Indigenous Peoples of North America Test 2 Study Guide

Caddo: Mound Building Traditions

- 3 mounds were constructed and marked in 14 ceremonial areas - Burial Mound: Where their religious and political leaders were buried when they died; Grew Rapidly - High Temple Mound: Ceremonial; grew slowly over time - Low Platform Mound: Ceremonial; grew slowly over time

Caddo Language Family

- 5 Languages (with dialects) - Kadohadacho - Hasinai - Natchitoches - Yatsai

Hózhó

- A central concept in Diné philosophy - Universal harmon, relationship with nature

Peoplehood Model

- A group of Native Americans are a distinct people, and have peoplehood, because they possess a shared: - Language - Sacred History - Ceremonial Cycle (or Religion) - Connection to the Land

Space vs. Place

- A space has boundaries (Geometric) - A place has meanings ( What it means to your culture)

Status of Native North American Languages

- Across reservations, 72% speak English only at home, while only 15% speak a Native language at home. - Of 194 North American languages extant (surviving) - 17% spoken by adults and children - 18% spoken by mainly adults - 38% spoken by mainly by older adults (over 50) - 25% spoken by mainly a few elders (over 70) (Source: Linguistic Society of America) - Many have fewer than 100 speakers - Rapid loss (Yupik) in some cases - Slow loss (Navajo) in others

Apachean Languages

- Apacheans - Speakers of "Apachean" (southern Athabaskan) languages. - Western, Chiricahua, Mescalero, Jicarilla, Lipan, and Plains Apache - Navajo - not Apache but speak an Apachean language

Why was salmon fishing criminalized, generally?

- Battle over sovereignty - Battle over how to preserve animals

Language preservation/revitalization: What did the Cherokee Nation use?

- Cherokee Education Services - Cherokee Nation Immersion Schools - Tsa la gi tsu na de lo qua s di- 90 students in 2013-2014 - Outreach to schools - Online language classes (thousands reached) - Gradual immersion into Sequoyan - K-16 initiatives - Sequoyah Schools - Translations department - After-school programs

K'é

- Clanship/Kinship - 4 clans - Matrilineal - Matrilocal - People and Nature

Diné(Navajo):

- Contemporary: - Traditional - Education, oil, government, off-reservation work, etc

Origin of the name "Denton"

- Denton is named after John B. Denton - 1841, "Battle" of Village Creek - Raided a refugee camp near the Trinity River and killed natives. - John B. Denton was killed in that "Battle"

San Francisco Peaks snowmaking conflict

- Desecration - Cultural Genocide - Ceremonial contaminants (Hataalii) - Excrement (K'é) - Unnatural control vs. natural order (hózhó) - Chemicals

Language loss, language death of Cherokee

- Despite their size(population) their language is decreasing

Cherokee: Traditional way of life

- Eloheh: land, culture, history, and religion. - Traditional Cherokee Narrative -Spread of Christianity and other approaches

Brazos Indian Reservation

- Established by US and Texas law (1854) - 37,000-53,000 acres (57-82 square miles) - 2,000 Caddo, Tonkawa, Waco (Wichita), Andarko - Pressure from locals cause flight from reservation - 1859: non-Indians demand their relocation after Baylor conflict

Which were primarily used in North America?

- Foraging and Horticulture were used pre-colonial - Very sophisticated and understanding

Sacred Lands/ Role of Sacred Mountain in Diné(Navajo) culture

- Home; Protection - Place of ceremony and prayer - Ceremonial Materials - Place of Healing - Place of Diyin Diné-Holy People - Place of Wildlife - Living Being

Ceremony

- Is a way of relating to the land but is also a way of relating to each other

Traditional Ecological Knowledge

- Is what the Natives did when foraging and horticulture - Embedded in stories - Ecological information, passed down from generation to generation

Cherokee: Basic facts and size

- Largest native nation(s) - Three federal tribes - Other entities - Autonym - Ani-Yuwiya, ᎠᏂᏴᏫᏯ, "Principal People" in Tsalagi - Over 300,000 enrolled today - 875,276 people identify as Cherokee (2000) - Freemen debate

Diné(Navajo): Size

- Largest single federally-recognized tribe (300,048) - Largest reservation (Navajo Nation: 27,000+ square miles) - Covers 3 states - Approx. size of Virginia

Cultural Perseverance (as opposed to preservation)

- Living thing; staying true to things past down from ancestors - acknowledges and accommodates change - Ex: Cherokee Syllabary

Current Status/Location of Wichita and Caddo

- Mainly in Caddo County, Oklahoma - Conglomerate of several different Caddoan groups - Wichita and Kichai both ended up primarily with this group - Population: 2,564 (up from nadir of 1400 in 1820) Kichai: - smaller Caddoan group - territory from upper part of Red River (Louisiana) to Trinity River (Texas) (1701) - Assigned to Brazos Indian Reservation (1855)

Traditional Apache Lifeways

- Matrilocal: network of women - Extended families/local group/bands/groups - Wickiups, tipis, hogans

Sacred site laws in the United States

- Navajo Nation and several other tribes sued the Forest Service over snowmaking as a violation of religious freedom law - Sacred Land Policy in the U.S - AIRFA - RFRA - EO 13007 - Courts held that snowmaking was a "subjective offense" but not actually a burden.

