaal) in 1886. This led to a huge influx of foreigners into the economic sphere and the boers saw this as a threat to their independence. They wanted to regain control of their land. Conflicting political ideology: After the First Anglo-Boer War the British government did not give up its ambition for unifying South Africa under Imperial British rule. The two Boer republics of the Orange Free State and the South African Republic or Transvaal still maintained their desire for independence. The Boer republics were a stumbling block for the British Empire.

The end of the apartheid system: the Convention for a Democratic South Africa (CODESA)

CODESA Convention for a Democratic South Africa December 1991: Government and 18 other parties, not the Conservative Party or PAC Declaration of intent - an undivided South Africa, common citizenship Agreed while the constitution was being drawn up an elected constituent assembly would serve Working groups set up to work out the future of the homelands and other issues 1992 By-election in Potchefstroom led to a Conservative Party victory. The CP demanded de Klerk call a general election. He took a gamble, and did. A whites only referendum on de Klerk's reforms. 80% of white voters turned out, and 68.7% voted for reform (only one constituency voted against). The risk paid off, and strengthened de Klerk's position. CODESA Session 2: Strengthened, de Klerk took a tougher line at the next set of talks on power sharing, majority rule. The talks collapsed June - ANC and tripartite alliance called a campaign of rolling mass actions (sit-ins, marches, work stoppages) June - Inkatha violence in Transvaal squatter camp killed 45 people. De Klerk visited in sympathy and was driven away by crowds, who were then shot at by police, killing 30 more people. Mass action continued. ANC stayed away from formal talks but ANC Sec. Gen Cyril Ramaphosa met with govt. Minister and hammered out an agreement, and September, Mandela and de Klerk signed a Record of Understanding: ANC agreed to resume negotiations ANC conceded 'sunset clauses' to safeguard white civil servant jobs (proposed by Joe Slovo) Banning of carrying of traditional weapons (aimed against Inkatha members) Ratios of parliament seats to vote Smaller groups excluded, but despite opposition from Buthelezi, multi-party talks to move forward with new constitution continued. Assassination of Chris Hani (SACP gen.sec) caused a pause in talks Talks attacked by AWB 27 April 1994: date fixed for SA's first democratic election

Iran: The Islamic Revolution causes and events 1979

Check out the wonderful photographs from David Burnett. http://www.davidburnett.com/gallery.html?gallery=44+Days%3A+the+Iranian+Revolution#/0 He turned up on assignment in Iran in 1978 with no idea of the political situation. Notes based on the work of Dr. Luciano Zaccara, Qatar University from the course: Understanding Iran Today (Georgetown, Fall 2016), The Middle East: a history by William Ochsenwald and Sydney Fisher (McGraw Hill, 2011) and The Modern Middle East: a social and cultural history by Ilan Pappé (Routledge, 2014) This table only refers to the events before 1979 that were significant contributing factors that triggered the revolution: for contexts, conditions refer to notes on Iran 1945 - 1979 Year Month Internal Politics Foreign Policy/Overseas events 1964 Nov Khomeini exiled to Turkey 1965 Oct Khomeini exiled to Najaf, Iraq 1977 Oct Khomeini's son, Mostafa died in suspicious circumstances. Khomeini's supporters blamed the SAVAK (secret police). Anti-Shah demonstrations begin 1978 August Rex Cinema in Abadan burned, 470 killed, SAVAK blamed, but later blame shifted to Islamic militants CIA reports 'Iran is not in revolutionary or pre-revolutionary situation' Sept Martial Law Black Friday: religious demonstrators in Tehran shot at, Numbers killed uncertain - at least 80, most like hundreds. October Khomeini left Iraq went to France - access to media and supporters Nov Shah had SAVAK arrest cabinet members and regime supporters including his PM in order to avoid the revolutionary mood. (No loyalty to his own supporters) Dec Muharram Protests: Massive anti-Shah demonstrations (Ashura - anniversary of the Battle of Karbala 680 ACE) 1.5 million people Strikes 1979 Jan 3 Shah appointed new PM: Shapour Bakhtiar Jan 12: Khomeini formed Revolutionary Council Jan 16 Shah left Iran Feb 1 Khomeini returned to Iran, appointed Mehdi Bazargan PM (4 Feb) Feb 11 Government collapsed and Islamic Revolution declared Mar 30 Referendum for Islamic Republic (98.2%)* May 5 Revolutionary Guard formed Oct 22 Shah entered USA US Embassy occupied Nov 6 Bazargan resigned as PM Dec 2 Referendum for the new constitution (98%) Considerations: Khomeini's exile: restrained in Najaf due to control from Iraqis. Once in France access to international journalists and his supporters who then smuggled his message back into Iran. Zaccara: Once Khomeini had been exiled the Iranian government made little effort to 'deal' with him. Khomeini's ideology and ambitions: clearly opposed to the Shah, but not clear what he wanted, met with Marxists whilst in exile, so some secular supporters of Khomeini thought there would be a counterbalance to clerical groups. The Shah and regime: became increasingly centralised before 1979, repression. The destruction of all other opposition left only one alternative group - the Shii ulama. Shah at centre of government, so Iran's wealth and the poverty of many of its people, the close associations with the USA all centred around the Shah. Remember, Reza Shah had come to power through a coup, and Mohammed Reza Shah also relied on the army. Late 1978 - Shah seemed to lose nerve - no massive crackdown. The Shii ulama: Intellectual power base in Qom, only organised alternative to the regime. Saw the westernised and secular Shah as a moral failure. Shah's exile: He left thinking he might well return, some sort of transition government? Mehdi Bazargan as PM: had met Khomeini in France. A member of the National Front. So... just clergy in charge of Iran in the early days of the Revolution. Gradually sidelined throughout 1979. Tried to resolve US embassy situation and in the end forced out, as Revolution became more radical Military: quickly sided with Khomeini on his return to Iran. No army purges - their support was needed *The first referendum. Zaccara points out that the option was for 'Republic', but it wasn't clear that Khomeini had in mind an Islamic Republic Revolutionary Guard (Sepah-e Pasdaran) formed to protect the principles of the Revolution. A military group...and after Iran-Iraq War (1980 - 1988) an economic group as well as they take control of ports, oil wells) Khomeini Profile: A revolutionary thinker in terms of Shi'a Islam USA: 1977, Jimmy Carter began pushing a more assertive human rights agenda. with the Shah going to the USA and the subsequent US Embassy occupation, this was the break in relations between Iran and the USA...and will lead to a radicalisation of Iranian foreign policy Perspectives on the Iranian Revolution: Was the revolution: Religious? Urban? Marxist? Popular? Rural? multi-classist? Political Actors involved: National Front (Bazargan) Tudeh (Marxists - revolution anti-Shah and anti-USA) Fedayin-e Khalq (Islamist guerillas) Muyahedeen-e Khalq (anti-Islamist terrorists - left wing) But with the removal of the Shah, these loose groups fell apart, and Khomeini would never accept atheists and communists as partners. Ochsenwald: This was a revolution of the 'radical right' which looked toward an idealized Islamic past

Mubarak Political developments

Continued Sadat policy of increasing political parties, and parties could get seats in parliament with more than 8% of the vote. In 1984 the New Wafd Party was able to do that, but the government party was still by far the most dominant. Army grew in size and officers continue to enjoy privileges. Military plays a big part in public life- responsible for internal security. Military controls some industries including construction and manufacturing. 1986 February: Mutiny by 17,000 Central Security Forces conscripts in Cairo. Suppressed by a Field Marshal who became so popular as a result Mubarak had to sack him, fearing a potential rival! ...As the sole candidate for the Presidency, he was re-elected in 1987, but Wafd (relegalised in 1983) got 11% and Muslim Brotherhood coalition 17% Ochsenwald: by the 1990s the leadership had become 'somewhat rigid, unimaginative and lethargic' Increasingly unpopular, almost all opposition groups boycotted the 1990 general election, and militant Islamist groups campaigned against him. al-Gama'a al-Islamiyya waged a struggle from 1992 to 1998, killing policemen - biggest attack on tourists in 1997 when over 70 people killed...but Mubarak still re-elected in 1992, and 1999. Corruption increased as did detention without trial, closing on anti-government newspapers, mosques...Kamrava: The Mubarak family was worth between $40 and $70 billion and 39 of Mubarak's son's associates had made $1billion each. Mehran Kamrava: Mubarak's Egypt a 'presidential monarchy' that included a repressive and robust security apparatus that stifled dissent Ochsenwald: Mubarak purged army, but did permit judges greater independence and on occasion they did rule against government actions.

Nasser Economic Policies

Economic Development: Worth noting that population growth devoured any economic gains made by agrarian reforms. 1952 RCC enacted the first Agrarian Reform Act: Land redistribution by limiting size of holdings Rents lowered Minimum wage for agricultural workers Electricity supplies extended Impact of Arab-Israeli wars, especially 1956 1956: nationalised British and French owned banks Income and challenges derived from the Suez Canal (nationalised 1956) Aimed to finance industrialisation: industrial reforms included minimum wage, job creation and a workers' housing programme 1957 National Planning Committee established to give the state a leading role: "State Capitalism": a capitalist system with large amounts of state ownership and a large public sector Aswan Dam 1970: did not meet revenue expectations, nor increase arable land. Some HEPower. Caused ecological problems.

