International animal production

20. List positive and negative arguments of consumption of animal source food

...

Various aspects of multifunctional agriculture

1) Viable rural communities (e.g. family farm systems) 2) Evironmental benefits (sustainable farm practices, nutrient recycling, biodiversity) 3) Food security (self-sufficiency at farm, regional, national or international level) 4) Landscape values (viable farms - beautiful landscapes/cultural heritage) 5) Food quality and safety (specific production and processing methods) 6) Food ethics and animal welfare

What are the most important beef production systems and how are they related to the beef market demand?

1. Industrial systems (feed operation systems), in which 90 % of the feed is purchased by other enterprises, Allows for shorter production cycles. 2. Mixed systems > Irrigated mixed farming systems > Rain fed mixed (48% of the worldwide beef production) 3. Grazing systems > 90 % of the feed comes from pastures The increasing importance of feedlot systems is driven by the actual and expected demand increase both from the domestic and international markets (very market oriented, reduce costs and maximize profits) - the production of beef based on grass fed systems is driven by the international demand for high quality grass fed beef which is considered to be more sustainable. (niche market)

Overall increase in production of beef because:

Decreasing production of Bovine meat, but increasing trade. However, from 1987 large increase in livestock number. From 2012 to 2013 small increase in beef production. But overall an increase. The reasons for which were trade liberalizations for agricultural markets, new technologies (breeding, feeding, hormones, transporting, slaughtering, cooling etc.) And subsidies. This has led to an increase in production, a reduction of prices, an increase in wealth and an increase in consumption. In countries, there is a relationship between per capita GDP and meat consumption. In the beginning of economic development there seems to be a linear relationship between income and beef consumption, but later on the relationship is declining again. In India , beef production, cattle stocks and beef exports have drastically increased. I tis a huge producer of buffaloes and oxen. Male cows can be eaten. McDonalds is the biggest importer of Indian beef. Argentina on the other hand has seen large decreases , due to its export tax. Also decrease in EU in all three sectors. Austrailia and new Zealand are huge exporters of beef. USA also exports but also imports a lot (exports expensive meat and imports cheap meet for minced meat and industry). 2008-2009, large increases in prices, then big drop, now prices have been increasing again. Opportunities: In vitro meat. Income generation, important provider of protein, cattle as multifunctional asset, important part of integrated farming. Increasing demand for beef (growing world population, higher demand by higher income) Shortage of land Challenges: The market is guided by very large companies. Hormones, trade agreements. SPS measures. Price fluctuations. Lately increasing after a drop. Deforestation &Desertification High water usage and pollution Use of high quality feed Emmission of methane, High energy input Exposure to climate conditions and change Higher input prices (energy, feed, etc!) Health problems (animals, humans) Policy changes Declining demand

43. Describe the diversity within the Brazilian Beef sector

Beef production is spread all over the country and occurs under different climatic and environmental conditions. • North 20 % • Northeast 13 % • Mid-west 34 % • Southeast 19 % • South 13 % The predominant breed is the Nellore which account for almost 70% of the Brazilian cattle herd and is mainly raised on extensive grazing systems. For the last two decades, the cattle industry has moved towards the Center-West region. It is now home to over one-third of Brazil's herd. But recently, cattle production has begun to move North because of the expansion of soybean production, which has raised land prices in the Center-West. Raising cattle in the North is 10% more profitable than in other regions in Brazil because of lower land prices

26. Describe factors causing price fluctuations for dairy products

Highly elastic market demand (???) , abolishment of milk quota, natural season trends > production somewhere in the world fluctuates > price fluctuation Feed costs?

30. How can smaller dairy farms economically survive in a competitive Dairy market

Diversification Or Niche products - use of traditions and knowledge, technologies to produce high value products, e.g. special cheese (price more stabilized)

60. What are the features of extensive aquaculture systems supporting its sustainability?

Extensive: Uses the natural productivity of the ponds, rivers of lakes. No supplemental feed. Low inputs, low yield. (ex: poly-culture in rice fields) IMAGE Proposed solutions: • Using fish waste and replacements for fish meal and oil • Keeping lower stock densities • No/fewer chemicals and drugs • Integrating production: - Deposit feeders - Suspension feeders - Seaweed beds • Chose appropriate sites But: 1-This is not done to any great extent. 2-These methods have their limits. 3-This would require even more inputs for an already input intensive industrial system. Extensive acquaculture has the following features: • Human intervention is mainly concentrated on the reproduction of the stocks in addition to capture - low labor costs, natural productivity of the ponds, rivers, lakes • It is based on natural feed sources (such as alghe, plankton, molluscus,crustace), no supplementary feeds • Water management depending on tidal fluctuations • Lower stock densities, less drugs and chemicals • It is a low input - low output system. This implies low production costs as well as low profits but still return on investment This system may be considered sustainable since it works with the environment. Surely more sustainable than intensive acquaculture systems. However it may cause the destruction of natural habitats.

24. Describe current trends in global dairy production and consumption

Growing producing trends. Increasing demand for animal sourced food through population growth, and income growth in emerging economies. Dairy consumption is expected to increase by 20% or more before 2021. Also in SSA consumer demand has increased. World milk production has increased by more than 50% from 1982 to 2012. India is the world's largest milk producer (16% of global production). Most of the expansion in milk production since the 1970s has been in South Asia, which is the main driver of milk production in the developing world. Milk production in Africa is growing more slowly than in other developing regions because of poverty and in some countries, adverse climatic conditions.

19. Describe the concerns with the consumption level of animal source foods

Growth in livestock sector has consistently exceeded that of the crop sector. Major challenge of today's agriculture is to satisfy an increasing demand for animal food products and sustainable use of natural resources (soil water air biodiversity). Increase of large-scale industrial production in urban areas > environmental and public health risks Rising importance of pigs and poultry vs. ruminants Increasing proportion of livestock production in warm, humid and more -disease-prone environments Meeting these challenges raises crucial global and national public policy issues that must be addressed as (equity and poverty alleviation, environment and natural resource management, public health and food safety). Traditional mixed farming practices alone will not meet increasing demand for animal products. Meal consumption per capita has grew faster than meat consumption per capita > high feedstock demand Where to find the extra feed that is needed? How to meet future demands for animal sourced foods?

35. Describe major trends in global beef production, opportunities and challenges.

However, from 1987 large increase in livestock number. From 2012 to 2013 small increase in beef production. But overall an increase. The reasons for which were trade liberalizations for agricultural markets, new technologies (breeding, feeding, hormones, transporting, slaughtering, cooling etc.) And subsidies. This has led to an increase in production, a reduction of prices, an increase in wealth and an increase in consumption. In countries, there is a relationship between per capita GDP and meat consumption. In the beginning of economic development there seems to be a linear relationship between income and beef consumption, but later on the relationship is declining again. In India , beef production, cattle stocks and beef exports have drastically increased. I tis a huge producer of buffaloes and oxen. Male cows can be eaten. McDonalds is the biggest importer of Indian beef. Argentina on the other hand has seen large decreases , due to its export tax. Also decrease in EU in all three sectors. Austrailia and new Zealand are huge exporters of beef. USA also exports but also imports a lot (exports expensive meat and imports cheap meet for minced meat and industry). 2008-2009, large increases in prices, then big drop, now prices have been increasing again. Opportunities: In vitro meat. Income generation, important provider of protein, cattle as multifunctional asset, important part of integrated farming. Increasing demand for beef (growing world population, higher demand by higher income) Shortage of land Challenges: The market is guided by very large companies. Hormones, trade agreements. SPS measures. Price fluctuations. Lately increasing after a drop. Deforestation &Desertification High water usage and pollution Use of high quality feed Emmission of methane, High energy input Exposure to climate conditions and change Higher input prices (energy, feed, etc!) Health problems (animals, humans) Policy changes Declining demand

6. List important livestock functions contributing to sustainability

Human: Empowering of women (generating income, access to markets, income generation for the household > education kids ) Time-saving women Traditional knowledge/knowledge on how to handle the systems Social: Job creation, food security, spiritual/religious meaning Economic: Income, Insurance Physical: They are a renewable asset in themselves > food security> long term source of income Ecological: nutrient cycling and fixation, increasing soil organic matter stocks, animal draft power is environmentally friendly, .... Predation

39. How could a liberation in beef trade between US and EU impact on the EU beef value chain?

Import of high quality beef meat from the US will increase competition on the EU market given the highly competitive prices of US beef producers. This may have a negative impact on small scale/rural beef producers, which are already struggling in order to cover their costs of production. In the long term this may cause a further decline in the EU beef production and therefore a higher dependency on imports from the US. Beef treated with hormones would be coming into the supermarket, possibly against the will of EU consumers.

