Infant & Child Development Test #3
High SES and child rearing
(affluence) -more stress on psychological traits -many benefits, chldren get more (father involvement, time, energy, material recources, involvement in decisions) -risks (accomplishment pressure, isolation from adults)
Where do gender stereotypes come from??
- Despite changes over the past four decades, strong beliefs persist about sex differences persist... - Pretty consistent results in cross-cultural studies in 30 countries (personality traits study) Do we come prewired with gender behaviors (bio) or are we taught them (env)? This is sort of a chicken-egg question... It's hard to distinguish bc parents give us both genes and environment...
How has recent research on preoperational thought challenged Piaget's thinking?
- Evidence supports the idea that operational thought is not absent at one point in time and present at another - Gradual development of logical operations rather than abrupt change toward logical reasoning around 6 or 7 - He believed children learned primarily by acting on the environment but Vygotsky found that children also use language based routes to knowledge
How is animistic thinking related to egocentrism?
- The belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities, such as thoughts, wishes, feelings, and intentions Piaget believed because young children egocentrically assign human purposes to physical events, magical thinking is common during preschool years (Ex: A kid insists that someone "turned on" the thunder
Only child (5):Traits
-higher in self esteem and motivation -do better in school -attain higher levels of education than children with siblings -closer relationships with parents -can be less accepted in their peer groups (lack of social skills) ---------- -Chinas one child policy
What is make believe play (including sociodramatic play)? [3]
1) Play detaches from the real-life conditions associated with it 2) Play becomes less self-centered 3) Play includes more complex combinations of schemes - sociodramatic play: children combine schemes with peers
Physical Development: Health & Safety (List)
1. Accidental Injuries 2. Obesity 3. Undernutrition
5 types of play
1. Functional 2. Constructive 3. Dramatic 4. Formal 5. Sex Segregation
Motor Development (List)
1. Gross Motor Skills 2. Fine Motor Skills 3. System of Action
Physical Development: Sleep
1. Normal Patterns 2. Disturbances a. Nightmares b. Night Terrors 3. Bedwetting (Enuresis)
Child Maltreatment: List (4)
1. Physical Abuse 2. Neglect 3. Sexual Abuse 4. Emotional Abuse
Artistic Development
1. Scribble 2. Shapes 3. Design Stage 4. Pictorial Stage
3 stages if development of self
1. Single representations stage: a string of unconnected descriptors and inflated representations as all good, real self = ideal self, very tied to what the child can do! (sensory and motor activity, always says positive things about self) 2. Representational Mappings Stage: self concept is based upon characteristics that are now logically related but are still overly positive(tied to physical appearance- "i'm a pretty girl") 3. Representational Systems Stage: self-concept is based upon logically related traits that are both good and bad and reflect self-evaluation emotions. This will include: SELF ESTEEM(more developed in middle childhood)
By age 6, children have a vocabulary of about ____________
2,600 expressive words and understands 20,000
sibling relationships (Issues)
80% of American kids have 1+ siblings issues of equality fairness personal space etc.
universal preschool
A national system for early care and education that makes access to preschool similar to kindergarten by using the public schools.
Piaget's term for the fact that two things that are equal remain equal if their appearance is altered is called A) conservation. B) symbolic function. C) dual representation. D) decentration.
A) conservation
What type of play involves symbolic function and emerges near the end of the sensorimotor stage? A) dramatic play B) functional play C) constructive play D) formal games with rules
A) dramatic play
Preconceived generalizations about male or female role behavior are referred to as _____. A) gender stereotypes B) gender constancy C) gender-schema theory D) gender segregation
A) gender stereotypes
Intelligence test scores of children in industrialized countries have A) increased steadily since testing began. B) remained approximately the same since testing began. C) declined slightly since testing began. D) been inconsistent since testing began with no identifiable trends.
A) increased steadily since testing began.
Parental smoking is a preventable cause of childhood illness and death, and A) the potential damage caused by exposure to smoke is greatest during the early years of life. B) the illnesses from this exposure help build natural immunity. C) young children catch on average 7 to 8 colds per year. D) illnesses are common because children's lungs are not fully developed.
A) the potential damage caused by exposure to smoke is greatest during the early years of life.
gender differences
Actual disparities between the sexes in typical behavior or average ability.
overt agression
Aggression that is openly directed at its target.
instrumental aggression
Aggressive behavior used as a means of achieving a goal aggression motivated by the desire to obtain a concrete goal and is not meant to be seen as personal Most Common in Early Childhood (Declines w/age)
social cognitive theory (Gender)
Albert Bandura's expansion of social learning theory; holds that children learn gender roles through socialization
What is androgyny, and how is it related to traditional conceptions of masculinity and femininity?
Androgyny is a combination of gender-role traits that includes both instrumental and expressive behaviors, and it is related to traditional conceptions of masculinity and femininity traditionally, masculinity and femininity were seen as ends of a continuum: children possessing many traits associated with males were considered highly masculine, and youngsters possessing many traits associated with females were considered highly feminine, a newer view of gender roles is based on the independent dimensions of instrumentality and expressiveness, in this view, traditional males are rated high on instrumentality but low on expressiveness, whereas traditional females are low on instrumentality but high on expressiveness, and in other words, this approach recognizes that other combinations of traits are possible as androgynous persons are rated high on both the instrumental and expressive dimensions, as androgynous individuals can be independent and emotional, self-confident and considerate, ambitious and creative.