The end of the apartheid system: the 1994 elections

Elections 1994: Violence from ultra-right extremists, car bombs. Once voting began, generally peaceful ANC 63% votes, 252 seats, president and deputy president - not enough to rewrite constitution on its own. NP 20% votes, deputy president and won Western Cape province IFP (Inkatha) 10% and majority in KwaZulu-Natal 10 May 1994 President: Nelson Mandela Deputy Presidents: Thabo Mbeki and F. W. de Klerk

Post-war Iran: modernization and westernization under Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi (social, political, economic)

Economic: Oil (only form of income, don't have ways to mine it without Soviet and British help), couldn't exploit all its oil and natural gas Impact of 1951 Oil Nationalisation 1960 OPEC (Iran is fairly cooperative with OPEC partners) (mid to late 60's, he kind of takes a leading role) 1979 Oil sales provided for 90% of Iran's budget Uneven wealth distribution (redistributed in 1953) (about 50-50 split but not Anglo-Persian split, went to other countries) Spending on big infrastructure projects (irrigation, dams, sewage, schools, hospitals, etc.) Personal extravagance of the Shah- coronation (1967) and 'party of 2,500 years' (1971) (spent $100 million on the 1 party) Crazy military spending (put under extravagance thing) Economic Perspectives: Ochsenwald 'seemingly limitless quantities of natural gas' led to wastefulness Zaccara: no maintenance of infrastructure to look after all this expensive equipment However: Shah recognised oil was a finite resource and hoped to balance the economy and create self-sustaining industry (failed miserably by 1973) Much money spent on weapons (from US, China, and USSR) Political: Before and after 1953 coup Pre-1953: Role of Mossadegh, domination by parliament Post-1953: development of autocracy, sponsored political parties, use of repression (SAVAK) 1962 White Revolution: political rights restricted and constitution set aside in order to speed up the reforms! Iran becomes less modern if we assume that democracy is modern Secret police, heavy use of informants Abolishment of political parties Organises referendum of White Revolution (95% approved) Political Perspectives: White Revolution promised franchise to women, but also restricted political freedoms Shah himself supervised all aspects of government and he believed he had achieved stability (autocrat, self-power) Change: political system became increasingly brittle (lack of flexibility, 1974 onwards Shah received heavy medical help as he was suffering from cancer) Success of repression meant only one viable alternative group- the Shia ulama. (Zaccara: once Khomeini exiled in 1963, Iranian govt. did little to 'deal' with him) (Iraqi's don't like Khomeini and by 1973, he was in Paris and the French let him say whatever) Social: 1945 some Crown lands given to poor (reversal of Reza Shah's land policy) 1962 White Revolution: Health, literacy, franchise extended, Polygamy- restricted Women Less pressure on women than Reza Shah time, where what you want to where 1/3 of univ 57% literacy rates for men 43% women literacy rate Youth Education provided Choice of education, particularly in cities (in mosque, mosque-sponsored, or govt.) High drop-out rates for education, especially for rural girls Urbanisation Infrastructure can't keep up with people moving in to find work Human Rights SAVAC, execution, killings Jimmy Carter in 1977 says that we should attach US foreign policy in human rights Media opens up and could challenge women stereotypes Social Perspectives: Disillusionment with promice of White Revolution (liberals/rural poor) Women- strides in literacy and education, still channeled into 'female' professions Pappé notes concerns over female sexuality depictions in magazines concerned both feminists and the ulama Despite urbanisation challenges, standard of living improving Westoxification: National identity If so western- why no democracy? Social: Religious Opposition from the ulama to 'westoxification' and some aspects of White Revolution Role of Ayatollah Khomeini in Iran and in exile Both the clergy and the government set up rival institutions: education, financial, clerical Anti-shah clergy worked to formulate a basis for a renovation of Shia Islamic theology to counter the government's 'Westoxification'(Ochsenwald) ]

Discovery of diamonds and gold Economic Consequences

Infrastructure Wealth accumulation for a few individuals Economic exploitation: the migrant labour system Urbanization: Kimberley, Johannesburg (resource implications) 1869 the discovery of diamonds between the Vaal and Harts rivers. The locals utilized mine labour to subsidies their regular pastoral and agricultural livelihood. Thus, they would not stay long enough in the position to become accustomed to the hard and specialised mining. This would lead the whites to form a method to maintain their workforce in the mines. Over time and towards the 1900's larger companies emerged , joint stock, allowing for more individual control of the region. The closed compounds restricted the african workers from reacting to market demands

Interim Agreement (Sept. 1975)

Israel and Egypt, in September 1975, came to yet another agreement which included further withdrawal by Israel from territories in Sinai, creating an agreement between Israel and Egypt that was essentially a non-belligerency agreement, not yet a peace treaty, but essentially a non-belligerency agreement between Israel and Egypt, as Israel was readying itself for a much more serious negotiation with Egypt that would eventually lead to an Israeli withdrawal from Sinai. The Egyptians, by signing this agreement with Israel, were taking a much more significant step towards abandoning the conflict with Israel entirely. This was essentially an important stepping stone towards what became the Israeli-Egyptian peace treaty.

Sharm-el-Sheik Agreement (1999)

Israeli withdrawal from parts of the West Bank Release of prisoners

Case study on Iran, Saudi Arabia or a North African state: economic, political and social developments; western influences; attempts at modernization