58. Why is the establishment of Value chains into pastoral systems beneficial to pastoral people and the whole system? Ggive examples for a milk value chain and a beef cattle value chain.

Integration of pastoralist products to local markets is crucial for pastoralists to reach the highest possible value for their products at all times. This can only be achieved by building up the whole value chain. Might also be for the consumer: a higher quality of the product? Also, improved livelihoods and food security for livestock owners. Access for migrants to the city to their traditional foods. Meat is a transnational issue. If the inspection is doen at the initial starting point of the herd (because the veterinary service goes down the value chain) it means that larger stocs are going from Sudan to the middle east, because the risk of rejection is reduced. Also, market information was increased, because of mobile phones. Traders, give information between markets and producers about opportunities, qualities and prices. Advantageous because of an increase of production means more entry of money. This money might go to women and could increase schooling numbers. Which means an increase of the kids moving out and a relieve of overpopulation. West Africa, meat: Traditionally, from west sahel to urban areas on the cost. Sometimes, very long distances need to covered by foot, motor transport might be a large improvement. Some other advantages: young steers can be first growing up, and then they are brought to a feeding lot for finishing up as meat. So a divison between reproduction and first growth, and their feed lot and slaughtering. By moving out steers at 1,5 years instead of 3, there could be an increase in cows of almost 50% Dairy The example of Tiviski Camel dairy. In Mauretania. Semi-nomadic pastoralists. Since 1970s large increase in urban population. They consume a lot of milk. Started with camel dairy (investing in processing units and started to buy camel milk from pastoralists) and extended the service to cow and goat milk. There are three collection centres throughout the country. Within a 100 km radius, there is up to a thousand suppliers to collect milk twice a day. From the collection centers, milk is transported to the dairy. The problem was how to improve the quality of the milk? Also, another issue was the volume at the differnet steps, to take it to the collection centres. It is about small quantities, but long distances, so its very expensive to drive around with a truck all the time. To access markets, you need bulk. Therefore, the collection centres need to be equipped with coolers, they can work on solar power, so that you can store the milk for 3 days and you only have to collect twice a week. Then it goes to the dairy processing. Also, sour and condensed milk can increase shelf life (again some sanitary questions about that), and also butter, can be kept for a very long time.

52. List major negative externalities in poultry production related to public health

Land independent and clustering > production and processing units are geographically close, so externalities also concentrate geographically Farm and slaughterhouse workers and their families are more exposed to antibiotic resistant bacteria and at higher risk for infection Many slaughterhouses in peri-urban areas, increasing risks to human health and water contamination because of populatino concentration and lack of land for proper waste disposal More antibiotics used in livestock production than human medicine, but often same or very similar antibiotics. Germany has highest use in europe. Up to 75% of antibiotics given to poultry are excreted to the environment (ie water, soil), may contribute to growth and spread of antimicrobial-resistant bacteria in the environment Manure can transmit diseases. Intensive holding is more susceptible to disease spread and vulnerable to enviro & health impacts because higher concentration and genetic homogeny of animals encourages faster spread of diseases and less resistance to shocks - eg avian flu

1. Describe the various aspects of multifunctional agriculture

Multifunctional agriculture: Multifunctionality refers to an economic activity that has multiple outputs. Multifunctionality can be interpret as a characteristic of an economic activity or in terms of multiple roles the activity can have. Agriculture has three functions: Social, Ecological and Economic, these functions overlap when it comes to food provision. Thus agriculture has several characteristics which lead to multiple outputs . Various aspects of multifunctional agriculture: 1) Viable rural communities (e.g. family farm systems) 2) Evironmental benefits (sustainable farm practices, nutrient recycling, biodiversity) 3) Food security (self-sufficiency at farm, regional, national or international level) 4) Landscape values (viable farms - beautiful landscapes/cultural heritage) 5) Food quality and safety (specific production and processing methods) 6) Food ethics and animal welfare commodity and non-commodity outputs food and non-food outputs market and non-market goods by-products, side-effects and multiple outputs multiple outputs and joint products According to the working definition proposed by the OECD , multifunctionality is a characteristic of the production process that can have implications for achieving multiple societal goals There are essentially two approaches to the analysis of multifunctionality. 1. One is to interpret multifunctionality as a characteristic of an economic activity. • The particular characteristic that makes an economic activity multifunctional are its multiple, interconnected outputs or effects. These outputs can be positive or negative, intended or unintended, complementary or conflicting, reinforcing or offsetting. Some of the outputs are valued in existing markets, whereas others may elude the market mechanism. 2. The second way of interpreting multifunctionality is in terms of multiple roles assigned to agriculture. ((agriculture as an activity is entrusted with fulfilling certain functions in society. Consequently, multifunctionality is not merely a characteristic of the production process, it takes on a value in itself.)) Jointness in the production of commodity and non-commodity outputs . Joint production refers to situations two or more outputs that are interlinked so that an increase or decrease of the supply of one output affects the levels of the others. • Jointness adds two new elements. 1. First, any change in commodity production, be it market-led or policy-driven, entails a change in the levels of the non-commodity outputs that are jointly produced with commodities. 2. Secondly, jointness can create possibilities for economies of scope, that is, cost savings that are generated through the joint provision of several outputs as opposed to their separate provision. • Three reasons for jointness are frequently distinguished: 1. i) technical interdependencies in the production process; 2. ii) non-allocable inputs; and/or 3. iii) allocable inputs that are fixed at the farm level. Technical interdependencies are at the origin of many of the negative non-commodity outputs of agriculture, including soil erosion, chemical residuals and nutrient leaching. Greenhouse gas emissions and problems of animal welfare are also associated with technical or biological characteristics of the production process. • Positive effects due to technical interdependencies include, i.a. the impacts of crop rotations on nutrient balances and soil productivity ley farming, nutrient recycling and soil fertility Manure and biogas The second type of jointness arises where multiple outputs are produced from the same input (nonallocable input). The classical example is the production of mutton and wool which are jointly obtained from raising sheep, or of meat and manure. The association of landscape with particular production systems (terraced paddy fields, Alpine pastures with cows, fields of sunflower), The third type of jointness is caused by allocable fixed factors available in a farm: - An increase or decrease in the production of one output changes the amount of the factor of the supply of the others, thus creating a linkage among the outputs. This source of jointness i.a. relates to farmland and self-employed labour • The overall jointness effect is often due to a combination of different sources, the relative importance of which can be difficult to assess. INTERDEPENDENT FUNCTIONS IN AGRICULTURE The ecological role: Agriculture and landuse can have positive or negative effects on the environment, e.g. biodiversity climate change,desertification, water quality , availability and pollution the economic role : production of food and raw material is a main function. But agriculture often is the engine for creating employment and tertiar sector development. Agriculture depends on production inputs and services, and is dependent on transport and trade of products to processors and the final retail sector the social role : Maintanence of rural environments, endogenous knowledge systems, cultural heritage to ensure quality of life in rural comunities (FAO 1999) Mainly societal functionality: • Provision of work • Human health and recreation (spiritual and physical) • Cultural Landscape Identity (scenery and cultural heritage) Mainly economical functionality: • Residential and non-land based industries and services • Land based production • Infrastructure • Mainly environmental functionality: • Provision of abiotic resources • Support and provision of habitat (biodiversity, gene pool) • Maintenance of ecosystem processes

3. Describe the multi-functionality of livestock in the wider sense of society

Multifunctionality of livestock in a sense of society, it links with rural employment. Livestock contributes to food security. First, the direct linkage is with food itself. Secondly, the primary output is a tradeable good, which stimulates employment, income and higher food security. Whereas other outputs are non-tradeable. OWN ADDITIONAL INTERPRETATIONS: 1) Livestock can be used as an asset which gives value in the future. This asset is used in risk management, in order to decrease the risk of food insecurity in the future. Ex of goats in Africa, which are herded to be a kind of non-monetary savings account. 2) Livestock is used to maintain pastoral lands, because of grazing this pastoral land can be preserved. Ik: According to the working definition proposed by the OECD, multifunctionality is a characteristic of the production process that can have implications for achieving multiple societal goals. 2nd way to assess multi-functionality: In terms of multiple roles assigned to agriculture: agriculture is an activity entrusted with fulfilling certain functions in society. Consequently, multifunctionality is not merely a characteristic of the production process, it takes on value in itself. (normative multi-functionality) Here also includes equity and stability objectives Link with the contribution of agriculture to rural employment, this is linked to agricultural labour use. Contribution of agriculture to food security, where the linkage is with food itself, which is a primary output and a tradeable good, whereas other outputs are non-tradable. Agriculture may produce non-commodity goods and externalities. In the case of a positive externality it will produce public goods !!!!SEE QUESTION 1!!!!

