India after Independence 4
However, situation on economic front was poor
Rains had again failed in 1966, inflation was acute and food shortage grave. Two back to back wars had eaten into funds and military expenses were high which affected planning process adversely. Indira Gandhi launched a war-like effort to deal with famine and food insecurity. At that time India was heavily dependent upon PL-480 program of the US to import wheat for food security
India now decided to strengthen food security by enhancing indigenous production through 'Green revolution'
and India made it in her mind to never be too dependent on the US and later Indira also openly condemned US aggression in Vietnam. India instead developed close relations with Naseer of Egypt and Tito of Yugoslavia and re-focused on non-alignment apart from pursuing good relations with the USSR.
With time, Shastri also got hang of administration
and India was one of the first countries to criticize the US bombing of North Vietnam. He also setup his own secretariat and named it as PMO which emerged as parallel cabinet during Indira Gandhi's time
A humiliated Syndicate expelled her from party as a disciplinary action and party was dividedA humiliated Syndicate expelled her from party as a disciplinary action and party was divided
as - Congress (R) lead by Indira, R standing for requisitionists, and Congress (O) led by Syndicate, O standing for Organization. Over the time, Congress (R) became the Congress which exists today.
To provide further organizational cohesion, Patel made a provision that no person who is a member of any other party with a constitution can be its member though it was earlier allowed as in case of Congress Socialist and Communist party.
As a result, Socialists left the party terming it as a bourgeoisie move and base of Congress didn't remain as broad as it was earlier. Nehru, However, made several attempts to bring them back and even Congress retained its left of the centre approach. Still Congress largely remained democratic and view of party members was reflected in meetings of AICC
An irritated US also resorted to gun-boat diplomacy and sent aircraft carrier USS Enterprise to exert pressure on India.
But India ignored the US move and Dacca was captured by 16th December within 2 weeks of Pakistan launching attack on Western front and declared unilateral ceasefire on Western front as continuation of war on Western front could have been hazardous for both the sides. Pakistan too accepted the ceasefire and released Mujbir Rehman on 12th January 1972.
Jay Prakash left in 1954 to focus on Bhoodan and other constructive activities.
In 1957, he even declared that party democracy is not suitable for India and instead, there should be 'party less democracy' in India. Lohia formed Socialist Party and took a militant approach and resorted to strikes, agitations, civil disobedience etc. and had an anti-Congress, anti-Nehru agenda. Main agendas were immediate substitution of English with Hindi and 60% reservation for women, SCs, STs and other backward sections. It again merged with PSP and subsequently lost its identity.
According to it, India agreed to return the territories occupied by it except a few strategic ones like those in Kargil sector
In return Pakistan agreed to respect LoC and resolve all the matters by mutual agreement without external mediation like from UN, the US etc. India also returned the prisoners of wars and one year later Pakistan also recognized Bangladesh.
India was still reluctant to make a first move Pakistan launched an attack on Western front of India through air strikes
India immediately responded by recognizing Bangladesh and it erected strong defence on Western front and also made a swift move in the East forcing Pakistani army to surrender even before the US and China could decide about intervening. The US even termed India aggressor and brought two UN resolutions which were vetoed by the USSR and abstained by France and the UK
Death of President Zakir Hussain in 1969 precipitated events as Syndicate wanted to have their own man in the office and nominated Sanjeeva Reddy - a member of Syndicate
Indira now decided to put her feet down and took away finance portfolio from Desai and assumed this role herself. Immediately she decided nationalization of 14 banks and withdrawal of privileges from princes. These moves became very popular among masses and left parties. In presidential elections also she didn't issue a whip and instead called party workers to vote according to their conscience and as a result, V V Giri, the former vice president and an independent candidate won
The war was a victory of democracy, humanitarian value and of people of Bangladesh
It also had many gains for India and it was a rejection of Two Nations Theory and re-established India as a regional power. Refugee crisis was also solved significantly as more than 1 crore of them sent back. The war was also a symbol of independence of foreign policy despite the US resistance.