Iran 1900s - 1925 Notes based on lectures by Dr. Luciano Zaccara, Qatar University from the course: Understanding Iran Today (Georgetown, Fall 2016) and by Professor Avram Susser, University of Tel Aviv from the online course: The Emergence of the Modern Middle East (Coursera, Spring 2016) Contexts: Long continuity from the Persian Empire to modern Iran - the core geography of Iran has remained pretty much the same Since the 1500s Iran has had Shi'a Twelver Islam as the state religion A series of monarchic dynasties controlled Iran 19c. Iran was formally independent, but effectively divided into spheres of influence by the Russians and the British 1925 Pahlevi Dynasty comes to power. Not noble: Pahlevi was the minister of defence, then PM - then led a coup against the Qajar Shah in 1925 Two Shahs in the Pahlevi dynasty: Reza Khan Pahlevi (RKP) 1925 - 1941 Mohammed Reza Pahlevi (MRP) 1941 - 1979 Pahlevi came to power after the short lived 'Soviet Republic of Gilan' in Iran on the Caspian Sea - Pahlevi strong anti-communist Demography of Iran: 51% Persian, 15% Azeri-Turk, Gil-Maz (North), Kurds 90% Shi'a, 5% Sunni, Zoroastrians, Christians, Jews Over 70 different ethnic and linguistic groups Role of the Religion and Clergy in Iran: 17c. Onwards Iranian clergy is organised High level of status in regards to interpretation of dogmatic issues Open to current events No direct relation between state and clergy in Iran before 1979: Before 1979 unlike many other Muslim countries the clergy were financially independent of the government - they are maintained by believers. How many clergy? Difficult to say...clergy are recognised by their peers - who has the right to recognise? In Shia Iran the clergy remain very influential, open to original interpretations of problems not precisely covered in the Islamic holy texts. In Iran then, the Usuli school won out - and answers to questions can be given by a living mujtahid (a diligent individual in Islamic law - In Iran this means an Ayatollah) Before World War I 19c. Iran was formally independent, but effectively divided into spheres of influence by the Russians and the British 1891 Tobacco Protest: Monopoly exploitation of Iranian tobacco by a British company led to protests. Religious leaders were involved from the start and the spread of protests convinced the government to get a better deal. Early influence of the clergy on government. 1905 Constitutional Movement: The ulama encouraged a weak Shah to accept a constitution that would weaken the monarchy and elect a parliament. Not similar to the Young Turks. No modernisation. In Iran it was the forces of tradition strengthening a weakened monarchy. 1907 Anglo-Russian Entente: recognised the independence of Iran, but then divided it into three zones of influence! Further weakened the Iranian government, and under the guise of 'security' both Britain and Russia then reduced their zones of Iran to semi-colonies. World War I: (notes adapted from Iran Review - http://www.iranreview.org/content/Documents/Iran-and-the-First-World-War.htm) Iran hoped to avoid entanglement in World War I by declaring its neutrality, but ended up as a battleground for Russian, Turkish, and British troops. When German agents tried to arouse the southern tribes against the British, Britain created an armed force, the South Persia Rifles (1916), to protect its interests. Then a group of Iranian notables hoping to escape Anglo-Russian dominance and sympathetic to the German war effort, left Tehran, first for Qom and then for Kermanshah (now called Bakhtaran), where they established a provisional government. The provisional government lasted for the duration of the war but failed to capture much support. Several battles were fought in western Iran between Russian and Ottoman forces. Property destroyed and several hundred Iranian civilians killed. Continued failure of any Iranian government and alternative rebel groups to maintain order in Iran in the face of foreign interventions. Russian Revolution: The USSR renounced its sphere of influence in the north of Iran as 'tsarist imperialism'. Britain saw an opportunity and in 1919 issued the Anglo-Persian Agreement which basically centred on drilling rights for the Anglo-Persian Oil Company, and sending British advisers to each branch of the Iranian government. Basic aim of the British - make Iran a protectorate. The Agreement was formally denounced in Iran in 1921 Iranian Politics after World War I Chaotic: Russian Civil War spilled over into northern Iran, Warlords took control in other areas, British and Russian influence led to a growth of nationalism. Weakness of Ahmed Shah Qajar - especially as the Russians were fighting their way to Tehran. In debt, and not much revenue coming to Iran due to unfavourable trade agreements. Soviet Republic of Gilan (aka Persian Soviet Socialist Republic) - shore of the Caspian Sea 1920 - 1921 setup with help from the Red Army. Radical communist policies not popular with some local religious conservatives. Short lived and support dried up when the Soviets, desperate for business with Britain, signed a trade agreement and withdrew. Gilan remains a symbol of rural rebellion against oppressive feudalism. Emergence of Reza Khan: coup 1921, Shah 1925 An officer of the Iranian Cossacks (trained by the Russians). Self-educated and a keen nationalist, he marched to Tehran in 1921 and, supported by the British, exercised a bloodless coup and sent Ahmed Shah into exile. Reza Khan and his army controlled the Iranian government with the help of the fiery journalist Sayyid Ziya al-Din Tabatabai as Prime Minister (a job with RK took for himself in 1923), and in 1925 made himself Shah, with the title Reza Shah Pahlavi (Pahlavi is connected to the Sasanian Empire, an era pre-Islamic Iran considered to be the peak of ancient Iranian civilisation) Why no 'Young Turk' style republic? Even though RK was inspired by the Young Turks, the abolition of the caliphate in Turkey in 1924 horrified the Iranian Shi'a ulama. RK met the clergy and with their support, became the Shah. Iran: Reza Shah 1925 - 1945 Notes based on the work of Dr. Luciano Zaccara, Qatar University from the course: Understanding Iran Today (Georgetown, Fall 2016), Professor Avram Susser, University of Tel Aviv from the online course: The Emergence of the Modern Middle East (Coursera, Spring 2016), The Middle East: a history by William Ochsenwald and Sydney Fisher (McGraw Hill, 2011) and The Modern Middle East: a social and cultural history by Ilan Pappé (Routledge, 2014) Reza Shah (RS) 2 priorities: Reorder the central government authority in Iran Reform national finances RS was personally involved in many aspects of administration. Although Iran will maintain a Prime Minister and a majlis (council), RS determined who would serve as ministers and the political system was a royal dictatorship. Immediate financial changes: An American, Arthur C. Millspaugh, was appointed in 1922 as administrator-general of finances: Reorganised tax structure Started up state enterprises He did not renew his contract in 1927 Reza Shah: Consolidation of Power Source of power was the army RS personally led army Military Reforms: 1925 Conscription introduced (every male - including religious scholars - at the age of 21, for 2 years - plenty of young men, so a lottery system once qualified). Army grew: 4,000 men in 1921 to 100,000 by mid 1930s Military training schools established Increased resources (trucks, small numbers of aircraft, tanks) Conscripts poorly paid, poor conditions, low morale (Ochsenwald) By 1926 had put down rebellions in Azerbaijan, Khurasan and defeated some of the nomadic tribes (whilst using conscripted tribal soldiers), ensuring full government control of oil producing areas Political developments: Broke the power of the warlords by dividing Iran into many different small provinces to break the local identities of the old regions Religious influence on the law diminished: By 1931 Religious courts only handled domestic relations and issues to do with personal status 1937 perceived threat from communism -In Tehran dozens arrested. Communism in Iran quite middle class (Pappé) Economic developments: Strong central and local authority: tax collection improved Freer circulation of people and goods Infrastructure: Roads (increased 8x between 1921 and 1940) trans-Iranian railway (Persian Gulf to Caspian Sea) Agriculture - basis of Iranian economy - 1920s about 12 million Iranians were sharecroppers, living in villages. Development did not reach aims - two-thirds of arable land held by absentee landlords, and RS did not change basic system of land ownership 1928: Iran finally able to set own tariffs (after years of British influence) 1928: a new National Bank Factories built: sugar, spinning/weaving - mostly state enterprises - efficiency inconsistent, and a shortage of technicians and managers. Prices for manufactured goods high (but state controlled frontier trade, so few imported goods) Monopolies on sugar and tea for example produced about one-third of state revenues Economic developments special feature on Oil: Anglo-Persian (later Anglo-Iranian) Oil Company paid Iran 16% of its profits During WWI company property had been protected by the British Iran had no control over the quantity of oil produced therefore no guaranteed annual income (fluctuated from £300,000 one year to £1.4 million). In 1931 the Iranian government received only about half of what the British government was receiving. (In 1931 the Iraq oil company got better terms, Iran wanted the same). Bitter wrangling actually involved British warships in the Gulf! But by 1933, a new deal: Anglo-Persian are reduced, a guaranteed income for Iran BUT, the flat rates negotiated meant Iran did not benefit if the price of oil increased (and oh! There's a war coming...) Social developments: RS settled, conscripted and disarmed the nomadic tribes, earning their hatred (e.g: rebellions of the Qashqai confederation 1929, 1932) Religion: RS saw a threat from the ulama, and attempted to relegate religion (institutions and leaders): Sufi orders banned Muslim lunar calendar replaced by a solar system (Solar Hijri Calendar) Many religious properties and waqfs (endowments) confiscated Some religious schools closed, others come under influence of government, but the big schools at Qom were renovated. Consequence: some of the upper ulama came to support the government (Qom scholars), others opted out of public life. Education: became public (more lost influence for the ulama), but as more students being sent to school Iran will have a persistent teacher shortage. Textbooks patriotic. Status of Women: first government school for girls had opened in 1918, but RS rapidly increased female education: Females completing G12 in Iran: 1921 - none, 1936 - over 300 Tehran University admitted female students from 1937 Also: Wearing veils outlawed in 8 January 1936 (Women's Day in Iran) aim to get women working outside the home. (Men had to shave their beards and adopt the Pahlavi cap) Women's journals setup - 1932 Sediqeh Daulat Ali returned from Paris, wore secular clothes and wrote for Women's World (a magazine so outspoken, it was closed by the government in 1934!). Ilan Pappé points out the value of increased literacy for women as a tool for public engagement. Iranian Women's League set up - functioned like a political party But! Men retained legal superiority over women Culture: lots of throwbacks to ancient, glorious past. Cinema very popular. Government radio broadcasts from 1940. Strict censorship. Persian language learning encouraged (rather than Turkish, Kurdish, Arabic). Western style: Men's clothing mandates (1928) wear western style hats - in the cities ends regional/religious variations - protests. Use family last names. Western music Nationalism: Used Persian language. 1935 RS insisted on the use of the word Iran to describe the country rather than the European inspired Persia Urbanisation: Tehran doubled in size between 1930 and 1941. Better healthcare. New urban neighbourhoods had amenities, but all cities become more crowded. International Relations: Saadabad Pact 1937: non-aggression pact - Turkey, Afghanistan and Iraq Final Thoughts on RS: 'Autocratic modernisation' (Ochsenwald) RS 'direct and ruthless' (Ochsenwald) A top down approach to westernisation and modernisation - too few people educated and qualified to do it, Most Iranians supported nationalism, strong central government and the reforms and saw RS as the best means of achieving these goals Economic development had begun Achieve increased independence from foreigners Most changes happened in urban areas Opposition: ulama, liberals and most of the nomadic tribes RS ended up with a huge personal fortune RS sensitive to criticism, purged supporters regularly Ochsenwald: 'chaos had been replaced by order, Iran was stronger in 1939 than it had been in 1919' Impact of World War II Before WWII Reza Khan Pahlevi followed 'Third Power Policy' aiming to find friendship with Nazi Germany, Japan and USA in order to counterbalance British and Soviet influence in Iran. German technicians came to Iran (railways, telegraph). 1939 Iran declared itself neutral in WWII, but by 1941 was occupied by a joint Anglo-Soviet force (to prevent occupation by the Germans). Oil not so commercially important, but strategic position of Iran Reza Khan Pahlevi abdicated in favour of his son, Mohammed Reza Pahlevi (1941). Refer to Iran notes in the Middle East since 1945 folder for details on MRP. MRP associated with Br-Sov occupation, and not popular. 1942 Iran declared war on Germany, and Parliament elected in order to balance out opposition, and with a weak Shah, political parties became more powerful. 1943 Cold War: Tehran Agreement - UK/USSR areas of influence - each side agreed to leave after a year 1944 National Front formed: Mohammad Mossadegh - popular leftist Ayatollah Kashani - popular religious leader Anglo-Soviet War in Iran 1945 - 1947 End of WWII USSR pushed for Soviet republics in Kurdistan and Azerbaijan Conflict settled with US involvement and USSR withdrew from Iran Shah Mohammed Reza Pahlevi 2 'eras' for MRP Domination of Parliament led by Mohammed Mossadegh (1941 to 1953) Domination of the Shah after the fall of Mossadegh (1953 to 1979) Refer to the Iran Notes in the Middle East since 1945 folder.