Multifunctional agriculture

Multifunctionality refers to an economic activity that has multiple outputs. Multifunctionality can be interpret as a characteristic of an economic activity or in terms of multiple roles the activity can have. Agriculture has three functions: Social, Ecological and Economic, these functions overlap when it comes to food provision. Thus agriculture has several characteristics which lead to multiple outputs .

7. List at least three negative components of livestock and sustainability

Negative components of livestock and sustainability: - Exhaust gasses, like methane, which is enforces the greenhouse effect. - Livestock uses more resources than crops per kg of output. The efficiency is much lower in animal production. - Animal Welfare - Consumers health Externalities in the agricultural sector (4 features: their costs are often neglected. They occur with a time lag, they often damage groups whose interests are not well represented in political or decision-making processes, the identity of the externality is not always known). • Technical interdependencies are at the origin of many of the negative non-commodity outputs of agriculture, including soil erosion, chemical residuals and nutrient leaching. • Greenhouse gas emissions and problems of animal welfare are also associated with technical or biological characteristics of the production process. • Positive effects due to technical interdependencies include, i.a. • the impacts of crop rotations on nutrient balances and soil productivity • ley farming, • nutrient recycling and soil fertility • Manure and biogas • Biodiversity/climate change • Manure • Pollution In developed economy overflows nutrient needs of soil - where to go with the rest of the manure? Limited resources > degradation (land and water) Pollution GHG. Animal welfare Human health

48. What are the reasons for the high degree of contractual integration in production of broiler?

Potential Pros of Formal Contracts • Standardization of production practices • Marketplace access • Access to inputs and technical assistance • Increased efficiency • Reduced transaction costs to reduce input costs by making bulk purchases. With 30 - 40,000 chickens in a chicken house and an average of as many as 600,000 chickens coming from one poultry grower in a year - a major transaction cost to be contained in the value chain is transportation. SO the volume! > Huge transaction costs... Vertical integration. Growth of contract farming: allows farmers w/ medium-size flocks to gain access to tech and markets for low initial investment. Also binds producers to consumers (monosponistic market) and allows producers to deny responsibility for conditions of production. Compared to independent farming systems, formal contracts increase efficiency, facilitate spread of new technology. But in some cases it leads to higher prices for farmers and in others it creates financial risk and instability. Contract agriculture favors large-scale operations, increases consolidation As production levels increased and there was more value in the chicken market the segments of the value chain separated into specialized independent businesses feed mills, hatcheries (which literally hatched the baby chicks, then sold just baby chicks), farms that raised chicks until slaughter-age, and processors began to exist separately and trade with one another in open, usually localized markets Feed dealers saw an opportunity to expand the market even further by extending credit to the farmers raising chickens so they could get feed they needed to raise larger flocks, then pay the dealers back when the birds were sold up the chain to processing plants This was the first step toward a "vertically integrated" supply chain Most significantly for my presentation: Confined Animal Feeding Operation (CAFOs) have changed the market structure significantly, enabling and fueling more vertical integration, consolidation in the sector, and eventually establishing the preconditions for the phenomenon of contract agriculture. A lot of this is because of the sheer volume produced: With 30 - 40,000 chickens in a chicken house and an average of as many as 600,000 chickens coming from one poultry grower in a year - a major transaction cost to be contained in the value chain is transportation. Market becoming vertically concentrated: fewer companies control most of the production and slaughter market, small production being driven into niche/luxury sector. Integrated value chains. Consequences: economies of scale & lower consumer costs, but higher risk and higher external costs, Always need a market quickly. You don't want to be looking for it the whole time. Another significant reason for the market change was the opportunity to reduce input costs by making bulk purchases. A processor that controls a large portion of the value chain, known as an integrator, can arrange for bulk purchases of inputs like antibiotics, hormones, feed, equipment - etc. This can then easily be distributed to the geographically clustered farmers working under contract to produce chickens for that integrator. The result is cheaper costs of production, cheaper chicken products. Again, this marketplace advantage further supports the transition in the industry to a contract agriculture model because that system allows the integrator to take full advantage of the cost advantages. This evolution in the broiler industry brings us to the vertically integrated model of a poultry firm that we see today: The supply chain starts with the inputs for feed: corn, soy, rape-seed, the contents of Roel's presentation. These are typically purchased from grain brokers in bulk. The poultry firms grew out of feed mills as the original integrators, so generally a poultry firm owns its feed mill. This is an advantage marketwise anyway - because the firm can collect all inputs (grain, medications, fillers, etc) and combine them into a branded, packaged feed that they will then ship to their contract growers. The firm typically dictates their own breeding, usually through a sub-contracted breeder company (referred to here in this graphic from the national chicken council as "allied industry"). This allows them to tailor the breed of broiler to their machinery, literally - in terms of the CAFO housing conditions and the processing equipment. The next step, producing mass quantities of company-specific eggs, is generally done under contract arrangement. A breeder farm maintains very specific conditions based on company standards. The company provides the breed stock and the breeding farm generates eggs. A hatchery is a separate facility that receives the qualified eggs and hatches and sorts chicks. In some firms, the hatchery is part of the original firm ownership and infrastructure. (Example - Tyson Chicken in the US.) Chicks are then sent to a poultry farmer, also referred to as the "growout phase" - where the chicks are raised in the CAFOs until market ready weight At that point company transport picks up the broilers and takes them to what is usually a company owned processing facility where everything from whole chickens to highly processed chicken fingers, powders, flavorings, etc. But the most predominant trend that characterizes the modern broiler industry is the adoption of the contract agriuclture model. In fact: USDA estimated in 1998 that 35% of all agricultural production in the US has shifted to contract agriculture. The model, in terms of the types of contracts and value chain structures, started in the poultry industry, and have since spread to most other livestock. Coming back to the previous discussion about the evolution of the industry: because of those trends, contract agriculture took off in poultry very rapidly. In 1950 in the US, 95% of broiler producers were independent. In just 5 years, only 10% of broiler producers were still independent. The rest participating in the industry were under contract with an integrator. In fact, if you read agricultural extension websites from agricultural colleges in the United States, they tell prospective poultry farmers directly that it is virtually impossible to enter the broiler market without getting a contract with an integrator. Contracts typically specify: • Integrators provide chicks, feed, inputs • Integrators dictate standards and equipment, type of houses, type of feeders to use, etc • Growers provide labor and pay for chicken houses, equipment, water, fuel for heating, waste management and disposal of dead birds This is in part because livestock in the modern world is very technological, requires a fair amount of capital and technical assistance. One FAO publication points out the fact that: If small farmers were able to participate in the growing livestock sector it would be a valuable source of income.

46. What are the driving factors for the rapid expansion of poultry egg and meat production and consumption?

Poultry production and consumption has the fastest growing rate from livestock products in developing countries. This fast growth is possible due to: • high reproduction • short production cycles (broiler) , so it has a fast living cycle- matures early and starts laying eggs then • available turn-key technology (organized breeding). Consumption: Population growth and real income growth has led to a continuously growing global demand. In industrial countries sometimes a slight decline due to changes in consumer preferences. But huge differences per country in consumption!

27. Why is it so important to add value to dairy products through processing in the EU dairy sector

Price decrease after quota abolishment > regionalization (very competitive and less competitive areas) > latter areas need to stay competitive, stabilize prices for their products > add value

22. Why is the demand for Animal feed rich in protein rising so fast?

Rising demand for pork and poultry. Decreasing share of dairy. Meal demand is growing faster than supply. The shortage will grow in the coming years. Prices will remain tight. Protein is the constraining factor in animal production. Biofuel policy?