It also wanted to radically restrict the role of centralized planning and the role of public sector, as also state regulation
It also vouched for right to property and opposed any ceiling on land-holdings. It accused Nehru of toeing the blind ideological line of Communism and hence taking India to ruins. On foreign relations front, it opposed non-alignment and instead called for allegiance to the US. In 1962 elections it didn't fair too badly and emerged as largest opposition party in 4 states. It declined after death of C Rajagopalachari's death in 1967. When Congress got split in 1969, the reason for existence of Swatantra Party as a separate right wing party also disappeared as Congress (O) was much more right winged
It soon declared that masses are not ready for revolution and decided to participate in electoral politics where it performed well and emerged as largest opposition party in first general elections
It emerged as a force to reckon with in Bengal, Kerala and Andhra and even formed first democratically elected communist government in the world when it won elections of Kerala Assembly in 1957 and by this time had also recognized independence of India. It too like socialists suffered from internal feud over its future approach in India
Communist Party of India was also a part of Congress since 1934, but later parted ways in 1945 and had remarkable growth a few years before
It had an advantage in terms of party organization as it had a very strong disciplined cadre and presence at ground level among peasants, workers etc. Earlier it supported Indian cause, but later under Soviet influence declared Indian independence as a lie (ye azaadi jhoothi hai), declared Congress as a party of feudalists, constitution as a charter of slavery and they launched an armed struggle. It decided to continue the struggle in Telangana against Nizam which had been going since 1946 and even directed it against Indian government. It also tried to call a railway strike in 1949 and a host of other terrorist activities and as a result of which it was also banned for some time
Almost after swearing in as PM after 1971 elections, Bangladesh Crisis broke out
It was a direct challenge to the Two Nations Theory itself that people of one religion form one nation. Political and economic elites of West Pakistan had dominated the scene and people of East Pakistan had no mechanism to air their grievances as Pakistan had been under military rule for significant period. They called for political democracy and greater autonomy for East Pakistan, but they were suppressed instead
Jan Sangh was founded as a Hindu communalist party, but didn't openly pursued it as communalism was in very bad taste after death of Mahatma Gandhi
It was a political front of Rashtriya Swayamsewak Sangh (RSS), which itself was founded in 1925 on militaristic lines. Growth of communal politics in 1940s helped its growth. Golwalkar termed Congressmen as traitor and termed India as a Hindu nation and exhorted others to either follow Hindu culture or remain subservient to it. It strongly criticized secular parties of Muslim appeasement. It was strongly anti-Pakistan in ideology and after partition even doled out rhetoric of re-uniting Indian subcontinent again as 'Akhand Bharat'.
Nehru felt that he wouldn't be able to do justice to two roles at one time and hence resigned from Congress presidentship
J B Kriplani was appointed president instead. Kriplani demanded that decisions of government should be discussed with party organization as well. However Nehru and Patel deemed it unrealistic and improper as executive works under principle of confidentiality in a parliamentary democracy and is responsible to legislature alone
However, the real moment of reckoning for Shastri came during war with Pakistan
Kashmir issue was still simmering and calculating that India must have weakened after 1962 war with China, Pakistan having recently acquired some sophisticated weaponry from the US started a teaser war in marshy area of Kuchh which Indian army could not handle so well due to terrain issues and matter was ultimately referred to international arbitration. Pakistan took it as a sign of Indian weakness and under-preparedness and launched an all-out infiltration in Kashmir. Shastri took a bold step and ordered army to even cross LoC and seal the various passes and occupy strategic peaks like Uri, Kargil, and Haji Pir etc. Unlike 1962, entire country was standing united behind Indian army and leadership
Kriplani resigned on this issue and this issue again arose when Purushottamdas Tandon became party president with whom Nehru had significant differences over his conservative attitude.
Kriplani and others also left the party around same time. In a tussle between Tandon and Nehru, Tandon had to resign and Nehru once again president of party contrary to his own decision to not to do so.
Indira Gandhi also tried to bolster ties with US and visited US
Lyndon Johnson postured to help India out and promised resumption of PL-480 program, but the US sent shipments in small instalments to show its resentment to India's criticism of Vietnam War. India felt humiliated with this 'ship-to-mouth' approach of the US
Nehru died without naming a political heir and dissension and factionalism had become a part of Congress
Major contenders of PM post were Morarji Desai - an honest sound administrator, but unpopular for being self-righteous, inflexible and even right winger; and Lal Bahdur Shastri - a mild, tactful, likeable and personally incorruptible. The succession happened under a group formed in 1963 collectively known as Syndicate headed by K Kamraj the then party president, SK Patil, Neelam Sanjeev Reddy etc. They didn't wanted Desai to be PM for his apparent unpopularity and after internal discussions, Desai gracefully backed out and Shastri was made PM within one week of Nehru's death
On social front as well no great measures were taken evils like caste system, male dominance etc.