prosocial behavior
Any voluntary behavior intended to help others. positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior
gender constancy (Kohlberg)
Awareness that one will always be male or female. Also called sex-category constancy the belief that people are permanently males or females, depending on fixed, unchangeable biological factors 1. Gender Identity 2. Gender Stability 3. Gender Consistency Many studies confirm that the development of gender constancy follows this sequence and that, as Kohlberg assumed, mastery of gender constancy is associated with attainment of conservation. ex: Deena understands that a person's sex remains the same even if clothing, hairstyle, and activities change. Deena is demonstrating an understanding of gender constancy.-related to both verbal ability and attainment in conversation
gender identity
Awareness, developed in early childhood, that one is male or female. (Around 2-3 Years) Our sense of being male or female
_____ memory is a temporary holding tank for incoming sensory information. A) Long-term B) Sensory C) Generic D) Episodic
B) Sensory
Lindsey sees the moon in the sky and tells her mother that "Mr. Moon" is saying, "I want you to go to bed soon." Lindsey is demonstrating A) transductive reasoning. B) animism. C) centration. D) irreversibility.
B) animism.
Shaking a child is an example of A) psychological aggression. B) corporal punishment. C) an inductive technique. D) an external reinforcement.
B) corporal punishment.
Since 1980, children's blood lead levels have A) increased slightly. B) declined. C) stayed the same. D) doubled.
B) declined.
Which of the following does NOT encourage good sleep habits in children? A) leaving a light on at night B) eating right before bedtime C) having the same bedtime each night D) sleeping with a stuffed animal
B) eating right before bedtime
Many children who speak late A) need intensive help so they can learn to talk. B) eventually catch up. C) have comprehension difficulties. D) lack linguistic input at home.
B) eventually catch up.
Compared to children with siblings, only children A) are more immature. B) score slightly higher in verbal intelligence. C) have more favorable social adjustment. D) are less motivated to achieve.
B) score slightly higher in verbal intelligence.
Young children develop best physically when they are involved in A) activities beyond their maturational level. B) unstructured free play. C) a range of structured activities. D) activities that include direct instruction.
B) unstructured free play.
friendship
Based on common interests and mutual liking in children; intimacy and loyalty are more important among adolescents, particularly girls Friends usually alike in age, gender, and race Children with good friends have higher self-esteem, are more likely to act prosocially, and are less likely to be lonely and depressed Not all friendships beneficial for children and adolescents (e.g., co-rumination)
gender roles
Behaviors, interests, attitudes, skills, and traits that a culture considers appropriate for each sex; differs for males and females. expectations regarding the proper behavior, attitudes, and activities of males and females
How does knowledge of gender stereotypes develop?
By age 5: U.S. children judge 33% of traits as stereotypically as adults do By age 11, children judge 90% of traits as stereotypically as adults do, Older children: see stereotypes as general guidelines that are not necessarily binding Begin to understand that gender stereotypes do not always apply; TV, books, socialization, etc. although 12-month-old boys and girls look equally at gender-stereotyped toys 18-month-olds do not: girls look longer at pictures of dolls than pictures of trucks, but boys look longer at pictures of trucks, by 4 years, children's knowledge of gender-stereotyped activities is extensive, they've begun to learn about behaviors and traits that are stereotypically masculine or feminine, during the elementary-school years, children expand their knowledge of gender-stereotyped traits and behaviors
Permanent teeth begin to appear at about age A) 2. B) 4. C) 6. D) 8.
C) 6.
_____ parents are more detached and less warm than other parents. A) Older B) Permissive C) Authoritarian D) Authoritative
C) Authoritarian
Which of the following is TRUE of children who attended compensatory preschool programs? A) They do no better on intelligence tests than other children from comparable backgrounds. B) They are no more likely to finish high school than other children from comparable backgrounds. C) They are more ready for school than their peers from comparable backgrounds. D) They are placed in special education programs as often as other children from comparable backgrounds.
C) They are more ready for school than their peers from comparable backgrounds.
The last number-name used is the total number of items being counted. Which principle of counting is this? A) abstraction B) stable-order C) cardinality D) order-relevance what else do you know?
C) cardinality: principle of counting tendency of ages: younger than 3.5 recite number names used to devise strategies for adding.
To avoid excess weight and prevent cardiac problems, young children should A) avoid dairy products. B) get 40 percent of their total calories from fat. C) get no more than one-third of their total fat from saturated fats. D) limit their protein intake.
C) get no more than one-third of their total fat from saturated fats.
Many homeless children spend their crucial early years A) with strangers. B) in a shelter. C) in unstable, insecure, and often unsanitary environments. D) in school.
C) in unstable, insecure, and often unsanitary environments.
Aggressive behavior used as a means of achieving a goal is referred to as _____ aggression. A) overt B) relational C) instrumental D) psychological
C) instrumental
Boys tend to engage in _____ aggression. A) covert B) social C) overt D) relational
C) overt
Preventing Maltreatment
Change societal attitudes toward acceptable punishment Eliminating poverty and other stressors Providing parents with better parenting and coping skills and social support Early childhood intervention programs may help by encouraging parental involvement and providing support
Evolutionary theory of Gender Development:
Children develop gender roles in preparation for adult mating and reproductive behavior (Natural Sexual Selection)
self-definition
Cluster of characteristics used to describe oneself.
How can you explain why preschool children tend to have more rigid gender stereotypes than older children?
Cognitive Developmental Theory: Kohlberg - Explains age-related patterns of gender-related behavior - rigid sex stereotypes during preschool years (before gender constancy is achieved), Kohlberg - label, stable, constant, in preschool = only gone through labeling and stable so as a preschooler = gender is rigid and stable and they will grow up to be what they are labeled, after that = when they realize constancy, until you reach constancy = stable and rigid, and preschool = only reached stable.