47. Describe the egg production value chain in industrial countries

Started off as backyard system and mixed farming systems, but has developed to barn and caged systems. These are the dominant systems of production. The cage system allows for cheap egg production. Sheds contain a lot of chicken. With artificial light and special feed to increase the laying performance. There is a lack of space, so chicken are not engaging in natural behavior. The chicken in this system are genetically manipulated so that they produce eggs at a very high rate (around 350 eggs per year), but this degenerates the hens body faster. Next to the cage system there is a barn system, in which animals are uncaged, and there is less hens per square meters. For both of the systems (as well as free range and organic) the chicks come from the same hatcheries. After birth, the males and females are sexed, but males lack economic value and are killed. The egg processing in this system is fully automated. The facilities process several million egges per day. There are machines for the detection of dirt and cracks, for grading and sorting and for packaging. The eggs are often shipped the same day they are laid. There is a trend towards larger layer farms with in-line packing and greater industry consolidation will continue , medium-sized farms with fewer than 1 million birds will either get bigger or cease production while really small farms could stay in business as niche markets Reasons, pres. Sally: Developments (advances in breeding, development and transfer of feed, slaughter, processing technologies, the subsidies on fees and taxes, urbanization, more globalized nature of poultry sector, increasing emphasis on animal health, product safety, quality, increasing costs with higher biosecurity measures and certifications ...) have led poultry industry and associated feed industry to scale-up rapidly, to concentrate close to input sources or final markets and to vertically integrate Development and transfer of feed, slaughter and processing technologies have increased safety and efficiency but favour large-scale units rather than small-scale producers move towards enriched colony production systems will increase both capital and feed costs (in US) In past few decades where poultry sector has benefited from long-term declining world market prices for feed grain, it is now facing increasing prices as the competition with direct grain consumption by a still strongly expanding human population and with grain use for bio-fuel production intensifies Very probable that prices for poultry feed will rise development likely to be advantage of large-scale operations taking advantage of their economies of scale advantages in researching new feed sources, in scaling up their production, in breeding birds adapted to changing nutritional or environmental conditions General consensus: sector will continue to scale up, concentrate and integrate and there might be greater segmentation of the market In high income countries low number of birds kept under extensive conditions, but sector is expanding recently (birds produced for niche markets like organic production as well as "hobby" flocks) The eggs from organic farming systems have the strongest markets in Europe and Northern America.

36. List sources of beef animals for the beef production chain (case of EU) and their relative proportion to the overall beef supply ( case of Germany)

There is a distinction between which type of animal is used for what. Dairy cows produce dairy calves, and beef cows produce beef calves. Then the use is decided upon. Mainly dairy calves are divided. The males end up as beef. The females: the ones with the lowest growth potential also end up as meat. After 2,5 lactations (5 years) dairy cows also finish as meat (mostly minced meat). IMAGE In Germany (2007) the main part of beef was produced by bulls (48%), 36% of the beef were cows, most of them were turned into meat after the first lactation. The others were heifers (12%), calves (4%) and ochsen (1%).

INTERDEPENDENT FUNCTIONS IN AGRICULTURE

The ecological role: Agriculture and landuse can have positive or negative effects on the environment, e.g. biodiversity climate change,desertification, water quality , availability and pollution the economic role : production of food and raw material is a main function. But agriculture often is the engine for creating employment and tertiar sector development. Agriculture depends on production inputs and services, and is dependent on transport and trade of products to processors and the final retail sector the social role : Maintanence of rural environments, endogenous knowledge systems, cultural heritage to ensure quality of life in rural comunities (FAO 1999) Mainly societal functionality: • Provision of work • Human health and recreation (spiritual and physical) • Cultural Landscape Identity (scenery and cultural heritage) Mainly economical functionality: • Residential and non-land based industries and services • Land based production • Infrastructure • Mainly environmental functionality: • Provision of abiotic resources • Support and provision of habitat (biodiversity, gene pool) • Maintenance of ecosystem processes

2. Explain the multi-functionality of livestock within the farming context

The multi-functionality of livestock deals with the various functions that livestock can have in farms: - Renewable energy source + they themselves are a renewable source of food - Also renewable source because they have offspring that can be used. - Provider of meat, eggs and/or milk - Use of their power (renewable energy source) to cultivate land for crop production - Manure used to fertilize the soil. Livestock integration is very important in the integrated management system of agriculture. - Suited for local transport at family-level farming - Pack animals and cards - stimulating local trade, and production - Increases the efficiency in agriculture in comparison with manual labor alternatives - Carrying domestic water and fuel - releasing time can be used in other important tasks - Higher crop yield and more areas are available due to faster and earlier plowing and sowing. This higher yield results in higher income - Multi-purpose use of draught animals: in plant production, for trade, save household time and effort (women and children), water lifting, milling, logging , land excavation, road construction. - Timeliness and timesaving - higher crop yield, more areas are available due to faster and earlier plowing and sowing> higher yield> higher income From professor: Functions of livestock • Food nutrition + other products Income • Social purposes (family welfare Currency/asset/insurance Cultural and religious purposes • Transport working power fertilizer In general: Transport, working power, fertilizer (manure) and agricultural products. • Multi-purpose use of draught animals: in plant production, for trade, save household time and effort (women and children), water lifting, milling, logging , land excavation, road construction. Animal power is a forgotten solution, but the technology is simple and reliable and animal power is environmentally friendly

54. Why and at what stage of an operation (size, specialization) is it necessary for a poultry/pig Farmer to make contracts in order to manage production risk?

Where markets are upscaled, become vertically integrated > huge transaction costs. Contracts can bring it down. Becomes more specialized, market access, inputs, feed mills hatcheries , medicins, etc. Contracts 600,000 chicks coming from one poultry grower. Also in case of monopsonistic markets. Always need a market quickly. You don't want to be looking for it the whole time. Another significant reason for the market change was the opportunity to reduce input costs by making bulk purchases. Up-scaling, instead of integrated production: specialization... external inputs. Compared to independent farming systems, formal contracts increase efficiency, facilitate spread of new technology. But in some cases it leads to higher prices for farmers and in others it creates financial risk and instability. Contract agriculture favors large-scale operations, increases consolidation • OVERALL: Contract agriculture promotes a power imbalance that is not in favor of individual growers • THEREFORE: Regarding smallholders in the developing world, further research is needed into alternatives (informal contracts, contracts with local cooperatives, etc.) As production levels increased and there was more value in the chicken market the segments of the value chain separated into specialized independent businesses feed mills, hatcheries (which literally hatched the baby chicks, then sold just baby chicks), farms that raised chicks until slaughter-age, and processors began to exist separately and trade with one another in open, usually localized markets Feed dealers saw an opportunity to expand the market even further by extending credit to the farmers raising chickens so they could get feed they needed to raise larger flocks, then pay the dealers back when the birds were sold up the chain to processing plants This was the first step toward a "vertically integrated" supply chain Most significantly for my presentation: Confined Animal Feeding Operation (CAFOs) have changed the market structure significantly, enabling and fueling more vertical integration, consolidation in the sector, and eventually establishing the preconditions for the phenomenon of contract agriculture. A lot of this is because of the sheer volume produced: With 30 - 40,000 chickens in a chicken house and an average of as many as 600,000 chickens coming from one poultry grower in a year - a major transaction cost to be contained in the value chain is transportation. Market becoming vertically concentrated: fewer companies control most of the production and slaughter market, small production being driven into niche/luxury sector. Integrated value chains. Growth of contract farming: allows farmers w/ medium-size flocks to gain access to tech and markets for low initial investment. Also binds producers to consumers (monosponistic market) and allows producers to deny responsibility for conditions of production. Consequences: economies of scale & lower consumer costs, but higher risk and higher external costs, Always need a market quickly. You don't want to be looking for it the whole time. Another significant reason for the market change was the opportunity to reduce input costs by making bulk purchases. A processor that controls a large portion of the value chain, known as an integrator, can arrange for bulk purchases of inputs like antibiotics, hormones, feed, equipment - etc. This can then easily be distributed to the geographically clustered farmers working under contract to produce chickens for that integrator. The result is cheaper costs of production, cheaper chicken products. Again, this marketplace advantage further supports the transition in the industry to a contract agriculture model because that system allows the integrator to take full advantage of the cost advantages. This evolution in the broiler industry brings us to the vertically integrated model of a poultry firm that we see today: The supply chain starts with the inputs for feed: corn, soy, rape-seed, the contents of Roel's presentation. These are typically purchased from grain brokers in bulk. The poultry firms grew out of feed mills as the original integrators, so generally a poultry firm owns its feed mill. This is an advantage marketwise anyway - because the firm can collect all inputs (grain, medications, fillers, etc) and combine them into a branded, packaged feed that they will then ship to their contract growers. The firm typically dictates their own breeding, usually through a sub-contracted breeder company (referred to here in this graphic from the national chicken council as "allied industry"). This allows them to tailor the breed of broiler to their machinery, literally - in terms of the CAFO housing conditions and the processing equipment. The next step, producing mass quantities of company-specific eggs, is generally done under contract arrangement. A breeder farm maintains very specific conditions based on company standards. The company provides the breed stock and the breeding farm generates eggs. A hatchery is a separate facility that receives the qualified eggs and hatches and sorts chicks. In some firms, the hatchery is part of the original firm ownership and infrastructure. (Example - Tyson Chicken in the US.) Chicks are then sent to a poultry farmer, also referred to as the "growout phase" - where the chicks are raised in the CAFOs until market ready weight At that point company transport picks up the broilers and takes them to what is usually a company owned processing facility where everything from whole chickens to highly processed chicken fingers, powders, flavorings, etc. But the most predominant trend that characterizes the modern broiler industry is the adoption of the contract agriuclture model. In fact: USDA estimated in 1998 that 35% of all agricultural production in the US has shifted to contract agriculture. The model, in terms of the types of contracts and value chain structures, started in the poultry industry, and have since spread to most other livestock. Coming back to the previous discussion about the evolution of the industry: because of those trends, contract agriculture took off in poultry very rapidly. In 1950 in the US, 95% of broiler producers were independent. In just 5 years, only 10% of broiler producers were still independent. The rest participating in the industry were under contract with an integrator. In fact, if you read agricultural extension websites from agricultural colleges in the United States, they tell prospective poultry farmers directly that it is virtually impossible to enter the broiler market without getting a contract with an integrator. Contracts typically specify: • Integrators provide chicks, feed, inputs • Integrators dictate standards and equipment, type of houses, type of feeders to use, etc • Growers provide labor and pay for chicken houses, equipment, water, fuel for heating, waste management and disposal of dead birds This is in part because livestock in the modern world is very technological, requires a fair amount of capital and technical assistance. One FAO publication points out the fact that: If small farmers were able to participate in the growing livestock sector it would be a valuable source of income.

