Indian Independence
ow did Indians react to Attlee's announcement?
-Stunned, never thought they would get freedom -had lots of questions: Single central government? Some province independent? How parties share power? Pakistan? -but both the Congress and the Muslim League understood that if there was no agreement on Constitution reached, UK would allow Pakistan to form
Why did Britain want to transfer power to a unified India?
-They were busy with Cold War -Thought India could be their ally if unified -They were instructed to make as few states as possible
second Prime minister of india
Indira Gandhi
what is a secular state
Secular state -- they did not want the religion to determine the government -- government isn't ruled by the religion
how did kashmir fight start
two months after partition, Pathan tribesmen from Pakistan entered Kashmir, routed the maharajah's troops and moved towards the capital, Srinagar. Hari Singh leader of kashmir asked India's assistance, which was granted only after he agreed to annex his state to India. Pakistani troops entered the war in support of the Pathans. Fighting went back and forth. At India's request, the United Nations called for a ceasefire. When fighting stopped, Pakistan controlled the western third of Kashmir, which Pakistan called "Azad (Free) Kashmir." India ruled the eastern two-thirds.
how much muslims and hindus and sikhs
~3/4 hindus ~1/4 muslims ~20% of Punjab sikhs
What role did Indira Gandhi play in India's development?
-Indira Gandhi nationalized India's largest banks and, later, its insurance companies and coal mines. - The country's economy stagnated and corruption sapped the government's strength to deal with economic concerns. -It tested its first nuclear device in 1974 -She formed the Congress (I) Party -India supported Bengali rebels who split Pakistan in two by creating the nation of Bangladesh
What did Muslim League want after Attlee's announcement? How bout Congress? How much time did they have to decide?
-Muslim League wanted all Muslim majority areas to become Pakistan -Congress feared too many independent provinces = lack of unity -Only had 2 mo to make case
who was part of the cabinet mission? and when? and where?
-On March 23, 1946 -three members of the British cabinet arrived in Karachi, India -Lord Frederick William Pethick-Lawrence, Secretary of State for India; Sir Stafford Cripps, President of the Board of Trade; and Mr. Albert V. Alexander, First Lord of the Admiralty
What are the challenges faced by Pakistan?
-One third of Pakistanis live below the poverty line -The national literacy rate is 45 percent (only 30 percent for women). -$32 billion foreign debt and a lack of foreign investment. .
What problems did Nehru face?
-Sikhs pressed for their own state in the Punjab -Besides Hindi and English, fourteen other state languages were made official -In foreign affairs, Nehru tried to be neutral; At first China responded favorably, but later attacked and humiliated India in a 1962 border war.
What two questions continue to haunt Pakistan?
-is Pakistan a secular state for Muslims of the subcontinent or an Islamic state governed by religious law? -
what were the Cabinet missions two main goals?
1. To help the Indian people reach an agreement that would establish a free and united India (hopefully within the British Commonwealth). 2. To create an interim government of Indian leaders that would assist the British Viceroy Wavell in governing India until it was granted independence.
What are the two plans by the Mission cabinet? Plan A
A "Union of All-India" will be created, consisting of three parts—each of which will enjoy a great degree of regional and local autonomy. The three parts will be the Hindu-majority provinces, the Muslim-majority provinces, and the Indian States (called "units"). The Union government will deal with, at a minimum, the following compulsory subjects: defense, foreign affairs, and communications. A broader list of optional subjects will be made available. These optional subjects belong to the individual units. Units may agree voluntarily to give up some of these optional subjects to the center [union government]. Or units may wish to pool their administration of optional subjects. The Union government will consist of three equal parts representing the Hindu provinces, Muslim provinces, and the States. Representatives of each group will first meet separately to create their provincial or state constitutions and any grouping of common subjects. Afterwards, the representatives of the three groups will meet together to decide the form of Union government and agree to a general constitution. Because there will be equal representation in the Union, no one part could ever permanently dominate another part.