Separation of Forces Agreement Egypt and Israel (January 1974)

January 1974 - Israeli withdrawal from Egyptian side of the Suez Canal - Exchange of POWs ...subsequent reopening of the canal Israel withdrew its forces from the Egyptian side of the Canal, allowed a certain limited presence of Egyptian forces on what was the Israeli side of the Canal and essentially separated the Israeli and Egyptian forces in a way that made the resumption of war a lot more difficult. The parties also exchanged prisoners and therefore moved towards a reality in which the Suez Canal could eventually be reopened, in the creation of a much more peaceful reality between Egypt and Israel in the Suez Canal Zone.

Lebanon growth of militias and the PLO

Lebanon's Neighbourhood: PLO The PLO used Southern Lebanon as a base 1970-1982 Israel invaded Lebanon in 1982 and evicted the PLO Increase in Palestinian refugees Presence of PLO after 1970 - southern Lebanon became a base for attacks on Israel and Israel retaliated (a challenge to Lebanese sovereignty) Migration of Shi'a community to the north of Lebanon

The Iran-Iraq War 1980 - 1988

Notes based on the work of Dr. Luciano Zaccara, Qatar University from the course: Understanding Iran Today (Georgetown, Fall 2016), The Middle East: a history by William Ochsenwald and Sydney Fisher (McGraw Hill, 2011) 1980 September: Iraq invaded Iran, citing disputes along the Shatt al-Arab waterway, and Iranian interference in Iraqi politics (review Khomeini's revolutionary rhetoric) also Saddam's personal ambitions and ideological/religious differences. Iraq expected a quick victory given the turmoil in Iran. Iraq occupied most of the Arabic speaking south of Iran. 1982 Iranian recovery used Revolutionary Guards as well as regular army - began occupation of Iraq. Most Iranians supported their government in the war. Iraq used chemical weapons against Iran Kurdish uprising in north of Iraq (supported by Iran) 1983 - 4 Stalemate - Khomeini rejected mediations, arguing that the Iraqi people, the majority of whom were Shi'a, should establish an Islamic Republic in Baghdad 1984 Iraq started 'Tanker War' economic warfare: but it was Iran who blocked the Persian Gulf to slow down Iraqi oil exports. Role of Kuwait, and superpower involvement in escorting oil ships 1985 'War of the Cities' both Tehran and Baghdad attacked using scud missiles 1986 Iraq used chemical weapons against Iranian soldiers (as well as its own citizens). Iraq superior air power. Iraq: start of Al-Anfal Campaign against the Kurds - continued to the end of the war (Halabja chemical attack, March 1988) 1987 USS Stark attacked by Iraqi Mirage jet International support for Iraq growing. 1988 July 3: USS Vincennes shot down an Iran Air civilian plane. Accident? 1988 July 20: UN Security Council Res. 598 ceasefire Considerations: Was it an ideological war? An Arab-Persian war? A war for religious leadership? A Sunni-Shi'a war? Advantages Disadvantages Iran Bigger population Population unity Bigger land area (difficult for Iraq to control) Oil sales (with help from Syria) just enough to stay solvent during the war 1985 - 1986 getting USA weapons (Iran-Contra) Great difficulty getting arms - planes and ships older, and mostly purchased from USA in Shah era. Lack of heavy offensive equipment Iraq From 1984 Iraqi Sunnis and Shi'a put nationalism before religion to fight Iran Turned to France and Egypt for weapons Aerial superiority Support from Jordan and Egypt Sold some oil via Turkey Smaller population Slow support for arms purchases from USSR, but by 1987 Half of all purchases from USSR Borrowed heavily from the Gulf States to fund War (another motive to invade Kuwait in 1990?) Iran stopped the export of Iraqi oil through the Gulf Iraqi Kurds rebelled (reprisals after the war) Khomeini tried to use the war politically: Iran vs. the world. The war will later prove a nationalising and unifying force in Iran. Both sides took the opportunity to remove internal opposition. Iranian Kurds and Sunnis sometimes joined the Iraqi side, but very few Iraqi Shi'a fought with Iran. GCC supported Iraq (as did most of the rest of the world). Saudi Arabia offered money to end the war. GCC and Saudi Arabia worried about their Shi'a minorities, threats to their own power (Khomeini had been supporting liberation movements - threats to monarchies like Jordan and Saudi). But Iran also anti USSR (also saw Soviets as an oppressor). From 1984 Iraq was ready to accept international mediation to end the war, but Iran's position was Iraq had started the war and must pay a heavy price. Consequences for Iran: $85 billion direct costs 300,000 Iranians killed Armed forces decimated Created millions of refugees (on both sides) War ended in a stalemate and neither side gained any significant territorial, political or economic advantage.

Ataturk and the Turkish Republic: successes and failures

Republicanism: Discussions were only allowed in closed meetings and once the decision was taken, all members were bound by that decision. Consequently the state and the party were often indistinguishable. Greeks Since 1924 the status of the Greek minority in Turkey has been ambiguous. Most Turks do not accept the country's Greek citizens as their equals. Beginning in the 1930s, the government encouraged the Greeks to emigrate, and thousands, in particular the educated youth, did so, reducing the Greek population to about 48,000 by 1965.

Consequences of 1967 Six Day War

Resolution 242 Impact on Pan-Arabism Impact on Palestinians (refugees and PLO) PLO in Jordan Israeli confidence Battle of Karameh 1968 War of Attrition (Egypt/Israel) 1968 - 1970 Rogers Plan/Rogers Initiative 1970 Black September 1970

Ataturk and the Turkish Republic: impact on Turkish society

Securalism: It succeeded however in reducing the power of the clergy in such a devoutly religious country. Following the model in many Western countries, Kemalism had established a clear separation of religion from the State and religion now belonged to the private sphere. Reformism: Among the changes were strict laws restricting people's clothing. Men were no longer allowed to wear the traditional headgear, the Fez or the turban and women were strongly discouraged from wearing the veil. Instead the people were encouraged to dress in the Western European style, like the leader himself. The Kurds, for example, were strongly discouraged to dress in their traditional clothes. Turkification: During the decade 1915 to 1925, the country experienced large population transfers--a substantial movement outward of minority groups and an influx of refugees and immigrants. The first major population shift began in 1915, when the Ottoman government, for a variety of complex and in some instances contradictory reasons, decided to deport an estimated 2 million Armenians from their historical homeland in eastern. The movement of Greeks out of Turkey, which began during the 1912-13 Balkan Wars, climaxed in the 1920s with an internationally sanctioned exchange of population between Turkey and the Balkan states, primarily. In accordance with the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne, Turkey accepted approximately 500,000 Muslims, who were forced to leave their homes in the Balkans, in exchange for nearly 2 million Greeks, who were forced to leave Anatolia. By special arrangement, Greeks living in Istanbul and Turks living in the Greek part of Thrace were exempted from the compulsory exchanges. After 1925 Turkey continued to accept Muslims speaking Turkic languages as immigrants and did not discourage the emigration of members of non-Turkic minorities. More than 90 percent of all immigrants arrived from the Balkan countries. Between 1935 and 1940, for example, approximately 124,000 Bulgarians and Romanians of Turkish origin immigrated to Turkey.... Basically, Turkey's policy on minority rights is outlined in the Lausanne Peace Treaty of 1923. Turkey argues that national minorities are those that are recognized by international treaties. Under the frames of the Lausanne Treaty the definition of minorities was made as 'non-Moslems'and their rights were granted as follows: "The freedoms of living, religious beliefs and migration, The rights of legal and political equality, Using the mother tongue in the courts, opening their own schools or similar institutions, The holding of religious ceremonies". It refused any distinct status for non-Turkish Moslems. Only Greeks, Armenian Christians and Jews were formally acknowledged as minorities. Greeks Since 1924 the status of the Greek minority in Turkey has been ambiguous. Most Turks do not accept the country's Greek citizens as their equals. Beginning in the 1930s, the government encouraged the Greeks to emigrate, and thousands, in particular the educated youth, did so, reducing the Greek population to about 48,000 by 1965.