Erikson: Initiative vs. Guilt
Conflict arises from growing sense of purpose and desire to plan activities Children reconcile desire to "do" with their desire for approval Virtue of "purpose"—the courage to envision and pursue goals without fear of punishment early childhood (3-5) (setting goals and making decisions)
effects of maltreatment on children's lives (3 Major Factor Areas)
Cultural and social factors: cultural attitudes, poverty, social isolation Parental factors: ineffective parenting skills, dysfunctional marriage, and may have been maltreated themselves Child factors: very young and ill children more often targets as are stepchildren
Which of the following statements is FALSE in regard to prosocial behavior? A) Prosocial behavior involves inhibitory control. B) Parents of prosocial children are typically prosocial themselves. C) Parents encourage prosocial behavior through inductive discipline. D) Motives for prosocial behavior become more egocentric as children grow older.
D) Motives for prosocial behavior become more egocentric as children grow older.
____________, the recognition that others have mental states, is distinctly a human capacity. A) Language functioning B) Inhibitory control C) Ethology D) Social cognition
D) Social cognition
According to a 2006 survey, _____ percent of U.S. children lived in counties that failed to meet air quality standards. A) less than 10 B) between 10 percent and 20 C) between 25 percent and 35 D) approximately 55
D) approximately 55
The zone of proximal development focuses on tasks that children A) have mastered. B) can learn on their own. C) have not yet attempted. D) are almost ready to accomplish on their own.
D) are almost ready to accomplish on their own.
Environmental contaminants may play a role in certain childhood illness and higher risks such as A) higher risk of developing otitis media. B) being more likely to pick up mild infectious diseases. C) a higher risk of contracting hepatitis A. D) childhood cancers, neurological disorders, ADHD, and mental retardation.
D) childhood cancers, neurological disorders, ADHD, and mental retardation.
The awareness of one's femaleness or maleness and all it implies in a particular society is called gender A) constancy. B) stereotyping. C) consistency. D) identity.
D) identity.
Persistent enuresis is primarily a(n) _____ problem. A) emotional B) mental C) behavior D) inherited
D) inherited
Reading aloud, and inaudible muttering and talking to oneself with no intent to communicate with others, are types of A) social speech. B) syntax. C) dialogic reading. D) private speech.
D) private speech.
According to Parten's categories of play, the least social category is A) unoccupied behavior. B) associative play. C) onlooker behavior. D) solitary passive play.
D) solitary passive play.
theory of sexual selection
Darwinian theory, which holds that selection of sexual partners is influenced by the differing reproductive pressures that early men and women confronted in the struggle for survival of the species.
How do different theories - social learning, biological, and cognitive - explain children's the development of gender identity? (Consider contributions of hormones, social learning theory, Kohlberg's stage model and gender schema theory.)
Different theories - social learning, biological, and cognitive - explain children development of gender identity by basically Biological - Money - Genetic, neurobiological, and hormonal activity - Many behavioral differences between the sexes can be traced to biological differences: Biological Approach: Hormone Effects - Research on girls exposed to androgen in fetal development: Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) -> exposed to male hormones and see if behavior becomes more 'masculine' - Androgenized girls were less stereotypically female than their sisters, Androgen may affect the prenatal development of brain regions associated with masculine gender-role behavior, and Not conclusive, Study of 16 genetically male children born with cloacal exstrophy (Reiner & Gearhart, 2004) - lack of a penis, but presence of normal testicles, and prenatal exposure to normal male hormones, 14 were reassigned as female, surgery performed to reinforce assignment - 8 of the 14 assigned "reassigned" themselves back to males between 5 and 16 years, and 3 remained female, 3 had unclear identity, and Concluded that male gender identity is related to male hormone exposure in utero, biology contributes to gender roles and gender identity, sex hormones are key players, for both boys and girls, exposure to testosterone during prenatal development leads to greater interest in masculine sex-typed activities during the elementary-school years, this link is particularly vivid in studies of children with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH), a genetic disorder in which, beginning in prenatal development, the adrenal glands secrete large amounts of androgen, during childhood and adolescence, girls with CAH prefer masculine activities (such as playing with cars instead of dolls) and male playmates to a much greater extent than girls not exposed to these amounts of androgen, despite strong encouragement from parents to play with feminine toys, apparently, the androgen affects the prenatal development of brain regions critical for masculine and feminine gender-role behavior; Socialization: Social cognitive theory - Albert Bandura, Eleanor Maccoby - Modeling, reinforcement, and teaching - Gender typing is a result of interpretation and internalization of socially transmitted standards, children learn gender roles in much the same way they learn other social behaviors - by watching the world around them and learning the outcomes of actions, thus, children learn what their culture considers appropriate behavior for males and females simply by watching how adults and peers act; Cognitive: Cognitive-developmental theory - Lawrence Kohlberg - Self-categorization - Once a child learns s/he is a girl/boy, child sorts information about behavior by gender and acts accordingly, toddlers know that they are either boys or girls and label themselves accordingly, during the preschool years, children begin to understand that gender is stable, boys become men and girls become women, not until about 5 or 6 years do come to understand that maleness and femaleness do not change over situations or according to personal wishes, they understand that a child's sex is unaffected by the clothing that a child wears or the toys that a child likes, Cognitive Approach to Development of Gender Identity - Emphasizes children understanding of gender - Knowledge about gender, and Beliefs and attributions about gender-related behavior and roles, and Cognitive Developmental Theory: Kohlberg - Labeling - 2 years - Labels self as male or female, Stability - 3-4 years - Understanding that gender is stable, boys grow up to be men and girls grow up to be women, and Constancy - 4-7 years - Understanding that gender is biologically based, does not change with different clothing, hair, toy choices etc., and Explains age-related patterns of gender-related behavior - rigid sex stereotypes during preschool years (before gender constancy is achieved); and Cognitive: Gender-schema theory - Sandra Bem, Carol Martin - Self-categorization based on processing of cultural information - Child organizes information about gender appropriate behavior based on cultural norms and acts accordingly, children first decide whether an object, activity, or behavior is female or male, then use this information to decide whether or not they should learn more about the object, activity, or behavior, once children know their gender, they pay attention primarily to experiences and events that are gender appropriate, children first establish gender identity, then begin actively learning about gender roles, shows that "male" and "female" become much more salient in children's worlds after they understand gender, Cognitive-Developmental Theory: Gender Schemas - A schema is...a mental representation of some aspect of the world, an organized cluster of information, and used to interpret new information and draw inferences, and Gender schemas - Expectations regarding male and female roles, interests, behaviors, appearance, etc., Categorize self as male or female -> Actively learn about gender roles -> Use gender as a schema to organize and guide learning -> Pay more attention to gender appropriate objects and activities, and Gender schemas are like filters for viewing the world, and Affect what children notice and remember - When shown pictures of men and women in traditional and non-traditional occupations, children are likely to remember men, and forget women, who are firefighters, and People remember schema-consistent behaviors and attributes better than schema-inconsistent behaviors and attributes.