Other areas of neglect which today assumed monstrous proportions. The entire educational system was left untouched and unreformed and could not reach masses. No worthwhile political and ideological struggle was launched against communalism as an ideology. Land reforms could also not be implemented properly and so failed CDP leading to enhancement of already existing inequalities
CPM formed government in Bengal in Coalition with Bengal Congress under leadership of Jyoti Basu and it created rift in leadership
A faction of party, especially younger cadre influenced by ongoing Cultural Revolution in China, accused party of betraying the revolution and instead asked to go for armed insurrection to alleviate the sufferings of poor peasantry and later spreading to whole country.
Domestically, 1966 was a year of turmoil as due to food shortage, inflation was galloping, unemployment was rising and economic conditions were bad
Agitations and protests were also on rise. Bandhs were a new feature of protest. The year also saw downgrade of Parliament as an institution and it as frequently marred by indiscipline, disturbances and so on. The young PM was shown little courtesy and was termed 'goongi gudiya' by Lohia. Within Congress also dissent and factionalism was on the rise and Syndicate led by Kamraj wanted to have greater say in working of the government.
Starting was made form Naxalbari area of West Bengal in which a peasant uprising was launched.
As a result, CPM leadership expelled the revolutionaries accusing them of spreading left-wing-adventurism. This breakaway faction came to be known as Naxalites. It also attracted middle class intelligentsia and college youth. CPM (Leninist) was formed in 1969 under leadership of Charu Mazumdar and it called Indian democracy a sham and instead launched Guerilla attacks on Chinese model and they even declared Chinese president Mao Ze Dong as their Chairman as well and received political and ideological support also from China
First signs of it appeared in the loss of party in 3 Lok Sabha by-elections in 1963
As a result, Nehru made a last ditch effort to strengthen party internally with the help of K Kamraj, chief minister of Madras. They came up with what is known as 'Kamraj Plan' in August 1963 to infuse a new life into the party and restore the balance between party and the government. The plan stressed that leading Congressmen who are in good positions in government like cabinet ministers, Chief Ministers etc. should voluntarily resign and should instead focus on strengthening organizational aspect of party. Nehru was made authority to decide whose resignation to accept and thus also to have an authority to cleanse the party at the top
Elections were held by General Yahya Khan in which Bengal's Awami League won 99% seats of East Pakistan and overall majority.
But the army and Yahya Khan backed by Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto didn't allow Sheikh Mujibur Rahman to form government and when Rahman launched a protest movement, he was arrested It also led to terror of army in form of innocent killings, arrests of intellectuals, rapes, illegal detentions etc. in East Pakistan. A large section of East Pakistan police and paramilitary organizations revolted. Many leaders of Awami League escaped to Calcutta and formed there government in exile and organized 'Mukti Bahini' and launched fierce underground movement and guerrilla warfare. Hindus and other minorities like Sikhs were special targets and more than 10 lakh refugees had taken refuge in India by that time at a great humanitarian cost to India and it left India with no choice, but to intervene. Pakistan in the meanwhile spread the propaganda that the insurgency had been instigated by India. But India rubbished this claim and supported the cause of people of Bengal.
Differences merged sharply during Chinese attack in 1962, Russia-China differences.
China further fuelled differences when it gave an international call to CPI members to split from those supporting Soviet line. It finally got split in 1964 into CPI and Marxist CPM. CPM was more radical in its approach and envisaged an armed revolution at suitable future time and till then work under constitutional framework. Both formed government in Kerala, Tripura and Bengal at times. The party failed to appreciate the nature of Indian nationalism fully and its internal organization, which was bureaucratic and secretive, made it unsuitable for working in a democratic setup.
Other early political developments and opposition parties
Congress Socialist Party Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party Praja Socialist Party Socialist Party Communist Party of India CPM Jan Sangh Swatantra Party
Shastri showed less interest in party activities and even provided greater autonomy to cabinet.
He, however, had a slack attitude regarding various problems like language issue, Punjabi suba demand and Goa merger which took a bad shape over time and he was even accused of indecisiveness. Indian economy was also stagnated at that time and there was severe food insecurity due to draught in 1965. The US also suspended food aid in wake of Pakistan war. One positive development was initiation of Green Revolution
During times of Nehru party cadre was never mobilized to implement the vision of Nehru and as a result party members lost touch from the ground.
Departure of socialists like Jay Prakash Narayan weakened the radical forces within the party and they didn't show any willingness to side Congress despite some repeated appeals from Nehru and finally the two moved ways apart. Nehru in turn tried to ingrain socialism in the party structure itself by pursuing policy of land reforms, planned development, cooperative farming etc. However, even assertion of socialism couldn't stall the decline of party and party was marred by power hunger, factionalism, nepotism and so on.