Arab Revolt

The Arab Revolt began June 10, 1916 when Husayn's tribal forces attacked the Ottoman garrison at Mecca By September, most of the principal towns of the Hijaz were in Husayn's hands, with the exception of Medina, which was placed under siege for the duration of the war To justify the revolt, Husayn appealed primarily to the cause of Islamic solidarity Aware of his delicate position in leading a rebellion against the Ottoman sultan, he tried to portray his action as a duty to Islam Although clandestine support for the revolt existed in some parts of Syria, Husayn's call failed to generate any organised response in the Arab-speaking provinces Many Arab public figures accused Husayn of being a traitor and condemned his actions as dividing the Ottoman-Islamic Empire at a time when unity was most needed

Six Day War

The Six-Day War took place in June 1967. The Six-Day War was fought between June 5th and June 10th. The Israelis defended the war as a preventative military effort to counter what the Israelis saw as an impending attack by Arab nations that surrounded Israel. The Six-Day War was initiated by General Moshe Dayan, the Israeli's Defence Minister. The war was against Syria, Jordan and Egypt. Israel believed that it was only a matter of time before the three Arab states co-ordinated a massive attack on Israel. After the 1956 Suez Crisis, the United Nations had established a presence in the Middle East, especially at sensitive border areas. The United Nations was only there with the agreement of the nations that acted as a host to it. By May 1967, the Egyptians had made it clear that the United Nations was no longer wanted in the Suez region. Gamal Nasser, leader of Egypt, ordered a concentration of Egyptian military forces in the sensitive Suez zone. This was a highly provocative act and the Israelis only viewed it one way - that Egypt was preparing to attack. The Egyptians had also enforced a naval blockade which closed off the Gulf of Aqaba to Israeli shipping. Rather than wait to be attacked, the Israelis launched a hugely successful military campaign against its perceived enemies. The air forces of Egypt, Jordan, Syria and Iraq were all but destroyed on June 5th. By June 7th, many Egyptian tanks had been destroyed in the Sinai Desert and Israeli forces reached the Suez Canal. On the same day, the whole of the west bank of the Jordan River had been cleared of Jordanian forces. The Golan Heights were captured from Syria and Israeli forces moved 30 miles into Syria itself. The war was a disaster for the Arab world and temporarily weakened the man who was seen as the leader of the Arabs - Gamal Abdul Nasser of Egypt. The war was a military disaster for the Arabs but it was also a massive blow to the Arabs morale. Here were four of the strongest Arab nations systematically defeated by just one nation. The success of the campaign must have surprised the Israelis. However, it also gave them a major problem that was to prove a major problem for the Israeli government for decades. By capturing the Sinai, the Golan Heights and the West Bank of the Jordan River, the Israelis had captured for themselves areas of great strategic value. However, the West Bank also contained over 600,000 Arabs who now came under Israeli administration. Their plight led many young Arabs into joining the Palestinian Liberation Organisation (PLO), a group that the Israelis deemed a terrorist organisation. Israeli domestic policies became a lot more complicated after the military successes of June 1967.

Oslo Accords (September 1993)

Two State Solution Israel recognized the PLO as the sole legitimate representative of the Palestinian people. For its part the PLO once again recognized Israel's right to exist in peace and security Palestinian Authority Established The sides agreed to the creation of a Palestinian Interim Self-Government Authority, which became known as the Palestinian Authority (PA), to represent the Palestinians in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip for a five-year transitional period leading to a permanent settlement. It was under the Oslo Accords that Yasser Arafat was allowed to return to Palestine to take command of the PA in 1994. No discussion on permanent borders, refugees, status of Jerusalem - no decisions on HOW Palestinians would gain state.

Developments leading to the Act of Union (1909)

Trigger: Customs union issues, railway rates. But also feelings of South African nationalism emerging - white and male, thought despite Milner's demographic engineering, not a British white majority - an Afrikaner nationalism. Most Afrikaner politicians saw that imperial connections would enhance economic progress, and realised (rightly) that if ethnic politics became an issue the whites would stick together, and the British were in the minority there. Compromises for Union: Split capital. Pretoria (Executive and civil service), Cape Town (Parliament), Bloemfontein (Supreme Court). Franchise and political incorporation of Africans and coloureds. Previously: Republics: White men only Natal: Nearly all white men, a few blacks who squeezed past stringent rules and no Indians Cape: Economic (land ownership) qualification - most white men (80%), Coloured men (13%) and Africans (2%) had the franchise. Members of Parliament had all been white, though no formal provision. Compromise reached: Existing franchises in each colony maintained. Only men were allowed to vote, though plans made to include white women (to dilute black vote further) and rule that only white men could enter parliament formalised. Provision made for a number of senators to represent the opinions of Africans. Mass Protests from blacks at prospect of Union. Political action in Cape Colony hoping that petitions would help (as armed struggle had failed in the past). African delegations travelled to Britain to protest, but to no avail. Britain more concerned to reconcile the Afrikaners to the Imperial connection than to address black grievances. Ross: 'It [Britain] was more than happy to treat South Africa as a white dominion, run, as were Australia and Canada, by its own parliament...the opinions of blacks within the four colonies were not thought important." The British did lay down conditions (never met) for the incorporation of Basutoland, Bechuanaland and Swaziland into South Africa. Ross: 'It was hoped, vainly, that the liberal traditions of the Cape would in time spread to the rest of the country.'

Policies of Smuts and Hertzog (1910-1948); segregation

1911 Mines and Works Act Nationwide system of job reservations in mines and railroads 1911 Natives' Labour Regulation Act It set down the conditions under which Africans would work. 1913 Natives' Land Act Limited African landownership rights to reserves totalling about 7% of SA's land area. In 1936 another law increased that total to 13.5%, mostly in the east of SA. White miners and farmers occupied the best land in these reserves. The Transkei (highlighted right) the only substantial land set aside. The carrying capacity of these reserves on tremendous strain as local African and livestock populations multiplied as Africans were relocated from so-called white areas. What were the consequences for the franchise in the Cape province if Africans could no longer own land? Court action prevented the act being applied to the Cape. 1923 Natives' (Urban Areas) Act Limited black access to white urban areas. "It set forth the principle that urban areas were the white man's preserve and that the black man was there only as a unit of labour." (Beck 123) Local authorities had to set up African locations/townships near to, but separate from, white urban areas. Any African not living in a location had to be provided with housing by their employer. When an African's labour was no longer needed, they could be deported to the reserves. This was influx control - control over blacks entering and leaving urban areas and would be managed by strict enforcement of pass laws. Introduces "influx control" control of Blacks entering and leaving cities. 1924 Industrial Conciliation Act 1927 Native Administration Act 1936 Representation of Natives Act In 1936, the few political rights left to Africans under a colour-blind voter franchise in the Cape province were removed under the Representation of Natives Act. SO -> THEIR RIGHT TO VOTE WAS REMOVED

Egypt after the First World War: Declaration of Independence

1936 Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of Alliance: Recognized Egypt's independence, though it also provided for a British military presence in the Suez Canal zone and reaffirmed Britain's right to defend Egypt in case of attack. Was signed by an elected Wafdist government. 1936 Treaty of Alliance between Britain and Egypt. Egypt recognised as an independent state, but with a special association with Britain (who would have a military position in the Suez Canal) The Anglo-Egyptian Agreement, signed in February 1923, recognized Sudan's self-determination and started up steps to achieve the goal. 2 years later, Sudan's government declared independence, so it removed them out of the question as an obstacle for further Anglo-Egyptian negotiations. "Independence" of 1922: ○ At the end of WWI, violent protests against the British occupation were organised by Egyptian nationalists; in 1922 the protectorate came to an end with the granting of independence for Egypt § However, it was a limited independence § The British continued to claim the right to control the Suez Canal by stationing their troops in the Canal Zone and other areas of Egypt they considered strategically important § For the next 30 years, the British armed presence became a constant source of bitterness to the Egyptians and there were recurrent demonstrations and serious disturbances in the main cities, Alexandria and Cairo § What deepened the protestors' resentment was Britain's continued interference in Egyptian politics □ A particular grievance was the manner in which the British saw fit to advice and direct King Faud (1922-36) and King Farouk (1936-52) ® It was in response to British diplomatic pressure that Farouk's government accepted the terms of the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of August 1936 under which Britain, while withdrawing from other areas in Egypt, was granted the right to maintain a force of 10,000 troops in the Canal Zone ◊ The Treaty intensified the anger of nationalist protestors not only towards the British occupiers, but also towards the monarchy and government which had acquiesced in the humiliation ◊ Demonstrations against British military occupation and political interference and against the weak Egyptian monarchy continued intermittently until 1952

Post-war Iran White Revolution

1953 revolution Shah came back Between 53 and 62, surface democracy, still elections but strictly controlled through candidate lists and electoral college Shah came back as king with parliament Shah finds his backbone and he chooses to interpret the 1953 as a love for him, as he's been chosen by the people (he never really gets that the people were paid by the CIA for the uprisings) Iranian factory pretty much yes or yes for candidate lists Consists of 19 different sets of reforms Women's rights, education, health, move away from Ulama, no political parties, land reform Women got suffrage, restricted polygamy

Camp David (2000)