25. List the most important dairy products and their importance for the global market and describe factors causing price fluctuations for dairy products

Whole milk powder (WMP) Skimmed milk powder (SMP) Increase in shelf life through reducing of water content, easiest to produce, high price fluctuations Butter - importance for close| regional markets, higher transaction costs, price follows WMP and SMP Cheese - stabilizes prices for EU market Milk powders are very important for global markets, cheeses too. Butter to a lesser extent.

14. How does improvement of transportation technology impact on gender?

Women are the main transporters of water and wood and for local transport for markets. But gender-related constraints often limit women's access to local transport solutions for trade, production and domestic activities. The time and energy saved for transport for domestic tasks by women and children can improve the productivity and quality of life of rural households. Also, intermediate means of transport can assist access to markets, schools, health centres and other social and economic facilities

Jointness in the production of commodity and non-commodity outputs

oint production refers to situations two or more outputs that are interlinked so that an increase or decrease of the supply of one output affects the levels of the others. • Jointness adds two new elements. 1. First, any change in commodity production, be it market-led or policy-driven, entails a change in the levels of the non-commodity outputs that are jointly produced with commodities. 2. Secondly, jointness can create possibilities for economies of scope, that is, cost savings that are generated through the joint provision of several outputs as opposed to their separate provision. • Three reasons for jointness are frequently distinguished: 1. i) technical interdependencies in the production process; 2. ii) non-allocable inputs; and/or 3. iii) allocable inputs that are fixed at the farm level.

31. Explain the drivers and limitations of urban dairy systems

• Characteristics Intensive system Animals are kept indoors Little or no agricultural land = main constraint for expansion Most inputs bought at the market Sale of fluid milk is major source of income Can improve nutritional status of the family Better private sector service than rural and peri-urban farming Urban dairy farmers are better educated than peri-urban and rural dairy farmers • High rate of urbanization Higher demand for dairy products in urban areas Liquid milk is most consumed Processed products increasingly important But also increase of urban poverty Majority of markets in urban areas = Logistical challenge • Constraints Feed shortage Lack of improved dairy animals Lack of artificial inseminetion. Diseases Lack of credit Also lack of land (is feedlot system, no expansion really possible) • Urban dairy production can produce these products closer to the consumer Closes the gap between demand and supply Increases food security Can also pose health risks if proper infrastructure is not available • Can improve livelihoods through: Increased family income Employment generation Increasing food security Improve nutritional status of the family Can close the gap between demand and supply and produce the products close to the markets. Establishing a rural milk collection and transport system is hard Small quantities Large distances Poor and unreliable infrastructure (electricity and roads) Lacking cooling facilities Lacking knowledge in milk collection and processing Low quality of raw milk Therefore a lot of waste of milk Seasonality of the milk supply (rainy season is most productive, but access to rural areas is low) High transportation costs Milk is transported by producers or informal traders It is transported by bicycle, animal, vehicle or foot Uncooled, so only short duration is possible

33. Explain the benefit of a dairy value chain in dev.ing countries and identify most important institutions (rules, regulations)

• Dairy production contributes to overall development through Providing relatively quick returns for small scale producers Employment generation Food security Asset accumulation Poverty alleviation Improving human nutrition and health Government policies have a role! In Ethiopia already increased but not enough. Case of the Netherlands shows what kind of influence governments can have on productivity. Markets Supply chain Cooperatives

56. List factors contribution to reducing the resource base for pastoralists

• Forced sedenterization and restriction of mobility (f.e. borders) • Restriction on mobility can also be because of population gowth. Before population numbers were controlled by settling the marriage age. This age was increased when there were too many people to reduce the number of reproduction years. Also, the number of women that was allowed to marry was sometimes reduced. Nowadays, this doesn't happen anymore, which leads to increased population. This is thus a new phenomenon in these communities. Another factor for the population growth has been a reduction in baby mortality. Pastoralists depend on sparse population in a vast area. IF the population grows, this will lead to degradation. • Privatization of communal land (ranching, agriculture, mining) Land taking: Most productive land is being taken away by large investors, or this productive land is close to urban systems. So this is very much linked with access to water! Since the amount of land these tribes need is very large, it is too costly to secure the land tenure. Therefore it is easy for others to privatize. • Degradation of the resource base because of climate change and population • Wells and boreholes fuel overgrazing: because of constant water supply, the incentive to move around is smaller. Also the incentive to take more animals on the pasture will be bigger. This will lead to overgrazing and degradation.

34. List major challenges to the development of a sustainable dairy system in dev.ing countries.

• Highly nutritional • Highly perishable • Microbiological hazards From environment or from the animals themselves Can be chemically contaminated by animals feed, inadequate control of equipment, the environment and milkstorage facilities. Zie ook vorige antwoorden over de challenges met rural dairy chain etc. Transportability, perishability, institutions, markets zijn iet daar waar productie is, etc, etc. Scattered, large distances need to be covered, seasonality, vet services, poor breeding Low quality, small wuantities, unreliable infrastructure, lack of cooling systems, lack of knowledge in milk collection and prcessing

10. Describe the traditional functions of livestock with benefits to women

• Human power still predominates over much of the developing world: this is mainly done by women • Contributing 70% of power requirements • Draught animals contribute nearly a quarter of power needs • Tractors only 6% Women perform most of the work to feed the world Women are mostly in charge of the small animals, the processing and marketing of milk products (men herd the bigger animals and often have more access to markets). Women are the main transporters of water and wood and for local transport for markets. But gender-related constraints ofen limit women's access to local transport solutions for trade, production and domestic activities. The time and energy saved for transport for domestic tasks by women and children can improve the productivity and quality of life of rural households. Also, intermediate means of transport can assist access to markets, schools, health centres and other social and economic facilities. Women: meal: if they manage livestock: higher nutritional status of the household... more knowledge where something is needed (better management/ decision making) Dairy Value chain • Production/farm treatment. Here, the man takes care of the fodder. Women take care of the feed/milk/husbandry/calfbreeding. If they want to extend to markets, it is hard for women to gain access to credit and extension work (education). Main focus on men, but also, the house hold head might not be willing to discuss division of labour in the household • Informal surplus marketing: can stay in the domain of women. The marketing is scale dependent. The bigger the surplus, the more the benefits will go to men. How those benefits are handled depends on intrahousheold relations • Transport and trading: Mainly men • Processing: is traditionally done by women • Retailing: gender neutral Same patterns to poultry... Pushing technology in the wrong direction will not change anything.

21. How does the rising demand for ASF affect the animal feed market?

• Meal consumption per capita grew faster than Meat consumption per capita • Figure shows the strong increase in higher protein demanding animals and modernization • Pork is the biggest protein demanding sector, with a share of 45 % of total demand growing to 49% in 2022. • The share of dairy is decreasing from 24 % to 19%, while poultry is growing to 18% from 15% Global oilseed production will rise

55. What type of contractual arrangements do exist and why get large scale pig/poultry operations involved in contract farming?