Why was there war over East Pakistan? Originally Pakistan consisted of two sec
Bengalis, the predominant people of East Pakistan and a majority of the entire nation, resented what they believed to be discrimination by Western Pakistanis, who they felt dominated the government and military leadership and had more medical and educational facilities. In 1971, political disputes resulted in strikes, demonstrations, and violence in East Pakistan. Government troops reacted brutally. Ten million refugees fled to India. In response to this flood of refugees and seeing an opportunity to weaken Pakistan both politically and ideologically (denying its claim as a community for all Muslims of South Asia), India supported Bengali guerrilla forces. When Pakistan attacked India's northern air force bases, the Indian navy bombarded Karachi, Pakistan's largest port. Indian troops captured Dacca (now Dhaka), East Pakistan's major city. As a result, East Pakistan became the independent nation of Bangladesh.
what was the status of India and Pakistan
Both Congress and the Muslim League agreed that their nations would be granted dominion status—becoming self-governing nations within the British Commonwealth.
what plan did the Congress and ML like?
Both Congress and the Muslim League rejected the Cabinet Mission's plans. In response, the Cabinet Mission issued another plan on May 16, 1946.
What happened after the borders were announced?
Either voluntarily or through intimidation, Hindus and Sikhs left their homes and moved east, just as Muslims moved west. Often they were attacked by those who had been their neighbors. Entire trains were set upon, the occupants murdered, then the trains sent along their way as a warning to others.e largest mass migration in world history. Perhaps ten million people moved from one part of the Punjab to the other.
why was the independence date so soon
Fearing the possibility of civil war, he decided to act quickly and set August 15 as the date for independence.
Pakistan's major market conflict example
For example, in the past cotton from West Pakistan was processed in Bombay, India. Most of the commercial leaders of West Pakistan were Hindus or Sikhs who fled the area. In addition, Pakistan had a border dispute with its fellow Muslim nation of Afghanistan (the only nation to vote against Pakistan's admission to the United Nations in 1947).
What did the Unionists want and why
For example, the Punjab was a province in northern India that, in 1946, was ruled by the Unionist Party in a coalition that included Muslims, Hindus, and Sikhs. The Unionists, led by the wealthy Muslim landowner Khizr Tiwana, were less concerned about religious differences than they were in uniting to maintain their common agricultural interests against those Punjabis residing in the cities. Many in the Punjab were uneasy with the idea of independence, fearful that if India were partitioned, the creation of Pakistan might also mean the partition of the Punjab. The Unionist Party bases its political philosophy on cooperation among Hindu, Muslim, and Sikh. It currently rules the Punjab through such a coalition. Unionists have a long history of loyalty to the British government; three-fifths of the Indian army is from the Punjab. In return, the British have favored the Punjab with large irrigation systems and generous land grants to ex-soldiers. A partition of the province to create Pakistan would upset all religious groups and could lead to violence. To maintain order, the British should remain in India until a final agreement is reached. When India becomes independent, the central government should have limited authority over provinces. The Punjab must maintain its local autonomy.
how did Liaquat Ali Khan die
His attempts to create such a political system failed. He was assassinated in 1951.
why did ML and Congress decided to decline the plan
However, Congress declined to join the interim government, which not only made it more difficult for the British Viceroy Wavell to govern, but added to the already strong distrust between Congress and the Muslim League. major stumbling block was over the issue of provinces being able to form groups—Congress was as strongly opposed to the measure as the Muslim League was in favor (both realized this not only would weaken the central government but could eventually lead to the creation of Pakistan). On July 6, Nehru stated that when the Constituent Assembly met to determine the constitution, Congress could do whatever it pleased. He added that probably "there will be no grouping [of provinces]." The Viceroy asked Nehru, now President of the Congress Party, to form an interim government. The Muslim League refused to participate.
what type of government was India
India dedicated itself to democracy and secularism. Its new constitution created a parliamentary government similar to Great Britain's.
What were the causes of the 1965 war?
India had begun to exercise more direct authority over Kashmir. Pakistan feared this was in preparation for integrating the state fully into India. Pakistani troops infiltrated into Indian-controlled Kashmir. India also crossed the recognized international frontier in Punjab. Fighting escalated; both sides' infantry and fighter planes crossed the 1948 ceasefire line. Again the United Nations called a halt to the fighting. The Soviet Union brokered an agreement in which both nations not only promised to respect the old ceasefire line, but also not to use force to settle their differences.
How was Pakistan distinctly different geographically at the time of its independence in 1947 than today?