2000 - Still a need for a final agreement between Israel and the PLO and to finish up the Oslo Accords. A sense of urgency as this was Bill Clinton's last year in office? New Labour government in Israel - Ehud Barak PM since 1999. Had already tried for an agreement with Syria (no success). Barak came to Camp David with the following Israeli offer... to withdraw from 80% of the West Bank...but the Palestinians wanted a 100% withdrawal, and it was unclear exactly where that withdrawal line would be (questions over East Jerusalem) . This issue was used an example of Palestinian intransigency. (Israel already had 78% of historical Palestine...the West Bank and Gaza are the other 22%). A safe passage connecting the West Bank and Gaza. Security arrangements in the Jordan valley with the Israeli military at agreed spots (these Israeli security concerns would split the West Bank, making a viable Palestinian state impossible). Jerusalem would be divided...a shift in the Israeli position since 1967, when Israel stated that Jerusalem should be the undivided capital of Israel. It was generally acceptable to both sides that the city be divided on ethnic lines/residential areas, but the intractable problem remained of the holy sites at Temple Mount - the Dome of the Rock and the Wailing Wall. Israel would NOT accept the 'Right of Return' of Palestinian refugees to Israel as the demographic impact would mean Israel would not be a state 'of the Jewish people'. 'Right of Return' according to Palestinians should be a free choice, whereas Israel as a sovereign state has the right to admit (or not) who it wishes. Demilitarization of a future Palestinian State No agreement is reached. Think about PERSPECTIVES...Israel is thinking in terms of the 1967 success, the Palestinians in terms of 1948. The interstate conflict between Israel and the Arab States is mostly tied to 1967 issues (conquests). The conflict between Israel and the Palestinians is mostly tied to 1948 issues (right to return, rights of Palestinians in Israel) and is far more complex. What issues can Israel concede on in principle without eroding the nature of the Israeli state as a nation state of the Jewish people? 1948 issues relate to the essence of Israel. The right of return of Palestinian refugees and the collective rights of Palestinian people who are citizens of the state of Israel. The 1967 issues are easier to deal with than the 1948 issues Any chance of unilateral disengagement? Occupation is undesirable for both Israel and the Palestinians. Why did the Peace Process fail by 2000? Gap between 1948 and 1967 is insoluble. Resolution 242 is the basis of negotiations (think about all the reasons why Res. 242 is unsatisfactory). Camp David 2000: Israel came with idea of a trade off...would a 'generous' Israeli concession on 1967 questions help the Palestinians 'close the file' on 1948? As some of the 1967 issues became open to negotiation the Palestinians had to broaden out the centrality of the 1948 issues - especially refugees and the Right to return. Arafat felt he had been 'summoned' to Camp David, to suit the US agenda (before Clinton's term expired) and before Barak was subject to a vote of no confidence in the Knesset. Barak's style of negotiations was also off putting, and gave orders, which Arafat then rejected without counter proposals. This left the impression in the international community that Israel had been generous and it was Arafat to blame for the failure of Camp David 2000.

1973 War

Although Sadat was willing to recognise Israel to regain the Sinai, the Israelis was unwilling to discuss the issue. He then turned to the USA in the hope that they. would influence the Israelis to negotiate. However, the USA was preoccupied with involvement in Vietnam and was unwilling to support him. Finally he turned to Syria, where the new president, Assad, had become a close ally. Together, Syria and Egypt planned an attack on Israel. Countries involved in the war: Israel, Egypt, and Syria. Course of the war: 6 October, Egypt and Syria attacked on the Jewish religious festival of Yom Kippur. At first, they made gains in Sinai and the Golan Heights as the Israelis were taken by surprise. Soviet-supplied missiles shot down Israeli aeroplanes. 10 October. The Israelis had rallied and the Syrians were in retreat. 14 October. More than 2,000 tanks from Egypt and Israel fought a battle in the Sinai. The Israelis won. 15 October. The Israelis crossed the Suez Canal, trapping part of the Egyptian army in Sinai. 17 October- The Arabs produced a new tactic—oil sanctions. The oil-producing states reduced production and banned exports to the USA as the chief supporter of Israel and to. The Netherlands, the chief distribution point for oil in Europe, 24 October. The fighting ended in response to an international call for a cease-fire, Results: i. a military victory for the Israelis, but a political victory for the Arabs. With their early victories they had recaptured lost pride; ii. the Israelis had been shaken by the surprise attack, Defence Minister, Moshe Dayan, a soldier-hero of the Six-day War, was forced to take responsibility for the country's unprepaxedness and in 1974 resigned; iii. the Arab use of the 'oil weapon' made the Western world take far more notice of Arab grievances. Outside involvement: Both superpowers were heavily involved in supplying arms, the USA to Israel and the Soviet Union to the Arabs.

Sadat Political Development

Changed the name of Egypt from UAR to Arab Republic of Egypt (a shift away from Nasser's Pan-Arabism) Sadat dealt with his key rival in the ASU Ali Sabri in May 1971: ASU purged - potential rivals to Sadat replaced with loyalists, Sabri imprisoned, and Sadat condicted several purges. 1971 September: New constitution - maintained the central authority of the President like Nasser, Sadat would use referenda to approve constitutional changes.: Islam declared the state religion Women given some rights 1973 Sadat purged the ASU of leftists 1973 Sadat bolstered by success in 1973 War With the Infitah increasing political pluralism developed and by 1978 the ASU had been disbanded into three different political parties (left, centre, right) After Camp David: Sadat began to fear a military coup and dismissed the army chief of staff. Egypt's increased isolation meant Sadat assumed increased powers in Egypt - he dissolved parliament, rigged the first multi-party elections in June 1979 Expelled the last remaining Soviet advisers Moved closer to the USA In May 1980 Sadat forced the PM Mustafa Khalil (who he had only appointed in 1979) to resign and appointed himself PM! Banned strikes and demonstrations - a crackdown on dissidents in September 1981 resulted in 2000 arrests

Sadat Social Policies

Economic policies brought Egypt efficiency at the cost of social unrest. Bread riots, accusations of corruption 1977 January. The IMF told Egypt to stop subsidising staple foods and put their loans to more productive economic use...Clashes over bread riots had to be out down by the army, led to 800 deaths, thousands wounded. Muslim Brotherhood and other opposition groups started gaining support. (the most serious protests in Egypt since the anti-British riots of 1952). Subsidies restored! Sadat allowed the Muslim Brotherhood to resume its non-political activities. MB attracted a lot of student members. In the malaise of the the late 1970s other more militant groups also emerged Life expectancy: grew by 11 years from 1960 to 1982, population continues to grow Women: a return to more traditional values, centering on the family women still equal in politics (1979 30 seats in parliament were reserved for women). Talla society founded by Sadat's wife: a cooperative which made it possible for village women to learn skills to enable them to earn their own money which in turn paved the way to becoming more self-sufficient and contribute the financial welfare of their families Many women from lower socio-economic groups participated in Islamic fundamentalist calls to dress more conservatively Egypt peace treaty with Israel alienated the Islamic forces in Egypt (who had largely been dismantled under Nasser and Sadat but now had a renewed vigour) Omar Khalifah Nasser in the Egyptian Imaginary - notes that cinema in Sadat's time criticised the Nasser era (not necessarily Nasser himself) in order to legitimise the Sadat regime. The economic problems of the late 1970s helped to create a nostalgia for the Nasser era.

The end of the apartheid system: De Klerk's lifting of the ban on the ANC

F. W. de Klerk becomes state president: Botha mild stroke in January 1989, temporarily resigned and de Klerk stepped in and Botha resigned in August. De Klerk immediately began talks with legitimate leaders: released 8 prisoners including Walter Sisulu 2 Feb. 1990 announced release of Mandela and unbanning of UDF, ANC, PAC, SACP. De Klerk said he planned to open negotiations to develop a new SA constitution based on universal suffrage. A surprise announcement. 11 February 1990 Mandela released from prison. Several speeches thanking supporters, ANC, MK, SACP and signaled his intention to maintain armed struggle. De Klerk disappointed with this, but Mandela wanted to keep up pressure and maintain the ANC support base. ANC weaknesses. Although in 1990 it was clear ANC most likely to form the next govt of SA it had been banned for many years, it had no internal organization, no local branches and few members with political or organizational experience - worked hard on this over the next two years. Divisions over tactics and ideology: communism or capitalism, armed struggle or negotiation. Divisions between exiles, prisoners and those who stayed. Tension as the radical youths who had brought down the government were now expected to listen to older ANC members. White government still in charge: ANC could not take initiative on any matter (housing, holding elections) without consulting white authorities Role of Winnie Mandela: found guilty (Feb 1991) of the kidnapping and assault of a young activist Stompie Mokoetsie by her personal bodyguard the 'Mandela football team'. Whilst popular amongst radicals she also had many enemies. Winnie and Nelson separated in 1991, divorced 1996.

Separation of Forces Agreement Syria and Israel (May 1974)

Israeli withdrawal to 1967 border Exchange of POWs Negotiations between Israel and Syria were considerably more difficult. But they too ended with a separation of forces agreement between Syria and Israel in May 1974, where the Israelis withdrew from the territory they had taken from Syria in the recent war, moved back more or less to the lines that had existed after the war of June 1967. Since that time, May 1974, the separation of forces agreement between Israel and Syria has essentially governed the relations between Israel and Syria, now for nearly 40 years.

Effects of Intifada

It brought world attention back to the Palestinian question. • It made Israelis realise that the Palestinian problem had to be addressed. O Television coverage of soldiers severely beating young boys harmed the image of Israel and reversed the 'David and Goliath' image, making Israel the biutal giant. • It gave heart to the Palestinians in the territories as it became clear that the Israeli army could not stop the demonstrations. o In August 1988 King Hussein of Jordan renounced Jordanian control over the West Bank and made it clear that discussions over the future of the area were a matter for the PLO on the Arab side. 6 It gave an Impetus for fresh approaches on a diplomatic level to solve the problems of the region.