India still had over 90,000 prisoners of war, had more than 9,000 sq km of foreign land under control and Pakistan had still not recognized Bangladesh
For durable peace a mutually agreed framework was necessary. A hostile Pakistan meant high military expenditure and a possible outside power interference in Indo-Pak relations. As a result, Indira Gandhi and Zulifqar the newly elected Pakistani PM met in Shimla to sign Shimla Agreement in 1972
One of the most important parties that emerged was Socialist Party which was born in 1934 as Congress Socialist Party as a part of Congress, but with its own constitution and ideology
Many of its leaders were of tall stature like - Acharya Narendra Dev, Jay Prakash Narayan, Achyut Patwardhan, Dr Ram Manohar Lohia, S M Joshi etc. Due to ideological differences, its members didn't even participate in constituent assembly and also opposed partition. It parted ways with Congress in 1948 after Congress put precondition that it's no member will be part of any other party which has a separate constitution and its differences with Congress leaders whom it wanted to have a definite program and ideological commitment to socialism. However, it could not achieve great political success immediately after independence as Congress herself pursued socialist agenda and Socialist remained opposed to whatever Congress did.
In 1970, the government abolished managing agency system which had enabled a handful of capitalists to control a large number of industrial enterprises in which they had little financial stake.
Monopolies and Restrictive Trade Practices Act was also passed in 1969 to prevent excessive wealth concentration in hands of a few capitalists. Land ceiling agenda was taken again. She also launched the much delayed 4th plan. However, her party was a minority government and had to face pressures from other parties
Shastri had a history of heart trouble and died in Tashkent of a sudden stroke
Morarji Desai again laid his claim after death of Shastri and this time also Syndicate was in no mood of allowing him to become PM and instead made Indira a choice. This time, matters were not to be decided by consensus as Desai insisted for a vote in part in which Indira emerged as a clear winner. She inherited many problems like - demand for Punjabi suba, unrest among Mizos and Naga which she deal with effectively
Shortcomings of Nehruvian era
Nehru didn't create many institutional and structural mechanisms to mobilize masses and he primarily used his charisma to get things done. People didn't participate in politics greatly except in taking parts in elections. Bureaucracy and administrative structure also remained unreformed. He also overlooked emerging evils like corruption, bureaucratization
Other early political developments and congress
Social base of Congress extended from metropolitan areas to rural one and it acted as one of the major instruments of political stability. It is also said that after independence, it transformed itself from a social movement to a political institution
Elections were scheduled to be held in 1967 and people were hugely disenchanted with Congress, but had little other choice
Syndicate dominated in ticket distribution leading to great dissent among others. In this election, opposition parties united for the first time irrespective of their ideologies. Communal Jan Sangh joined hand with socialist Lohia group which in turn joined hands with rightist Swatantra Party
Another dissident group from Congress led by J B Kriplani formed Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party claiming to be Gandhian
T Prakasam was another eminent leader of the party. However, party didn't fare well in elections. It merged with Socialist Party after first general elections to form a new party Praja Socialist Party (PSP), but it couldn't remain cohesive and was marred by ideological difference and many of its leaders gradually left, renounced politics or were expelled. T Prakasam, Ashok Mehta etc. also defected to Congress. The party virtually lost any significance soon as its electoral performance remained poor.
It was also banned in aftermaths of assassination of Gandhiji.
The ban was lifted after RSS gave a written undertaking that it would no longer indulge in political activities and as a result Jan Sangh emerged as its front organization in 1951 with Shyama Prasad Mukharjee as its first president. Later party also propagated planning, neo-liberal, neo-socialistic programs and even inducted Muslims in its fold. It merged into Janta Party in 1977 an its anti-Pakistan, anti-Muslim and Akhand Bharat slogan were considerably muted and its leaders used the word Hindu Nationalist to define themselves which was in fact a euphemism for Hindu Communalism.
This time was also a test of Indian federalism which she passed successful as situation remained more or less same in terms of administrative relations between centre and state
This election also highlighted the important position of rich peasants of North India who were upset by government policies regarding food procurement etc. and they played a decisive role in defeat of Congress in the North. The elections also heralded a new era of coalitions and defections and unstable governments. States like Bihar had 7 governments from 1967-70 and there had been 8 instances of presidential rule in 7 states Defection phenomenon started from Haryana which marked beginning of Aya Ram, Gaya Ram politics. It could be checked only in 1986, with passage of Anti Defection legislation.