It began as a nation of two parts—West and East, each separated from the other by one thousand miles of territory belonging to India
India's first prime minister
Jawaharlal Nehru
"Direct Action Day"
Jinnah called a "Direct Action Day" on August 16 for Muslims to show their disapproval of Congress' actions. Supporters organized business closings and rallies, some of which turned violent. In Calcutta (Bengal) Muslim rioters killed approximately five thousand Hindus and left 100,000 homeless. Non-Muslims retaliated with more murders. Often gangsters on both sides took advantage of communal anger to rob and kill.
Why did violence begin in the Punjab?
Khizr Tiwana had resigned as leader of the Unionist government in the Punjab in March 1946 after pressure from the Muslim League. Up to that point, there had been little violence in the province. However, when the governor asked the Muslim League to form the next provincial government, the Sikhs began antiLeague demonstrations. These were met by counter demonstrations. Violence broke out, leading to at least two thousand deaths and over forty thousand refugees.
What did the Muslim League want and why
Led by Mohammed Ali Jinnah, the Muslim League had quite a different vision of independence. Recent elections held throughout India demonstrated that the Muslim League had the overwhelming support of India's Muslims, approximately one-quarter of India's people. Because of what it believed to be a history of religious conflict between Hindus and Muslims, the Muslim League refused to accept the concept of a government based on simple majority rule. This, it argued, would lead to rule by a Hindu dominated Congress government and the oppression of the Muslim minority. Instead, by 1946, it was calling for a separate nation stretching across the northern portion of India, where most Muslims were living. The nation they envisioned would be called Pakistan, the "Land of the Pure." Because of their irreconcilable religious beliefs and cultures, Hindus and Muslims are really two nations. While claiming otherwise, Congress is, in effect, a Hindu political party. The only solution to this problem is partition. However, Pakistan must be viable—and include the Punjab and Bengal, especially the port of Calcutta. An independent Pakistan not only will protect Muslims within its borders; it also will protect those Muslims still residing in Hindustan (the real name of India). Only Pakistan will guarantee friendship, based upon national equality, between Hindu and Muslim.
Pakistan's first prime minister
Liaquat Ali Khan
What were the effects of communal violence?
Much of this communal violence was a result of economic insecurity. In the 1990s, the India government moved toward a liberalization of the economy. Such reforms have included lower tariffs, fewer required government licenses, the creation of a stock market, and the development of a computer software industry. A small but growing middle class, Western in outlook, has benefited from such reforms.
How did both sides justify their claims on Kashmir?
Pakistan believed that because Kashmir was overwhelmingly Muslim, it belonged to the great Muslim community of which Pakistan envisioned itself. In contrast, India claimed that, as a secular nation, it could encompass all of its ethnic and religious communities. India also argued that Kashmiri peasants, although Muslims, were drawn to India's promise of land reform.
india's 3rd prime minister
Rajiv, Indira's son
How did Indira Gandhi die?
Sikh extremists, who wanted a separate state, took over the holiest Sikh shrine, the Golden Temple in Amritsar (Punjab). Gandhi used massive military force to expel these extremists. In retaliation, two of Gandhi's own Sikh bodyguards gunned her down.
what happened after violence in Punjab
The British government appointed a new governor-general, Lord Louis Mountbatten, who arrived in India in March 1947. When both sides still refused to accept the Cabinet Mission Plan, Mountbatten saw no other choice but partition.
What groups did the Cabinet negotiate with
The Congress, Muslim League, Unionist Party, the Sikhs
What were the leaders of all of the parties?
The Congress: Jawaharlal Nehru Muslim League: Mohammed Ali Jinnah The Unionists: Khizr Tiwana
What did the Sikhs want and why
The Sikhs were especially disturbed by the thought of partition. Although less than twenty percent of the Punjab's population, they were spread throughout the province, and partition of the Punjab would inevitably lead to their political division. Echoing the demands of the Muslim League, some Sikhs were calling for their own "land of the pure"—Khalistan. Although a minority, the Sikhs call Punjab their home. Almost all of their religious shrines are located there. Due in part to persecution by the Mughals, the Sikhs have become formidable warriors. They are the backbone of the British army. While in the past some Sikhs have supported Congress and others the Unionists, Sikhs are now united in opposing the creation of Pakistan. This could lead to placing all of the Punjab within the new Muslim nation. The Sikhs prefer a united India with a coalition of all parties. If however, there is a partition, they want the Punjab also partitioned and the creation of their own state, Khalistan, with the right to join either India or Pakistan. Sikhs will never submit to Muslim domination. They are quite willing to resist by force.