power assertive discipline
Disciplinary strategy designed to discourage undesirable behavior through physical or verbal enforcement of parental control. a form of discipline in which the power of the adult is used to coerce, deprive of privileges or material goods, or apply physical punishment to modify a child's behavior
inductive techniques
Disciplinary techniques designed to induce desirable behavior by appealing to a child's sense of reason and fairness.
Initiative v. Guilt (Erikson)
Erikson's third stage in psychosocial development, in which children balance the urge to pursue goals with moral reservations that may prevent carrying them out.
How does exposure to television affect children's gender stereotypes and choice of activities?
Exposure to television affects children's gender stereotypes and choice of activities by basically Gender Roles in Television (Common Sense Media Report, 2017) Children more exposed to television will become more gender-typed by imitating the models they see on screen. - Women on television tend to be cast in romantic, marital, or family roles -> Depicted as emotional, passive and weak, Men on television tend to be cast in leadership or professional roles -> Depicted as rational, active, and strong On TV shows and movies specifically aimed at children, boy characters outnumber girls by a ratio of roughly 2 to 1, Male characters tend to be older and in more powerful roles, Females tend to be young, attractive, and provocatively dressed, There is a relationship between the media kids watch and the careers to which they aspire - Girls who consume more traditional TV programs express more interest in traditional careers for women (Wroblewski & Huston, 1997), and Girls shown TV clips featuring stereotypic female behavior (e.g., talking about their outfits) express less interest in STEM careers (e.g, scientist, architect) than girls who are shown no content or clips featuring female scientists (Bond, 2016), and Children who watch a lot of television - Have more stereotyped views of males and females, and Prefer gender-typed activities to a greater extent than do children who are less avid viewers, and Gender Roles in Television - TV Programming is not the only source of gender-related information children see on television; colors, choices, roles; for decades, males and females have been depicted on TV in stereotypical ways, women tend to be cast in family roles, they are depicted as emotional, passive, and weak, men are more often cast in management roles and are depicted as rational, active, and strong, children who watch a lot of TV end up with more stereotyped views of males and females, TV viewing causes children to adopt many of the distorted portraits of males and females that dominant television programming.
According to Piaget, preoperational children can engage in logical mental operations. A) True B) False
False
Albert Bandura believes that gender identity occurs when a child identifies with the same-sex parent. A) True B) False
False
Between the ages of three and five, children's speech has become adultlike. A) True B) False
False
Children with contingent self-esteem tend to attribute failure to factors outside themselves. A) True B) False
False
Night terrors often occur between ages 3 and 13 and mostly among girls. A) True B) False
False
Only moderate to high levels of exposure to lead are dangerous to children. A) True B) False
False
Preschool children raised by permissive parents tend to be highly self-controlled and mature. A) True B) False
False
Preschoolers tend to remember things they saw more accurately than things they did. A) True B) False
False
Preschoolers who are allowed to eat when they are hungry are less likely to regulate their own caloric intake than children fed on a schedule. A) True B) False
False
The first level of cognitive play is dramatic play. A) True B) False
False
There is a strong positive correlation between solitary play and poor social adjustment. A) True B) False
False
Thumb sucking will only affect permanent teeth if it persists beyond age 4. A) True B) False
False
Vygotsky viewed private speech as egocentric. A) True B) False
False
Firstborn, Laterborn, and Only Children
Firstborns are more adult- and achievement-oriented; laterborns are more sociable and more innovative; onlies have more academic success, higher levels of intelligence, leadership, autonomy, and maturity Adopted children are similar to non-adopted in terms of temperament, attachment, and cognitive development Problems are more likely to occur if the child was older when adopted and his/her pre-adoption care was poor
research discipline
Form of discipline that involves a parent or care taker, giving any form of consequence and allowing the child to find out why they were punished
Psychoanalytic Theory of Gender Development
Gender identity occurs when a child identifies with same-sex parent Freudian based (Resolution of Unconscious Emotional Conflict)
What are gender stereotypes, and how do they differ for males and females?