Iraq Mandate

Problems related to national unity/demographics: Large Kurdish population in north (hopes for self determination came to nothing after Treaty of Lausanne) Turkish and Christian Assyrian minorities Arabs divided between Sunnis and Shiites (Shiites more numerous, but Sunnis more politically dominant) Iraq's borders had been largely drawn up to suit the British who anticipated oil in Mosul and Kirkuk and negotiated it out of Syria, Shiites in the south around Basra included in Iraq to provide access to the Gulf. 1920 Revolt in Iraq led to deaths of 10,000 Iraqis and 450 British soldiers - Britain decided to find an Arab ruler who would sign a treaty and safeguard British interests. Faisal had recently lost Greater Syria to the French. King Faisal (son of Hussein) had controlled Syria briefly from the end of WWI to July 1920 - he was evicted by the French with British agreement (in return for British control of Mosul - originally intended for French control by Sykes-Picot - Mosul went to Iraq) . King Faisal I had been imposed from the outside by a carefully managed referendum (Hashemite dynasty: Son of Hussein the Emir of Mecca, and brother to Abdullah - King of Jordan), but he was a popular and unifying force: Moved decisively to put down Kurdish and Bedouin lawlessness Brought the mostly Persian Shiite ulama under control British mediation helped to settle some of the Saudi border disputes Wrangled (and won) Mosul (believed to be oil rich) from the Turks Reduced power of British officials 1924 Established a Constituent Assembly 1925 Anglo-Iraqi Treaty - maintained British rights in Iraq including two air bases and training of military personnel By the late 1920s Britain was prepared to end the mandate, but the treaty was delayed by nationalist demands (nationalists concerned about any form of British tutelage), and France also concerned that this would set a precedent for its own mandates. 1932: Iraqi independence, and Iraq the first Arab country to join the LoNs. BUT the feeling lingered that Iraq was still under British hegemony. The Iraq Petroleum Company was headquartered in London and monopolized Iraq's oil resources, paying Iraq a modest royalty for every ton of oil extracted. King Faisal I died suddenly in 1933, succeeded by his son Ghazi - handsome, popular and a nationalist, but lacked Faisal's authority. Despite some able politicians like Nuri al-Said parliamentary democracy failed to take root: elections controlled, conservative interests dominated and most politicians played tribes off against each other. Ghazi benefitted though from oil returns. Oil discovered near Kirkuk in 1927, by 1934 it was paying out...irrigation, communications and public services. Political instability, incompetence and rivalry could not be managed. Nationalist army officers, inspired by Ataturk seized power in 1936 under the leadership of General Bakr Sidqi. The coup was overthrown ten months later by another military coup (shows divisions in the army) which after two years of political fumbling brought Nuri al-Said to power in 1938. Pro-British and conservative, Nuri dominated the Iraqi state for the next twenty years with his strong personality and political finesse. Mansfield notes: the Iraqi army got 'a taste for interference in political life' and gained 'self-assurance'. Egypt after the First World War: nationalism; emergence of Wafd Party; Declaration of Independence; British influence Palestine mandate: economic, social and political developments; impact of Jewish immigration and settlement; British responses and policies Ataturk and the Turkish Republic: aims and policies; impact on Turkish society; successes and failures Case study on Iran, Saudi Arabia or a North African state: economic, political and social developments; western influences; attempts at modernization

Causes of 1948-49 War

Response to Israeli Declaration of Independence: Israeli declaration of independence: state of Israel declared by its first prime minister, David Ben-Gurion. partition plan, and the declaration was made the day before the British mandate was due to end in Palestine. May 15th - Arab League (Egypt, Iraq, Lebanon, Syria, Transjordan) invades Israel to "liberate Palestine", starting the first Arab-Israeli war. Jewish-Arab civil war had become a regional war, between the newly-formed state of Israel and the surrounding Arab states. War of independence for Israel vs War to liberate Palestine for Arab states. 'An Nakbah' for the Palestinians - the catastrophe. British Withdrawal: Global decolonization of India and Pakistan US gaining more authority Unable to cope with military tensions 23.5 million pounds to remain in mandate Britain was weakened by the War Political: Biltmore Declaration (USA) 1942---officially made the declaration that the Zionist aim was for a Jewish state to be created Compromise became increasingly difficult: 31 July 1947: Irgun hanged two British soldiers King David Hotel bombing Jewish terrorism(Irgun and Stern gangs) During and after the war increasing Jewish military (Irgun, Stern gang, etc.) made British rule problematic Deep hostility between Arabs and Jews made compromise difficult

International opposition to apartheid: the impact of the economic boycott

South Africa in the late 1970s: Consequences of international reaction to Soweto riots and Biko's death: International investments dropped (SA government tried to counter this with international propaganda campaigns - secretly funded by the SA Defence Department - buying newspapers and politicians favours) Capital flowed out Standards of living fell - especially for whites who had the most to lose Housing market slumped, businesses failed White conscription and emigration meant fewer whites available for some jobs, straining the apartheid system as employers recruited blacks 1977: SA experienced a net loss of white population - 3000 mostly professionals, mostly through emigration Black birth rate increasing - by 1977 white population of SA had dropped from a high of 21% to 16% (Beck 173) Change in the nature of SA Afrikaners: the Afrikaner farmers who had elected Malan in 1948 were now civil servants and mine owners, nearly 80% of them urban dwellers August 1985: Botha's 'Rubicon Address' to the NP Congress in Durban. Botha said: He would not abandon apartheid He would not include Africans in the political process He rejected foreign interference International community imposed sanctions, capital withdrawn, value of rand fell, stock exchange even had to close, foreign banks refused to roll over loans. Economic Situation 1980s: Economy needed to grow in order to raise living standards of urbanized blacks Large international banks now refused to roll over loans/grant new ones 1986 US Congress had passed comprehensive anti-apartheid measures African population continuing to grow and flexing economic muscle through strikes (over 1000 in 1987), buying power and small businesses Massive cost of maintaining SA's security forces, and the duplication of services for each racial group in health, education and welfare

Balfour Declaration

The Balfour Declaration of 1917 was the first significant declaration by a world power in favour of a Jewish "national home" in what was known as Palestine. Historians disagree as to what the then British Foreign Secretary, Arthur James Balfour, intended by his declaration. The letter has no mention of the word "state", and insists that nothing should be done "which may prejudice the civil and religious rights of existing non-Jewish communities in Palestine". The letter was addressed to Lord Rothschild, a leader of the Jewish community in Britain. It became an important arm of the movement to create a Jewish state in Palestine. The Balfour Declaration was a partition scheme to divide the Ottoman Empire; it was made more complex by the fact that it was issued unilaterally by Britain and viewed by France and Sharif Husayn as contravening agreements Britain made with them already (with the Sykes-Picot Agreement and Britain's pledge to Sharif Husayn)

Intifada

The Intifada (uprising) began in the Occupied Territories in December 1987. It took the form of spontaneous attacks on Israeli troops by gangs of stone-throwing youths. At first the demonstrations and street riots lacked organisation but during 1988 the PLO began to take a hand in the area. The Palestinian campaign took the form of street disturbances, usually by gangs of youths, strikes by shopkeepers and businesses, and a boycott of tax payments to the Israeli authorities. The Israeli army responded with a variety of policies including curfews, shootings with rubber bullets and live ammunition, mass arrests, tear gas, severe beatings of suspects, the destruction of crops, the demolition of houses of suspected rioters, and the deportation of captured leaders. Despite these measures the Israelis were unable to end the Intifada. By the first anniversary of the uprising at the close of 1988, more than 7,000 Palestinians had been injured, 15,000 arrested, 12,000 gaoled, 34 deported, and 318 killed by the Israeli army. Eleven Israelis had been killed by Palestinians, along with a number of Palestinians executed by their fellow Arabs, usually on the grounds of alleged cooperation with the Israeli occupation forces. A lid was being kept on the unrest, but only at the cost of using 11,000 Israeli soldiers for the purpose. Intifada: Note down 3 long/medium term factors that contributed to growing Palestinian discontent. Is the rest of the world interested? Feeling of being ignored Lacking organisation Palestine begin to question the PLO Hamas is much more radical Emerges from Muslim Brotherhood UNLU Brings all people together, leaving PLO behind Based in the West Bank Communist start going to the mosque for support Islamic Jihad movement Was not part of the intifada movement Students are going on protests So they challenged the forces bc the forces couldn't fight n=back since they did not have gun 'If you can't control children how can you take on the responsibility of taking care of Jerusalem. They have to rethinking their whole strategy Tear gas, rubber bullets Jews settlers also attacked In the 1980s - what's happening to the groups that represent the Palestinians? Jihad, PPP, Hamas emerge How did the Palestinian People's Party (Communist) and Islamic Jihad support the Intifada? Ppp: persuasion Jihad: violence How did Israel respond to the Intifada? They don't know how to What were the challenges and benefits to the PLO from the Intifada? The plo did no have Palestine's interest anymore or the means to do it 242: political attempt to solve a border problem, however it's a human problem