• Standardization of production practices • Food safety (debated topic) • Marketplace access • Access to inputs and technical assistance • Increased efficiency • Reduced transaction costs

16. List drivers of change in Production and consumption of livestock products

1. Modernization Fast growing modernization rate in emerging regions. Modern farms use vegetable meals that are available world markets and thus have an influence. Traditionally, backyard farmers use mainly organic waste from households . However, there has been a large shift from backyard farms to modern farms. Especially in Asia, the industry developed strongly combining integration and modernization in pork and poultry production. This has a strong effect on the meal demand globally. 2. Urbanization More than half of the world population lives in cities. IN 2022, almost 60% of the world population will be urban citizens. These people have no agricultural activities, which means that they are dependent on external sources for their food supply. However, in urban areas, the consumption of urban citizens of meat is higher than in rural areas. CGenerally, people first opt for cheap meat (smaller ruminants and poultry)... these have a lower conversion rate, but they need more protein, this explains the increase price for protein meal. 3. Growing Welfare & Changing Diets GDP growth leads to a higher meat diet. First there is a purchase of cheapest available meat , chicken, followed by pork dairy and beef. The more efficient the animal in body mass gain, the higher the protein intake. The quicker you grow > less energy wasted > more protein demand. So a lower FCR (feed conversion ratio) leads to a higher protein meal inclusion. 4. Growing Population Reaching 8 billion people by 2022 due to population growth in Asia and Africa. India shows a massive population growth but diets are largely vegetarian.

There are essentially two approaches to the analysis of multifunctionality

1. One is to interpret multifunctionality as a characteristic of an economic activity. • The particular characteristic that makes an economic activity multifunctional are its multiple, interconnected outputs or effects. These outputs can be positive or negative, intended or unintended, complementary or conflicting, reinforcing or offsetting. Some of the outputs are valued in existing markets, whereas others may elude the market mechanism. 2. The second way of interpreting multifunctionality is in terms of multiple roles assigned to agriculture. ((agriculture as an activity is entrusted with fulfilling certain functions in society. Consequently, multifunctionality is not merely a characteristic of the production process, it takes on a value in itself.))

51. Explain ways to overcome the killing of male chicks in the egg productions system

1. Sexing before hatching 2. Breeding of a race with males suitable for fattening and slaughtering (dual purpose chicken) Both options involve higher production costs.

13. Why is it important to seriously analyze gender functions in livestock farming systems?

2/3 of the livestock keepers are women. More likely to use income of livestock for the family (so food security). + women headed households are among the poorest So: implications for food security and poverty alleviation. Gender-related constraints often limit women's access to local transport solutions for trade, production and domestic activities. The time and energy saved for transport for domestic tasks by women and children can improve the productivity and quality of life of rural households. Also, intermediate means of transport can assist access to markets, schools, health centers and other social and economic facilities. Women allocate money to other purposes > more money to the household, less to alcohol?

29. Describe the milk quota abolition scenarios in the EU and their consequences with the Dairy chain

2009-2013 increase quotas by 1% to allow for a soft landing. Expiration by 2015 • CAPRI consists of supply and market interaction models via exchange of prices and quantities in an open economy taking in consideration n CAP instruments. • abolition of the milk quota regime is likely to increase milk production on average by 4.4% in EU27, and to decline raw milk prices by−10%. • Also increasing price volatility • Agricultural income would decline on average by −1.6% since increasing production cannot compensate lower milk prices • Other similar results from other studies (Réquillart et al. (2008), Witzke and Tonini (2009), Chantreuil et al. (2008) • Highly competitive regions tend to expand their milk production up to 30% and thus may be able to increase their revenues. Less competitive regions will lose revenues both from price and quantity sides (up to −20%). FROM GHENT PRESENTATIONS 2008 'Health Check' Reform National quotas shall be increased by 1% every year, so that their value is slowly eroded. This shall prepare a soft landing in 2015 when the quotas expire and production is liberalized See image ghent presentations! _ for big scale producers three are growth possibilities/economies of scale/access to larger markets/increase bargaining power -small scale rural farmers: lack of tehcnology/capital/infrastructure for expansion. Growth limitations due to remoteness and consumer distance. Small bargaining power - Produccers in LCD countries: afraid that excess of supply will lower world prices + afraid that EU introduces subsidies to exports: dumping. Ruined local milk enterprises and the effects of this in rural population LCD

49. List pros and cons of floor/barn systems for egg production

Barns allow the hens to roam freely inside uncaged, have perches to roost on and space to stretch their wings. Nesting boxes provide a quiet place for egg-laying and there is floor litter for scratching in. Multi-tier barns provide additional levels above ground for the hens to explore. 9-20 hens per square meter. Pro's The animals are uncaged and there are group nests. will have three levels of perches, nesting boxes in which to lay eggs and ground space to move around. Hens cannot go outside -- it's not a free-range system -- but they can hop down to dirt floors to socialize, flap their wings and scratch the dirt. Cons The problems are diseases and stress. Very low animal welfare! Also, theoretically they can move around, but still so many hens that it might not be possible in practice to actually move. Killing of male birds.

44. List sustainability concerns of the Brazilian beef system.

Cattle is the biggest driver of deforestation in Brasil. 75% of deforestation is related to expanding cattle ranches. Conversion to pastures has consequences like soil erosion and degradation, and the contamination of acquatic ecosystems with organic matter and a loss of biodiversity. Also, beef needs a lot of resources. Brazils target is thought to double leather and beef exports by 2018. The question is then, how do we achieve forest and ecosystem preservation with increased food production and income for all. Beef production also accounts for a lot of greenhouse gas emissions. From 2003-2008, CO2 emissions from pasture in the Brazilian Amazon averaged 50% of Brazil's total emissions. Beef produced in Brazil emits far greater quantities of CO2 than US beef

Challenges beef

Challenges: The market is guided by very large companies. Hormones, trade agreements. SPS measures. Price fluctuations. Lately increasing after a drop. Deforestation &Desertification High water usage and pollution Use of high quality feed Emmission of methane, High energy input SHortage of land Exposure to climate conditions and change Higher input prices (energy, feed, etc!) Health problems (animals, humans) Policy changes Declining demand

50. Where does the organic egg production process differ from conventional production?

Chicks come from the same hatcheries! Feed use, more space, can go outside, but in theory, also a lot of things that are going wrong in organic egg production! Organic egg producers cannot use antibiotics except during an infectious outbreak Eggs labelled 'organic' are from hens reared in a free-range environment with additional standards set out by an approved certification organisation (The Soil Association, for example) and European law. As such, organic standards can vary between the different certification organisations, but generally focus on sustainability issues, including soil health and biodiversity.

53. Explain the importance of environmental effects of poultry production

Compared to cow milk, beef, pigs and eggs: Production less ghg intensive, but processing and slaughtering much more ghg intensive Carbon dioxide emissions are produced by - burning of fossil fuels during animal production and slaughter - transport of animals, inputs, processed and refrigerated products - land use and land-use change, and the use of inputs for the production of feed energy used for heating, ventilation and air conditioning systems typically accounts for the largest quantity of energy about 52 million tonnes of carbon dioxide are emitted per year directly from production Directly and indirectly contributes abt 3% to anthropogenic ghg emissions excluding feed LULUC and transport Local disturbances include odor (from waste, carcasses, feathers, etc), pests such as rodents and flies (nuisance and disease carriers), noise esp from transports, and landscape degradation Soil and water pollution result from poor manure and waste storage. Includes excessive nutrients in water, leading to algae blooms and eutrophication. Excess poultry waste can cause soil degradation and acidification, concentration of nutrients and other input in soil Waste is high value fertilizer and usually used on farm or sold, or sold as animal feed (fish & cattle). However increasing concentration and land-independence makes in increasingly difficult to get rid of manure (costs for longer transport can be prohibitive). Even proper disposal contributes to nutrient and pollution problems at regional level Poultry manure contains considerable amounts of nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and other excreted substances such as hormones, antibiotics, pathogens and heavy metals which are introduced through feed. Hormones from poultry waste have been found to be a potential cause of endocrine disruption in wildlife Carcass and waste disposal and waste water disposal from slaughterhouses can contaminate surface and ground water with nutrients, diesease (eg. Salmonella), chemicals, organic materials. Risk to human health and aquatic environmental health Loss of biodiversity in nutrient-sensitive ecosystems Pollution (esp nutrient pollution) impacts ecosystems, reducing biodiveristy (favor generalists, disadvantaging species requiring special habitats or that thrive in nutrient poor areas) Habitat loss esp from feed production luluc impacts biodiversity Reliance on hihg-efficiency breed optimized for industrial production means agrobiodiveristy of poultry breeds dies out Impacts from feed production many and varied . Intensification of feed production affects land and water resources through pollution caused by the intensive use of mineral fertilizer, pesticides and herbicides to maintain high crop yields. More on soil and water impact in pollution section. Land use change for feed: deforestation also has an impact on water cycles and increases runoff and consequently soil erosion, in addition to carbon source/sink changes and biodiversity loss production of fishmeal for the poultry sector is an important factor contributing to the overexploitation of fisheries