Gender stereotypes are basically beliefs and images about males and females that are not necessarily true, and they differ for males and females men are said to be independent, competitive, aggressive, outgoing, ambitious, self-confident, and dominant, these male-associated traits are called instrumental because they describe individuals who act on the world and influence it, women are said to be emotional, kind, creative, considerate, gentle, excitable, and aware of others' feelings, female-associated traits are called expressive, because they describe emotional functioning and individuals who value interpersonal relationships.
What did Piaget say about make believe play?
He believed that through pretending, young children practice and strengthen newly acquired representational schemes
What are the general ways Piaget has affected educational practices?
He gave teachers new ways to observes, understand, and enhance young children's development offered strong theoretical justification for child-oriented approaches to classroom teaching and learning discovery learning, sensitivity to children's readiness to learn, and acceptance of individual differences
central executive
In Baddeley's model, element of working memory that controls the processing of information
authoritative parenting
In Baumrind's terminology, parenting style blending warmth and respect for a child's individuality with an effort to instill social values. parents set limits and enforce rules but are flexible and listen to their children
authoritarian parenting
In Baumrind's terminology, parenting style emphasizing control and obedience. A parenting style in which the parents are demanding, expect unquestioned obedience, are not responsive to their children's desires, and communicate poorly with their children.
permissive parenting style
In Baumrind's terminology, parenting style emphasizing self-expression and self-regulation
identification (Freudian)
In Freudian theory, process by which a young child adopts characteristics, beliefs, attitudes, values, and behaviors of the parent of the same sex.
Transduction
In Piaget's terminology, preoperational child's tendency to mentally link particular experiences, whether or not there is logically a causal relationship.
decenter
In Piaget's terminology, to think simultaneously about several aspects of a situation
preoperational stage
In Piaget's theory, the second major stage of cognitive development, in which children become more sophisticated in their use of symbolic thought but are not yet able to use logic.
Centration
In Piaget's theory, the tendency of preoperational children to focus on one aspect of a situation and neglect others
Functional play (0-2 years)
In Smilansky's terminology, lowest cognitive level of play, involving repetitive muscular movements; also called locomotor play. Simple, repetitive motor movements, with or without objects
constructive play
In Smilansky's terminology, second cognitive level of play, involving use of objects or materials to make something; also called object play. play in which children manipulate objects to produce or build something
Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale
Individual intelligence test for ages 2 and up, used to measure knowledge quantitative reasoning visual-spatial processing working memory
Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence, Revised (WPPSI-III)
Individual intelligence test for schoolchildren ages 2 ½ to 7 (Two seperate groups for 2 1/2 to 4 and 4 to 7) that yields verbal and performance scores as well as a combined score.
Disciplinary Strategies (List of 4)
Inductive Techniques Power Assertion Withdrawal of love Research
What are Montessori programs?
It was originally applied to poverty stricken children. Includes multiage classrooms, teaching materials specially designed to promote explorations and discovery, long time periods for individual and small-group learning in child-chosen activities, and equal emphasis on academic and social development
self-esteem
Judgment a person makes about his or her self-worth. how much you value, respect, and feel confident about yourself
Physical Development: Growth Trends
Kids will grow 2-3 inches every year gain 4-6 pound every year. Males have a slight edge in growth w/height until puberty
Child Maltreatment: Macrosystem
Maltreatment associated with more of a social, public, and societal context
Child Maltreatment: Microsystem
Maltreatment in a more private and/or familial context
Biological Theory of gender development:
Many or most behavioral differences between the sexes can be traced to biological differences (Genetic, Neurological, and Hormonal Activity)
discipline
Methods of molding children's character and of teaching them to exercise self-control and engage in acceptable behavior
social interaction model
Model, based on Vygotsky's sociocultural theory, that proposes that children construct autobiographical memories through conversation with adults about shared events.
altruism
Motivation to help others without expectation of reward; may involve self-denial or self-sacrifice.
Is it bad for preschoolers to say that they have an imaginary companion?
No, having an imaginary companion typically causes them to treat it with care and affection and say it offers caring, comfort, and good company. These kids also display more complex and imaginative pretend play, are advanced in understanding view points and emotions, and are more sociable with peers.
Does language play a major role in cognitive development, according to Piaget?
No. He believed that sensorimotor activity leads to internal images of experience, which children then label with words
Qualities of Sibling Relationships: generally
Older siblings may be a source of care and comfort and may be teachers Siblings get along best when (1) they are same sex, (2) neither is emotional, (3) younger enters adolescence, (4) parents don't show favoritism, and (5) parents have warm relationship with each other Parental intervention when siblings fight can lead to more positive interactions and better negotiating skills
Cognitive Theory of Gender Development:
Once a child learns she is a girl or he is a boy, child sorts information about behavior by gender and acts accordingly (Self-Categorization)
formal play
Organized games with known procedures and penalties games with rules
parenting and gender typing (early childhood) [Contributions]
Parents... -encourage gender-specific play and behavior. (for boys and girls) -Reinforce dependence in girls, independence in boys -use language that indirectly teaches roles. Parents of preschoolers respond more negatively to the idea of boys than girls crossing gender lines.
parenting and gender typing (middle childhood/adolescence) [Contributions]
Parents.... -continue to demand greater independence from sons than from daughters (mastery-oriented help, and autonomy granting/ more freedom for boys) -achievement more important (gender affects perceived competence) hold gender-differentiated perceptions of and expectations for their child's competencies in various school subjects
Development of Peer Interactions
Peer interactions become more sophisticated: parallel play, associative play, and cooperative play Make believe play: reflects cultural values and promotes cognitive development Solitary play: common and normal unless children just wander aimlessly or hover Parents' roles include playmate, social director, mediator, and coach Quality of parent-child attachment influences children's play indirectly
How are boys and girls socialized differently? Consider influences from parents, peers, and the media.