McMahon-Hussein correspondence

The McMahon-Hussein Agreement of October 1915 was accepted by Palestinians as a promise by the British that after World War One, land previously held by the Turks would be returned to the Arab nationals who lived in that land. The McMahon-Hussein Agreement was to greatly complicate Middle East history and seemed to directly clash with the Balfour Declaration of 1917. In an effort to create a third front against the Central Powers (Germany, Austria and Turkey) the Allies encouraged the Arab people in the Ottoman Empire to rise up against their Turkish overlords thus splitting the Central Powers war effort three ways. Sir Henry McMahon, acting on behalf of the British government, met with Sherif Hussein of Mecca in 1915 and made what were taken to be a series of promises to the Arab people. These 'promises' were later disputed by the British government and, as with many issues concerning recent Middle East history, were open to interpretation. Hussein interpreted the correspondence given to him by McMahon as a clear indication that Palestine would be given to the Palestinians once the war had ended. The British government was later to dispute this interpretation. They claimed that any land definitions were only approximate and that a map drawn at the time (but not by McMahon or a member of the British delegation) excluded Palestine from land to be given back to the Arab people. The confusion arose from one small phrase in the correspondence between McMahon and Hussein. Land that "cannot be said to be purely Arab" was excluded from the agreement - as far as the British were concerned. Hussein, and very many Arab people, considered Palestine to be "purely Arab". The British saw Palestine differently as the Turks, while they had been masters over Palestine, had allowed other religious groups to exist in Jerusalem - hence their belief that Palestine "cannot be said to be purely Arab". By the time war ended in November 1918, two distinct schools of thought had developed regarding Palestine: 1) That the British had promised Palestine to the Arabs after the war had ended in return for their support to the Allies in the war. 2) That the British had agreed to give their support to the Jews for a homeland in Palestine as laid out in the Balfour Declaration of 1917. In fact, neither was to emerge as the League of Nations had given Palestine to the British to govern as a mandate. This left many Palestinians feeling that they had been betrayed by the British government. At the same time many Jews started to enter Palestine as a result of what they believed the Balfour Declaration had offered them. The British were left to ensure law and order was guaranteed in Palestine - something they found increasingly difficult to do. Britain agreed to a Hashemite Caliphate - excluding areas of Syria to the west of Damascus (where the population was not purely Arab - a christian population), and excluding areas of French influence Arabs would contribute to the war effort against the OE

Discovery of diamonds and gold Political Consequences

The conquests of the pedi and the zulu and other african chiefdoms were influenced by the increasing demand for diamond and gold and thus a larger labour force. Xhosa were Bantu-speaking farmers, located on the Eastern Frontier. The 9 Frontier Wars were fought for over 70 years between the Boers (Dutch) and then the British and the Xhosa who resisted impressively against the colonial growing military forces. In the first few wars, the Xhosa were mostly involved in a battle against the Dutch and eventually the British in order to keep their land, such as Zuurveld. In 1834, during the Sixth Frontier War, the Xhosa invaded and raided the Cape Colony in retaliation. Even after the wars, the Xhosa continued to resist the British until their cattle got killed by disease. In fear, the Xhosa killed thousands of their cattle and crops leaving them in famine, resulting in thousands of Xhosa people having to leave their lands or end up working for the British "in defeat". This was during the time of the eighth war. The British continued their land expansion due to the inability of the Xhosa to resist, but while they lost their land, they remained in South Africa as a growing population. During the 1880s and the Mineral Revolution, the Transkeian territories which included the Xhosa were put under colonial control, then annexed. Sotho, or Basotho people, are currently located in the Lesotho area. During the Mineral Revolution, the Sotho refused to pay taxes and give in their weapons, leading to war. They claimed that area following three wars between themselves and the white Dutch arrivers, and eventually the British who, in 1868, declared the Basotho Kingdom as a British protectorate, meaning it was protected and controlled by the British. A year later, the boundaries for Lesotho were formed and no further conflicts between the Free State (the Dutch) and the Basotho took place. Many Sotho villages began losing their land in the early 20th century due to the Whites control and the mineral revolution, so many people turned to working in the mines for hope. The Zulus found themselves in the middle of a war against Britain in 1879, which they lost. The British planned on taking over the Zulu Kingdom and creating a South African federation instead of the independent African Kingdom. One of the main reasons that the British wanted to take over the Zulus was to use the population as labourers, especially for the diamond in South Africa. When the British annexed Transvaal, and the Zulus rejected dismantling their army, the British invaded them, and divided the Zulus into smaller chiefdoms that were set to provide labour. In the 19th century, Swaziland was mostly and independent African region that gave land, grazing and mineral concessions to the British, which eventually weakened the Swazi government. This gave the Boers initiative to have access to the coast through the Transvaal. The British, in return for not allowing the Boers to gain access to the coast by the Transvaal staying out of north of the Limpopo, made Swazi a "protectorate"

United Arab Republic (UAR)

The creation of the UAR in early 1958 appeared to be a major step for Arab unity The UAR was a total union of Syria and Egypt to be a single state The members of the Ba'th Party feared that the small but well-organized Communist movement in Syria was going to overthrow the government, so they went to Egypt for help (they thought they could stall and preserve the government) Nasser accepted and less than a month later, the UAR was announced and Nasser was cheered in Damascus The UAR was an awkward entity It existed because of Syria's political problem and Nasser's accepting an offer he couldn't refuse The new state was to be an integral union, but Egypt quickly became dominant The Syrian leaders who requested the merger were forced to live in Cairo, where they had little influence in events in their homeland Nasser, became president of UAR, imposed the single-party military regime in Syria Egyptian military and civilian personnel went into Syria, replaced their counterparts there for several important functions and behaved with a high-handed arrogance which infuriated the Syrians Abolition of Syrian political parties, the dismissal of Syrian officers and the forced introduction of a modified version of Egyptian land reforms alienated powerful sectors in the Syrian society In September 1961, units from the Syrian military rebelled against their Egyptian commanders and ended the UAR and the first self-conscious experiment in Arab unity The destruction of the UAR put a blow to Nasser's prestige and prompted him to reappraise his goals

White Paper 1939

WWII was approaching and Britain feared the growth of friendship between Arab leaders and Germany. Britain needed to keep the Arab countries on its side so that oil supplies from the Middle East would continue to reach Britain. The government issued a special White Paper, which declared that Britain wanted an independent Palestine within 10 years. This would be neither a Jewish state nor an Arab one but one in which Arabs and Jews shared responsibility for governing the country. Meanwhile, Britain would continue to rule Palestine. The White Paper also said that Britain would restrict Jewish immigration: - A quota of 10,000 Jewish immigrants would be allowed for each of the following 5 years. - In addition, as a contribution towards the solution of the Jewish refugee problem, 25,000 refugees would be admitted. - After a period of five years, no further Jewish immigration would be permitted unless the Arabs of Palestine would agree to it. The Jews were furious about this. To them, this was an act of betrayal by the British.

Egypt after the First World War: emergence of Wafd Party

• Developing from the various Egyptian nationalist movements in the 19th century, the Wafd came to prominence as a single party at the end of WWI when it began to press for the ending of British dominance over Egypt ○ This attracted popular support and for 2 decades following 1922, the date when the British protectorate ended, the Wafd could genuinely claim to be the voice of Egyptian hopes for full independence § However, its willingness to compromise lessened its influence and popularity § Although it claimed to be an anti-monarchial party, its co-operation with the royal government in the signing of the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty in 1936 led many Egyptian nationals to doubt that the Wafd truly represented the nation

Egypt after the First World War: British Influence

○ At the end of WWI, violent protests against the British occupation were organised by Egyptian nationalists; in 1922 the protectorate came to an end with the granting of independence for Egypt § However, it was a limited independence § The British continued to claim the right to control the Suez Canal by stationing their troops in the Canal Zone and other areas of Egypt they considered strategically important § For the next 30 years, the British armed presence became a constant source of bitterness to the Egyptians and there were recurrent demonstrations and serious disturbances in the main cities, Alexandria and Cairo § What deepened the protestors' resentment was Britain's continued interference in Egyptian politics □ A particular grievance was the manner in which the British saw fit to advice and direct King Faud (1922-36) and King Farouk (1936-52) ® It was in response to British diplomatic pressure that Farouk's government accepted the terms of the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of August 1936 under which Britain, while withdrawing from other areas in Egypt, was granted the right to maintain a force of 10,000 troops in the Canal Zone ◊ The Treaty intensified the anger of nationalist protestors not only towards the British occupiers, but also towards the monarchy and government which had acquiesced in the humiliation ◊ Demonstrations against British military occupation and political interference and against the weak Egyptian monarchy continued intermittently until 1952 • British influence over the monarchy and government became stronger with the coming of WWII ○ Anxious to protect the Suez Canal and maintain Egypt as a base for their campaigns against the Axis forces in North Africa, the British regarded the Wafd as the main party that would keep Egypt loyal to Britain § A critical event occurred in 1942 when Britain insisted that King Farouk appoint a pro-British Wafd prime minister □ British troops surrounded the royal palace as Britain's Egyptian ambassador marched in on Farouk and demanded that the Prime Minister, Ali Maher, who was believed to have German sympathies, be dismissed and replaced with Mustapha Nahas