Punjab and Bengal muslim separation
The non-Muslim areas of eastern Punjab and western Bengal voted to separate from their provinces and join India, while the Muslim-majority sections would help form Pakistan.
What did the congress want from the cabinet and why
The oldest and largest Indian political organization fighting for independence was the Congress Party for 25 years. Its most important official leader was Jawaharlal Nehru, but its greatest moral leader was Mohandas Gandhi. Congress claimed to be the only truly national political organization but, although supported by some Muslims and other groups, by far most of its supporters were Hindus, who counted as approximately three-quarters of India's population. Although differing in their views regarding the nature of an independent India, the leaders of Congress generally agreed that India should be a secular, democratic, parliamentary nation based on majority rule. Because of its overwhelming popularity among Hindus, Congress assumed that it would lead an independent India.Congress represents Indians of all religious faiths. The idea that Muslims are a separate nation is ridiculous; most are descendants of converted Hindus. Differences among Indians that others blame on communalism have really been caused by the British or by poverty. To solve these problems a strong central government is needed that will control defense, foreign affairs, communications, and have the power to tax. This government must be secular, democratic, and based on majority rule. The British should leave immediately, and allow Congress to negotiate in good faith with the Muslim
Who and how long did have to decide the borders of each nation
Two boundary commissions, both headed by Sir Cyril Radcliffe, a British lawyer, had only a few months to decide the borders between the new nations.
What are the two plans by the Mission cabinet? Plan B
Two countries will be formed from British India—Hindustan and Pakistan. Each Indian State may join either nation or remain independent. Pakistan will be based on the right of Muslim-majority districts to form a separate and independent state. While specifics need to be discussed further, generally Pakistan will consist of Sind, Baluchistan, and the North-West Frontier Province in the northwestern area. Punjab would be partitioned with the western part going to Pakistan and the eastern part to Hindustan. It is important that, if such partition is made, the Sikhs need to be considered. In the Northeast, Assam will be partitioned, as will Bengal (the west going to Hindustan and the east to Pakistan). Calcutta, with a majority Hindu population, seems necessary for an eastern Pakistan to survive. Its future will need to be negotiated. Because splitting India into two nations will make defense against external aggression difficult, a treaty will be necessary. It will cover important economic matters, defense, and foreign policy. The treaty will need to include machinery for common planning and decision-making.
when were the borders announced
after independence
How did Gandhi die?
assassinated by a Hindu extremist, who opposed Gandhi's attempts to help Muslim victims of the violence
what typa gov. did the first pm of pakistan want
constitutional parliamentary democracy
what did a general do? for pakistan after the democracy thing failed
he tried using repressive measures, brought military to help rule and violence. It was common for ppl to use martial law and imprison their political opponents.
What happened in the end
it got divided into pakistan and india and pakistan was smaller than the muslim league wanted
Why did Pervez Musharraf overthrow the government?
listed the weaknesses of democracy, including corruption and the lack of law and order. Twenty-nine new amendments added to Pakistan's constitution in August, 2002 allow a new National Security Council, headed by Musharraf, to appoint and fire the prime minister and cabinet.
Awami League of East Pakistan
many Bengalis in the East felt that the West (dominated by Punjabis) had too much power and did not share the nation's resources fairly. Although the Awami League won a majority of seats in the National Assembly, Yahya Khan, Pakistan's ruler, postponed indefinitely convening the Assembly. India invaded East Pakistan and defeated Pakistani troops. Bangladesh became independent, and Pakistan lost its eastern wing.
did the reforms help?
no; Forty per cent of the nation's adults are illiterate (over half of women are illiterate).
passports and nationality
passports to travel between two countries. they listed the nationality of the passport holder. some states with relatives on both sides of the border found it hard to identify with one side. they said that it was hard because they were now a foreigner to the state the may have been born in. ex. refugges esceaped violence
What was the third plan cabinet issued
the Cabinet Mission proposed a "three-tiered system" of government that would include a central government with limited powers. The plan also would allow provinces to form groups (for example, a Muslim group of provinces). The final tier would belong to individual provinces themselves. Congress and the Muslim League accepted the Mission's May 16 plan.