Apache: Relationship of different Apache groups to each other

- Not just one, there are a variety of Apache groups - Apacheans - Speakers of "Apachean" (southern Athabaskan) languages. - Apache - Most of the Apachean groups are called by the name "Apache" in English

Comancheria

- Numunuu Sookobitu ("Comanche Earth") - Extended deeply into Texas - A serious threat to Spanish expeditions and also began to roll back U.S. occupations

Comanche

- Numunuu: Comanche - Horse-mounted hunters - Wars with the U.S.

Wichita

- One of the main groups in North Texas - Autonym: Kirikiri(sh)i:s (Racoon Eyes) - Last fluent speaker died recently - The Wichita adapted to this environment and reaped abundant harvests for the land by farming and hunting

"Ecological Indian" Debate

- Poster child for environmentalism - Shephard Krech III prompted the debate - Fault lines - Native Americans like all of us, navigate politically and ideologically complex world

Role of indigenous peoples throughout history of Texas

- Rancherias; mainly because of Comanche raiding - Nationalist wanted to keep the natives in - Annexed wanted to keep the native out

Kwakwaka'wakw

- Related chiefdoms speaking Kwakwaka' - Had lots of wood and rich ecology. This allowed the people to stay in one place. - Lived in plank housing - Were hunter gatherers. Fish. No livestock or gardening - Built totem poles.

Why does the status of languages matter?

- Sets a Native American people apart from other groups - Conveys aspects of their unique worldview - Is often the language of religious ceremony - Provides the language of the origin stories

Nonhuman Social

- Society not just as humans - In many Native American sacred traditions, some animals, in some settings have personhood manifest in various ways - Can understand human language - Have complex motivations - May develop social relationships with humans

The Emergence Story (Diné Bahane)

- Story of the People" Important concepts: - Emergence - Gender dualism - Power of thought Asdzą́ą́ Nádleehé (Changing Woman) - The Twins and Nayee

Role played by stories

- The natives just have to say the name of a story and they get what the other is trying to say - Ex: "Shades of Shit"- Moral of the story just be generous to your neighbor - Ex: "Snakes in Water"- speech of our ancestors

Life-ways, way of life and religion- Why the different terms?

- The reason for this is because they don't have a definitive way for "religion" - Religion is more than just a Sunday

Cherokee Syllabary

- The written language that Sequoyah created. - NOT an Alphabet - Form of Perseverance, " We are literate without knowing english"

"Salmon People" and Role of Salmon

- Trading - First Trouts - Food Base -Identity - "Salmon was the center of life, and spiritual ceremonies and beliefs reflected this dependency and the people's harmony with the river. - Salmon was more than a commodity or a source of nutrition to the Northwest Natives, salmon shaped their societies and religion it provided a link to their native culture.

Diné(Navajo): Traditional subsistence

- Traditionally: - Sheepherding - Farming (maize, peaches, etc.) - Hunting (deer etc.) - Silversmithing.

Origin of the name "Texas"

- Táyshá, "Friend" or "Ally" in Caddo

Makah whaling controversy

- When the whales were endangered the Makah voluntarily decided to give up whaling(to help the whales) even though they had a treaty stating they could. Later on when the species wasn't endangered anymore they wanted to hunt them again because they wanted to reconnect with their culture. The government agreed and stated they could hunt 5 whales a year. Many people were opposed to the Makah whaling and they sued the government. Till this day the Makah are still not whaling because of those who opposed. People said "you are doing this for money and not for culture"

Preservation

- Withdraws an object from its context to prevent its change

Historical Particularism

Idea that histories are not comparable; diverse paths can lead to the same cultural result

Why was salmon fishing so important as a treaty right to be included and asserted?

Salmon was more than a commodity or a source of nutrition to the Northwest Natives, salmon shaped their societies and religion it provided a link to their native culture.

Cherokee: Contemporary situation

Subsistence: Horticulture, including maize - Sacred Life way: Nature-focused; Green Corn ceremony

Cultural Relativism

The practice of judging a society by its own standards

Trail of Tears

(1838-1839) - The Cherokee were forced to leave their lands. - More than 4, 00 Cherokees died of cold, disease, and lack of food during the 116-day journey. - Trail of Tears: ᏅᎾ ᏓᎤᎳ ᏨᏱ or Nvna Daula Tsvyi (The Trail Where They Cried - 25% of 16,000 died

The sacredness of 4

(NNIS) - Nitsahakees - Nahat'a - Iina - Siihasin

Franz Boas

- "Father of American anthropology" - 4-Field Anthropology - Cultural Relativism - Historical particularism - Kind of a big deal

Subsistence Strategies

5 Types - Foraging: hunting - Pastoralism: raising livestock - Horticulture: gardening cultivation, mimics nature - Agriculture: cultivation of land and animals (controls the conditions) - Industrial Agriculture: modern farming (makes the conditions)

Apache: Geography

Western, Chiricahua, Mescalero, Jicarilla, Lipan, and Plains Apache