Perceive boys and girls as different from birth, In several experiments, when observing the same baby, adults described behaviors and emotions differently when the baby was labeled as a girl or a boy -> girl = scared, boy = surprised (implicit), Socialize boys and girls differently in terms of gender roles, especially younger children, and Talk to boys and girls differently - Talk about numbers and counting twice as often with sons than daughters (Chang, Sandhofer, & Brown, 2011), -Talk to sons in more detail about science than with daughters, ----More likely to discuss emotions with their daughters than their sons, Peers - as early as/around age 3 - Tend to reinforce gender stereotypes Once children learn rules about gender-typical play, they often harshly punish peers who violate those rules, and Children who are perceived as gender atypical (i.e., do not conform to gender stereotypes) are more likely to be bullied and rejected, Peer play with same and other sex - Preference for playing with same-sex peers -> Increases during childhood, and Children spontaneously select same-sex playmates -> Resist efforts to get them to play with members of the opposite sex, and Media - The media portrays gender stereotypes -> books, television, movies, commercials, and internet, Gender in Children's Books - portrayal of roles, females are underrepresented and passive, Gender Bias in 100 years of Children's Books (McCabe et al., 2011) - Males are central characters in 57% of children's books, females in only 31%, Disparity between male and female characters is sending children a message that "women and girls occupy a less important role in society than men or boys;" activities such as playing with dolls, dressing up, or helping an adult are encouraged more often in daughters than in sons, rough-and-tumble play and playing with blocks are encouraged more in sons than in daughters, parents tolerate mild aggression more in sons than in daughters, and following the birth of a child (especially a firstborn), parents become more traditional in their attitudes regarding gender, fathers are more likely than mothers to treat sons and daughters differently, more than mothers, fathers often encourage gender-related play, fathers also push their sons to achieve more but accept dependence in their daughters, mothers are more likely to respond based on their knowledge of the individual child's needs, but fathers respond based on gender stereotypes, by age 10 or 11, the vast majority of peer activity is with same-sex children, and most of this involves sex-typed play, then the tide begins to turn, but even in adulthood time spent at work and at leisure is quite commonly segregated by gender.
Self - Affects
Personality traits abilities likes and dislikes your belief system or moral code things that motivate you — these all contribute to self-image
Irreversibility
Piaget's term for a preoperational child's failure to understand that an operation can go in two or more directions.
symbolic function
Piaget's term for ability to use mental representations (words, numbers, or images) to which a child has attached meaning
Egocentrism
Piaget's term for an inability to consider another person's point of view; a characteristic of young children's thought
conservation
Piaget's term for the awareness that 2 objects that are equal according to a certain measure remain equal in the face of perceptual alteration so long as nothing has been added to or taken away from either object
pretend play
Play involving imaginary people or situations; also called fantasy play, dramatic play, or imaginary play
dramatic play
Play involving imaginary people or situations; also called fantasy play, pretend play, or imaginative play. play in which children imitate real life situations
Why is make believe play even more important than Piaget originally thought?
Play not only reflects but also contributes to children's cognitive and social skills. It strengthens a variety of mental abilities including; attention, memory, logical reasoning, language and literacy, imagination, creativity and the ability to reflect on ones own thinking, regulate ones own emotions and behavior, and take another's perspective
SES - low and child rearing
Poverty- this group lives in harsher conditions: being born less healthy, lower-quality schooling, more dangerous neighborhoods, lower life expectancies... -earlier parenthood and more children -external characteristics stressed -can be stressful, children may get more commands, critisicm, coercive discipline, and physical punishment
What is the practical side of language called? Why is it important?
Pragmatics. It is important because children must learn to engage in effective and appropriate communication - by taking turns, staying on the same topic, stating their messages clearly, and conforming to cultural rules for social interaction
gender stereotypes
Preconceived generalizations about male or female role behavior. oversimplified but strongly held ideas about the characteristics of males and females
emergent literacy
Preschoolers' development of skills, knowledge, and attitudes that underlie reading and writing.
fast mapping
Process by which a child absorbs the meaning of a new word after hearing it once or twice in conversation.
Developing Self
Self concept: what the child believes to be true about himself or herself is founded on earlier self-recognition and then develops in 3 stages
self-concept
Sense of self; descriptive and evaluative mental picture of one's abilities and traits. sense of one's identity and personal worth
working memory
Short-term storage of information being actively processed.
gender typing
Socialization process by which children, at an early age, learn appropriate gender roles. The process of developing the behaviors, thoughts, and emotions associated with a particular gender.
long-term memory
Storage of virtually unlimited capacity that holds information for long periods.
sex segregation play
Tendency to select playmates of one's own gender.
gender consistency
The stage of gender typing in which children realize that their sex is stable across situations or despite changes in activities or appearance.
gender schema theory
Theory, proposed by Bem, that children socialize themselves in their gender roles by developing a mentally organized network of information about what it means to be male or female in a particular culture. the theory that children learn from their cultures a concept of what it means to be male and female and that they adjust their behavior accordingly
How does sociodramatic play signal a major change in mental representation?
They distinguish make believe from real experiences and grasp that pretending is a deliberate effort to act out imaginary ideas - an understanding that strengthens over early childhood
Why do kids make mistakes in the preoperational stage (2-7 years)?
Too much centration and egocentrism; too little conservation.