Eight months passed before any real fight took place and foreseeing trouble on border, Indian army made full preparations and in the meanwhile Mukti Bahini also gained time to strengthen itself as Indian army provided training to them
This time was also utilized to educate international opinion about burden of refugees on India and gross inhumane behaviour of West Pakistan. Indian opinion won support from West as well apart from Soviet and east European Communist countries. The US and China on the other hand adopted a hostile stance and tried to dub the issue as one of Indo-Pakistan rivalry ignoring centrality of plight of Bangladesh. To counter possible interference of the US and China, India also signed a 20 years treaty of peace friendship and cooperation with the USSR in August 1971 and it also provided for mutual help in case of third party military attack.
She also took a bold, but controversial step of devaluation of Indian currency by 35% to boost Indian exports and make India as an investment destination more attractive
US and UK had also stopped aid in wake of Indo-Pak war and were now demanding to devaluate rupee if such aid were to be resumed. However, neither aid resumed significantly, nor capital inflow increased. The step was seen as buckling under foreign pressure and Congress leaders like Kamraj also criticized it as a decision taken without due consultation with party members in an election year
A ceasefire was declared and under mediation of Soviet leadership, Shastri met General Ayub Khan, the Pakistani president to sign Tashkent Declaration
Under this agreement, both sides agreed to withdraw from their respective occupied positions and return to pre-war positions. India had to return certain strategic peaks like Haji Pir to avert heartburn and a future conflict with Pakistan
China made threatening noises and declared India as aggressor, though Soviet sympathized with India and restrained China from taking any adverse steps
Western powers also condemned this undeclared war and cut supplies to both the countries. War was inconclusive with both sides having notions of victory. However, result was that infiltration bid of Pakistan had been foiled. India's lost pride in Chinese war also regained to great extent. Kashmiris also didn't sided with Pakistani forces and it proved a test of Indian secularism in which it came with flying colours
Swatantra Party was perhaps the first all India-secular conservative party which came in existence in 1959
as a reaction to increasing leftist policies of Congress and its most of the members were Congress old timers like C Rajagopalachari, Minoo Masani, N G Ranga and K M Munshi. It was an attempt to bring together the fragmented right wing forces together. It stood for free, private enterprise and opposed the active role of the state in economic development. It had a very narrow social base consisting of some Industrialists and capitalist, princes, jagirdars, rich landlords, rich farmers etc. who were fed up of socialistic agenda and controlling mind-set of government
The attempt was met with repression from Indian government
as a result, the movement was largely suppressed and Maoists were divided into various splinter groups. Decline of Cultural Revolution in China and change in leadership in China also led to their further decline
Election results led to big decline in Congress seats, though it won majority in Lok Sabha
but situation in state assembly was not good and it lost majority in 8 states. This was also a blow to Syndicate as stalwarts like K Kamraj, S K Patil lost elections and so did many of their close supporters and Syndicate was cut to its size, only big challenge in party was in form of Morarji Desai who was made deputy prime minister
After poor performance in 1967 polls, party was I a dilemma over future course of action and party launched 'Ten Point Program' in 1967 as a part of its socialist agenda
it comprised nationalization of banks and general insurance, state trading in imports and export of trade, ceiling on urban property, ceiling on urban property and income, curb on monopolies, public distribution of food grains, rapid implementation of land reforms, house site for the poor and abolition of princely privileges.
Response of Congressmen was immense and all cabinet ministers and all chief ministers offered their resignations
out of which resignations of 6 cabinet ministers viz Babu Jagjivan Ram, Lal Bahdur Shastri, Morarji Desai, S K Patil etc. and 6 chief ministers were accepted However, the decision came very late as Nehru was ailing at that time and all the Congressmen, who were relieved, were not given any significant duty to bolster party except Kamraj who was made party president. They sulked or made intrigues against political rivals in the state. Congressmen continued to be obsessed with administrative power and patronage and overall morale of party remained low.
On the issue of Supreme Court challenging abolition of Privy Purse of princely states which was done by 24th Constitutional Amendment
she dissolved the Lok Sabha and announced fresh elections. Other parties of heterogeneous ideologies like Jan Sangh, Swatantra Party, and Congress (O) formed a 'Grand Alliance' and called for 'Indira Hatao', she countered it with 'Garibi Hatao' which proved more effective and Grand Alliance suffered a major defeat and Indira won majority.