17. Describe regional differences and trends in the consumption of milk and meat

Enormous increase in the consumption of cow milk in Asia since 1994, in other parts of the world, lower and stable consumption. High consumption of meat in developed countries, Latin American countries and Mongolia. • Increasing demand for animal products in developing countries due to changes in consumption and population growth • Rising share of animal products in the diet • Contribution of cereals to calorie supply significantly lower in industrialized countries • Contribution of animal products stable • Per capita consumption of animal products 3 times higher than in developing countries Sub Saharan Africa: Low consumption levels of animal products, changed little over the last 30 years (5 % to per capita calorie consumption) 50 % half of the percentage of the developing countries as a whole (1/5 of the consumption in industrialized countries) Near East & North Africa High total calorie consumption but low contribution by animal products (8.7 % in 1997 / 99) Contribution of animal products predicted to increase to 11.4 % by 2030 Latin America & Caribbean Consumption of animal products historically higher than in other developing country groups increase predicted 16.6 % of dietary energy provided by animal products (only 60 % of that of industrialized countries) Brazil Unusual due to large and increasing dietary energy supply by animal products (18.8 % in 1997 / 99) gap between Brazil and other Latin American countries expected to widen Meat consumption predicted to reach the level of industrialized countries by 2030 (actually 3 / 4) Per capita milk consumption only 50% of that of industrialized countries (3/4 predicted by 2030) South Asia (excluding India) Slow but steady growth in animal product consumption (increase mostly due to increase of the contribution of milk already 50% above the average for developing countries) Increase in the contribution of poultry meat but comparatively low contribution of eggs India Up to 2030 large increase of relative contribution of animal products predicted (milk and milk products) East Asia (excluding China) Steady increase in contribution of animal products (meat, predominantly pork) China Rapid rise in the dietary contribution of animal products predicted (from 15 % to 20 % between 1997 / 99 and 2030) Mainly substantial increase of pork and poultry production Very low per capita milk consumption, rising from 7 kg p. a. in 1997 / 99 to 14 kg p. a. in 2030 Very high egg consumption (150% of developing countries and above industrial country average) 15 kg / person / year in 1997 / 99 to 20 kg / person / year in 2030

Opportunities beef

In vitro meat. Income generation, important provider of protein, cattle as multifunctional asset, important part of integrated farming. Increasing demand for beef (growing world population, higher demand by higher income) Shortage of land

Explain the relation between increased ASF consumption, need for Protein feed and land use changes

Increase in ASF consumption, especially demand for poultry and pork > higher production and intensification, intensification of feed and high protein feed nedded > searching for new protein sources , global oil seed production concentrated in few areas in the world, e.g. soy in Brazil , recent production increase maily through acreage expansion > deforestation to expand acreages (also for beef production) EFFECTS SSA The loss in access to land for pastoralists has been greater than for almost any other resource users seriously compromising their livelihood options Land grabbing is increasing the marginalization of pastoralists • East Africa has a huge hidden asset strong herds of dryland livestock managed by pastoralists immense potential value for reducing poverty; the animal resources sub sector has one of the highest potentialities for agricultural growth The millions of livestock produced from Ethiopia´s drylands are a vital engine for trade, farming, and urban activities In Tanzania pastoralists account for about 10% of the total population • Restrictions on access to grazing land and water resources • Forced evictions, including pastoralists • Destruction of transhumance routes because of new canal constructions

45. Explain steps of improvements in extensive poultry systems in relation to risk and functionality

Increased veterinarian services to control diseases more easily. Improve the protection against predators Access to water is needed and maybe some supplement feed Explain how to go to be a small-scale semi commercial farm? Increasing meat and egg production from rural poultry has been a major concern of FAO for many years. The Organization has supported various improvement programmes ranging from the introduction of productive exotic breeds under intensive management systems to improved backyard production, vaccine production and disease control. Low genetic potential??

12. In which way does market orientation of livestock keeping impact on the role of women and their benefits from keeping livestock?

Informal surplus marketing mainly stays in the domain of the woman. The bigger the surplus, the more the benefits will go to men. How those benefits are handled depends on intra-household relations. (mainly, if men reap the benefit, less is allocated to the household).

9. In which way does intensification and specialization of livestock production impact on sustainability (positive and negative aspects)

Intensification and specialization of livestock production relates to movement of farmers towards the production of homogeneous products on-farm. Centering on intensification of resources, is to make better use of existing resources and technologies and therefore influences sustainability in a positive way. Positive aspects: - Lower transaction costs at farm level - More competitive because of economies of scale > higher income for the farmer(?), at least more efficient production. - More efficient use of resources - Energy: less hard work for people - Medicin: less productivity and animal loss - Fodder: Increased efficiency in milk production Labour: creation of labour opportunities - Zero-grazing systems: less parasties (mosquitos tiks) - Food safety: rules and regulations... Negative aspects: - Risk is less spread over various agricultural output products, meaning that the farmer is more vulnerable to - Higher concentration of livestock in one area, causing pollution, manure surplus and higher risk to infections and diseases. - The creation of monocultures with the loss of biodiversity - Leading to a more diversified system where, the closed agricultural system exists less. - Fertilizer: Surplus nitrate+phosphate Leaching > pollution of soil and water resources (eutrophication) - Pesticides: health hazards for humans and animals if polluted water is ingested Disruption of ecosystems - Water : irrigated areas > lowering of water table, salinization - Energy: GHG emissions Climate change - Drugs: Antibiotic residues in the milk - Inappropriate farming practices and intensive use of marginal land : soil degradation > soil erosion desertification > conflicts over scarcer land and water - Zero-grazing systems : animal welfare and health + higher risk for diseases because of more concentrated production - Rules and regulations: exclusion of small holders In the case of poultry farming > contracts? Dependencies? To minimize or eliminate the harm on the environment is called sustainable intensification. Intensification using natural, social and human capital assets, combined with the use of best available technologies and inputs as: • best genotypes: think of green rev. Always think of what the consequences may be. • best ecological management • Minimizing or eliminating harm to the Environment • Sustainable intensification

61. List factors explaining the fast growth of intensive aquaculture systems and identify issues of concern regarding sustainability

It is the commonly accepted way of thinking that aquaculture can and will increase in the coming years to 1) help palliate for declining wild stocks and 2) permit to increase the total amount of available food on the planet (to answer to the world's growing population). Many people have high hopes for aquaculture. However, the direction we have been following with aquaculture in the past 30 years is the same as with any other livestock production system. We have been intensifying to a point where resources are now limiting and externalities are extremely high. Higher demand for carnivorous speicies and species that need a lot of inputs. But herbivorous species offer a more promising solution. Intensive: High technological requirements. Reared on external feed only. Very high inputs correlated with very high potential yields. (ex: sturgeon, eel, salmon production) . we have went from a system based on the natural productivity of ponds and incoming sunlight to an extremely technological system requiring very high material and energy inputs. Having fish escape is dangerous if they are GMO/hybrids The environmental impacts of fish farming varies widely depends on the species being farmed, the methods used and where the farm is located. • Examples of impacts: - Use of drugs and chemicals - Spread of diseases and parasites - Harm to predators - Accumulation of fish waste - Escaped fish, alien species - Need for fish meal and fish oil: decline of natural stocks (due to over fishing for fodder production and the invasion of alien species. And even if we here a lot about "environmentally friendly" or "sustainable" aquaculture, we have to be critical. How much can "sustainably be produced"? Are we already producing too much? How much pressure do we permit ourselves to exert on the natural systems? If we want aquaculture to compensate for declining wild catches and help feed the increasing world population, aquaculture production will have to increase. Can it still increase? • Production is limited by resources: - Aquaculture production requires a large amount of resources: • Space (land, waterways, material) • Technical and human capital • A supply of offspring • Fertilizers (phosphorus and others) • Water • Fish meal and fish oils for feeds Seeing as water and fish meal/oil are limiting, we can not just expand aquaculture. The only possible way to increase would be to increase productivity: get more from less... producing more kg of fish with the same of less input of water or feed. The decrease of EREI: This means that the actual intensive production system is only possible because we have access to large amounts of affordable energy and resources (be it for aquaculture facilities construction, pelleted-food production, monitoring, fish processing, etc) and because we accept to inflict a large level of externalities on the natural system to the detriment of the natural stocks. I believe it unrealistic to think that this level of productivity can be maintained, let alone increased, in face of future challenges of climate change, scarcity of oil resources and such. We have created a system where we are no longer taking advantage of each species full biological capacities/benefits. We are producing species that the consumers wants in intensive mono-culture systems: Salmon, trout, shrimp, eel, pike, etc. Sustainability challenges related to intensive acquaculture: • Increase productivity • Improve the feed conversion ratio • Focus on appropriate species (that is herbivorous species. However the market demand tends to be carnivorous species which require higher levels of inputs) • Move towards integrated agri -acquaculture systems