A gender-schema theory emphasizes cultural contributions to gender identity. A) True B) False
True
All 50 states and the District of Columbia require children to ride in specially designed seats or wear standard seat belts. A) True B) False
True
An IQ score does not represent a fixed quantity of inborn intelligence. A) True B) False
True
Families now comprise 33 percent of the homeless population. A) True B) False
True
Food insecurity is experienced when the amount and kind of food required for a healthy lifestyle is insufficient. A) True B) False
True
Girls have greater neuronal density in the brain than boys. A) True B) False
True
Initiative versus guilt is Erikson's third crisis in psychosocial development. A) True B) False
True
Many bed-wetters lack an antidiuretic hormone, which concentrates urine during sleep. A) True B) False
True
Most children have a script for riding a bus or going to grandma's house. A) True B) False
True
On intelligence tests, females tend to do better than males on mathematical computation tasks. A) True B) False
True
Pesticide exposure is greater in children in agricultural and inner-city families. A) True B) False
True
Piaget's three-mountain task was designed to study egocentrism. A) True B) False
True
Research supports lengthening the school year to increase competence in math and reading. A) True B) False
True
Right-handedness is more common than left-handedness because the left hemisphere of the brain is usually dominant. A) True B) False
True
The average 3-year old knows and can use 900 to 1,000 words. A) True B) False
True
The tendency to attribute life to objects that are not alive, like clouds, is called animism. A) True B) False
True
The tendency toward sex segregation in play seems to be universal across cultures. A) True B) False
True
Parten's categories of play (List of 6)
Unoccupied play Solitary play Onlooker play Parallel play Associative play Cooperative play
corporal punishment
Use of physical force with the intention of causing pain but not injury so as to correct or control behavior.
psychological aggression
Verbal attack by a parent that may result in psychological harm to a child.
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
Vygotsky's term for the difference between what a child can do alone and what the child can do with help.
Child Maltreatment: Effects on Children
When children are abused, their social, emotional, and intellectual development is often affected As adults, children who were abused are more prone to depression and anxiety, are more likely to think about or attempt suicide, and are more likely be abusers themselves Some children are remarkably resilient to the impact of abuse Ego-resilience: children's ability to respond adaptively and resourcefully to new situations
Peer relations after school
When children attend elementary school, the context of peer relations changes dramatically Children get along better than when they were younger The most common activities with peers are simple—just being together and talking In rough-and-tumble play, children playfully chase, punch, kick, shove, fight, and wrestle with peers
Does Chomsky's theory provide a good explanation for why kids develop their grammar skills very gradually? If not, are there other possible explanations?
Yes and no. Controversy persists over whether a universal, built in language processing device exists or whether children who hear different languages devise unique strategies
neglect (chapter 6, pg 171-174)
a deficiency in the provision of the child's basic needs
egocentric speech
a form of self-directed dialogue by which the child instructs themselves in solving problems and formulating plans
autobiographical memory
a type of episodic memory of distinctive experiences that form a person's life history
recognition
ability to identify a previously encountered stimulus
Recall
ability to reproduce material from memory
relational (indirect or social) aggression
aggression aimed at damaging or interfering with another person's relationships, reputation, or psychological well-being; can be overt or covert
hostile aggression
aggression stemming from feelings of anger and aimed at inflicting pain or injury
punishment
an event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows
Reinforcement
any event that strengthens the behavior it follows
Emotional abuse (child) (chapter 6, pg 171-174)
any pattern of behavior that harms child's emotional development or sense of self-worth; includes frequent belittling, rejection, threats, and withholding of love and support
Parenting Styles (Baumrind) [List of 3]
authoritarian permissive authoritative
theory of mind
awareness and understanding of mental processes
gender stability
awareness that gender remains the same over time
Gender Stability
awareness that gender remains the same over time (Years 3-4)
gender-stereotype flexibility rises as children develop the
cognitive capacity to integrate conflicting social cues
executive function
conscious control of thoughts, emotions, and actions to accomplish goals or solve problems
withdrawal of love discipline
disciplinary strategy that involves ignoring, isolating, or showing dislike for a child
dunn's 2 characteristics of sibling relationship
emotional quality familiarity intimacy variation in sibling relationships
Syntax
forming meaningful sentences
intuitive thought
from ages 4-7 years children display thinking that reflects the use of primitive reasoning and their avid acquisition of knowledge about the world. (children start to know things, even though they don't know how they know it)
script
general remembered outline of a familiar, repeated event, used to guide behavior
How do boys and girls differ in physical development, intellectual abilities, and social behavior?
girls generally mature faster, brain lateralization is earlier, reach puberty earlier, androgen may affect the prenatal development of brain regions associated with masculine gender-role behavior, behavior: no evidence for consistent gender related differences differences in the reproductive system differences in secondary sex characteristics such as lower voice and facial hair in boys and breast development and wider hips in girls, boys are usually larger and stronger than girls, which means that they often physically outperform girls, on tasks that involve fine-motor coordination, such as tracing and drawing, girls do better than boys, some of the gender differences in gross-motor skills that require strength reflect the fact that as children approach and enter puberty, girls' bodies have proportionately more fat and less muscle than boys' bodies, as infants, boys are more active than girls, and this difference increases during childhood, boys more often play vigorously and girls quietly, boys are three times more likely than girls to be diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, boys are physically more active than girls, girls tend to be healthier than boys, girls tend to have greater verbal skills but boys tend to have greater mathematical and visual-spatial skill, girls have larger vocabularies than boys and are more talkative, during elementary school and high school, girls read better than boys, more boys are diagnosed with language-related problems such as reading disability, during childhood and adolescence, boys tend to have better mental-rotation skill than girls, during the elementary-school years, girls are usually more advanced than boys in arithmetic and mastery of basic math concepts, a difference that may be a by-product of girls' greater language skill, during high school and college, boys used to get higher scores than girls on standardized math tests, but that difference has diminished substantially over the past 25 years, now boys have a negligible advantage, girls and women often remember the identity of objects as well as their location more accurately, when describing past events, girls tend to provide more elaborate and more emotion-filled descriptions, boys were more aggressive than girls, boys are more aggressive physically than girls, girls often rely upon relational aggression, in which they try to hurt others by damaging their relationships with peers, girls are better able to express their emotions and interpret others' emotions, girls are more likely to express happiness and sadness, but boys are more likely to express anger, adolescent girls report experiencing shame and guilt more often than boys do, females are more easily influenced by others - that is, that they are more persuadable, young girls are more likely than young boys to comply with an adult's request, and they are more likely to seek an adult's help, girls and women are also influenced more than boys and men by persuasive messages and others' behavior, especially when they are under group pressure, girls are just as likely as boys to recognize the flaws in a bad idea, but girls are more willing to go along simply because they don't want the group to start arguing, girls are more skilled at effortful control, boys are far more likely to be diagnosed with attentional disorders such as ADHD, during adolescence, girls are more likely than boys to report negative events such as fights with friends, and they report being more upset by these events than boys, such episodes can lead some teens - especially girls - to be depressed, they feel chronically sad and irritable and have low self-esteem, teenage girls are more prone to depression, they experience more frequent stressors, such as dissatisfaction with their appearance after pubertal change or conflict with close friends, girls are more apt to interpret these negative life events in harmful terms, emphasizing social-emotional consequences to a far greater extent than boys do, girls are prone to ruminate about their problems: thinking about them over and over, and talking about them with friends, teenage girls particularly vulnerable to interpersonal stressors.
According to Maccoby, how do boys' and girls' play and interaction styles differ? How do these differences contribute to gender segregation in play?
girls' interactions are more enabling - collaborative actions that support and sustain the interaction, while boys' interactions are more constricting - competitive actions to determine a victor. These differences contribute to gender segregation in play by: girls find that their enabling style is ineffective with boys, the same subtle overtures that work with other girls have no impact on boys, and boys ignore girls' polite suggestions about what to do and ignore girls' efforts to resolve conflicts with discussion.
grammar
in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others
systems of actions
increasingly complex combinations of motor skills, which permit a wider or more precise range of movement and more control of the environment
Gender Development (Influenced by...3)
influenced by biological, psychological, and cultural process
sensory memory
initial, brief, temporary storage of sensory information
inner speech
internalized egocentric speech that guides intellectual functioning
By age 3, combinations of words to form meaningful sentences has reached:
into the thousands 900-1000
familiarity and intimacy of sibling relationships
know each other well, can provide support or tease depending on the context
episodic memory
long-term memory of specific experiences or events, linked to time and place
generic memory
memory that produces scripts of familiar routines to guide behavior
representational mappings
neo-Piagetian terminology, the second stage in the development of self-definition, in which a child makes logical connections between aspects of the self but still sees these characteristics in all-or-nothing terms 5-6 year old Jason "I can run fast and I can climb high! I am also strong! I can throw a ball real far, I am going to be on a team one day!" (pg.303)
relational aggression
nonphysical acts, such as insults or social rejection, aimed at harming the social connection between the victim and other people
conflicting emotions
opposing emotions relating to a situation that are contradictory to an individuals beliefs and memory
Social learning/Socialization for gender development (List of Influencers...3)
parents peers media
Agression
physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt someone 2 types: instrumental hostile
gross motor skills
physical skills that involve the large muscles
fine motor skills
physical skills that involve the small muscles and eye-hand coordination
emotional quality of sibling relationships
positive and negative feelings toward siblings mixed emotions
Pragmatics (use)
practical knowledge needed to use language for communicative purposes
handedness
preference for using a particular hand
Retrevial
process by which information is accessed or recalled from memory storage
Encoding
process by which information is prepared for long-term storage and later retrieval
Mediators
psychological tools and signs that facilitate and direct thinking processes and make transitions possible. (language, mnemonic devices, algebraic symbols, art, writing)
Do gains from attending Head Start and similar programs last or quickly fade away?
quickly fade
Child Maltreatment (generally)
refers to 4 types of maltreatment: physical abuse child neglect sexual abuse emotional abuse
2 forms of discipline by parents:
reinforcement punishment
enuresis
repeated urination in clothing or in bed
storage
retention of information in memory for future use
contingent self-esteem
self-esteem based on the approval of others or on social comparisons helpless self-esteem
siblings and gender typing (Research/More Likely)
siblings are a strong environmental influence on gender typing SCENARIO: british study -5000+ Moms provided info on play and other behaviors of 3 y/o -each had one older sibling or no sibling RESULTS: -children w/ same-sex sib > gender-typed more than no sib > opp sex sib A child is most likely to be gender typed if older same-sex sibling. (David, who has an older brother) **
social speech
speech intended to be understood by a listener
when can gender identity be measured?
starting in middle childhood, as self-concepts emphasize psychological dispositions over concrete behaviors -gender identity is a good predictor of psychological adjustment Masculine and androgynous children and adults have higher self-esteem than feminine indviduals
private speech
talking aloud to oneself with no intent to communicate with others
Scaffolding
temporary support to help a child master a task
Animism
tendency to attribute life to objects that are not alive
pragmatics of language
the aspect of language relating to communication effectively and appropriately with others (we only say that at home--example)
physical abuse (chapter 6, pg 171-174)
the intentional infliction of bodily harm or injury on another person
real self
the self one actually is
sexual abuse (chapter 6, pg 171-174)
when an adult uses a child or adolescent for sexual purposes