4. Explain the role of livestock in nutrient transfer and nutrient cycling

Livestock is an essential part of agriculture when it comes to a closed system agriculture. A closed system in agriculture means that external inputs are reduced t o a minimum. In practice, this means that crops and organic waste from agriculture/household is used to feed the livestock available on the farm. The manure of the livestock is in this turn used to provide nutrients to the soil, with help of bacteria. These nutrients, (e.g. carbons and nitrogen) are used by the crops to grow. Advantages • In an integrated system, livestock and crops are produced within a coordinated framework. • The waste products/residues of one component serve as a resource for the other. • manure is used to enhance crop production; • crop residues and by-products feed the animals, supplementing often inadequate feed supplies, thus • contributing to improved animal nutrition and productivity. Excreta (Urin, Manure, Dung) Two crucial roles in the overall sustainability of the system: (a) Improving nutrient supply to crops • (nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, organic matter), • important for maintaining soil structure and fertility. Through its use, • production increased , soil improvement, reduced labor in soil preparation, increased water retention, reduced crop failure. • Means: Nutrient transfer, Nutrient cycling IMAGE Comprises: • Need to fix nitrogen within farm systems • Import of inorganic and organic sources of nutrients • Reduction of nutrient losses through errosion control • Apply composts and manures to increase soil organic matter stocks There are 2 phases of nutrients. Transfer and cycling. Homesteads with veg. garden and livestock. Livestock can pick up nutrients from outside the homestead and bring them back to the homestead = transfer. When there are a lot of kids in the family, more houses will come, and they share the communal area. This will shrink the nutrient transfer system. Change might be made to cycling of nutrients within the homestead (this happens in more densely populated areas). Where the animal is held closer by. Crops are brought to the animals, and their excreta are used for fertilization. Manure gives NPK and Humus. Directly this increases yields. Indirectly it leads to improved soil structures. Legumes and forages come into the system. For this, seed infrastructures need to be developed. This requires human capital > additional education. And also infrastructure!

8. Why are mixed livestock-crop farming systems considered to be sustainable

Livestock uses resources that otherwise would have no value Mixed-crop farming systems are considered to be sustainable because this contains all the aspects of the closed nutrient cycle in agriculture. Crops are used to feed the animals>Manure (filled with nutrients) is used to fertilize the soil>crops absorb the nutrients from the soil to grow. Integrated systems • crops and livestock interact to create a synergy, with recycling allowing the maximum use of available resources. • Crop residues can be used for animal feed, manure and animal power enhance agricultural productivity by intensifying nutrients that improve soil fertility, reducing the use of chemical fertilizers. • A high integration of crops and livestock is often considered as a step forward, • but small farmers need to have sufficient access to knowledge, assets and inputs to manage this system in a way that is economically and environmentally sustainable. Advantages • In an integrated system, livestock and crops are produced within a coordinated framework. • The waste products/residues of one component serve as a resource for the other. • manure is used to enhance crop production; • crop residues and by-products feed the animals, supplementing often inadequate feed supplies, thus • contributing to improved animal nutrition and productivity. Excreta (Urin, Manure, Dung) Two crucial roles in the overall sustainability of the system: • (a) Improving nutrient supply to crops - (nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, organic matter), - important for maintaining soil structure and fertility. Through its use, - production increased , soil improvement, reduced labor in soil preparation, increased water retention, reduced crop failure. • Means: Nutrient transfer, Nutrient cycling • (b) Providing energy: - production of biogas and energy for household use (e.g. cooking, lighting) or for rural industries cakes - can replace charcoal and wood. Positive Side Effects of Sustainable Agroecosystems I Overall benefits of crop-livestock integration : • Agronomic, through the retrieval and maintenance of the soil productive capacity; • Economic, through product diversification and higher yields and quality at less cost; higher economic buffer, lower risk • Ecological, through the reduction of crop pests (less pesticide use and better soil erosion control); • Social, through the reduction of rural-urban migration and the creation of new job opportunities in rural areas. • Improvement to natural capital • Increased water retention in soils • Reduced soil erosion • Better carbon sequestration: by creating humus, it retains carbon in the system • Improvement to social capital • More and stronger social organization at local levels • New rules and norms for managing collective natural resources • Better connectedness to external policy institutions Improvement to human capital • More local capacity to experiment / solve problems • Reduction of malaria in rice fish zones • Increased self-esteem • Increased status of woman • Better child health and nutrition (especially in dry seasons) • More local employment • Reversed migration

40. Describe trends in beef production in Latin Amerika

Main trends in beef production in Latin America Supply/Production Demand - Since 2003 Brazil largest producer/exporter in the world - Intensification: switch from pasture based system to feedlot systems. - Increasing demand for beef driven by an increase in population and increasing incomes; - high levels of consumption compared to other developing countries (especially Argentina) One third of the world's beef is produced in LA. Brazil and argentina are the two largest beef producers in the region (51.5 and 18.5% of the total production in the region).

15. Describe regional differences in Livestock production with regard to Stocks and Products in Developed and Developing countries

Only slow growth rates in livestock production expected for developed countries • Strongest trend: Intensive, vertically integrated establishments close to large urban centres - Pig & poultry meat production in East Asia and Latin America, broiler production in South Asia - Dairy & beef production less intensive • Increasing import of feed grains in East Asia due to growth in demand for feeds substitution of imports of livestock products Small ruminants more in marginal areas (sheep and goats) Africa: very low cattle density In developed countries: high cattle density Oceania, very extensive grazing Asia, high growth in milk Goat meat increasing in asia

32. Describe technical and infrastructural prerequisites for developing a rural dairy system.

Processing/cooling/roads/ machines/ collection/ market access/ breeding/ electricity or solar energy Processing Allows the preservation of milk for days, weeks or months and reduces food-borne illness • Usable life of milk can be extended by: Cooling Fermentation Pasteurization Further processing into high-value, easily transportable products with long shelve life (butter, cheese, ghee). • Contribution of smallholder dairy production to poverty reduction has remained low due to shortage and fluctuation in: Quality and quantity of feed Poor breeding programs Poor management practices Diseases Poor market infrastructure Poor service delivery, policies and institutional arrangements • Increasing infrastructure and capital (+rural policies!) can detach dairy production from its constraints Majority of markets in urban areas = Logistical challenge Establishing a milk collection and transport system is hard Small quantities Large distances Poor and unreliable infrastructure (electricity and roads) Lacking cooling facilities Lacking knowledge in milk collection and processing Low quality of raw milk Therefore a lot of waste of milk Seasonality of the milk supply (rainy season is most productive, but access to rural areas is low) High transportation costs Milk is transported by producers or informal traders It is transported by bicycle, animal, vehicle or foot Uncooled, so only short duration is possible Denk ook aan het kameel voorbeeld. Grote afstanden, kleine hoeveelheden. Koeling kan het beter maken! Niet per sé elektriciteit nodige. Kan ook door zonnecollectoren bv.

28. Explain trends in regionalization of dairy production within the EU

Quota abolishment 2015 - highly productive areas expand production up to 30 percent . less competitive regions loose in price and quantities up to 20 percent (e.g. where very dry for maize production)

• Three reasons for jointness are frequently distinguished:

Technical interdependencies are at the origin of many of the negative non-commodity outputs of agriculture, including soil erosion, chemical residuals and nutrient leaching. Greenhouse gas emissions and problems of animal welfare are also associated with technical or biological characteristics of the production process. • Positive effects due to technical interdependencies include, i.a. the impacts of crop rotations on nutrient balances and soil productivity ley farming, nutrient recycling and soil fertility Manure and biogas The second type of jointness arises where multiple outputs are produced from the same input (nonallocable input). The classical example is the production of mutton and wool which are jointly obtained from raising sheep, or of meat and manure. The association of landscape with particular production systems (terraced paddy fields, Alpine pastures with cows, fields of sunflower), The third type of jointness is caused by allocable fixed factors available in a farm: - An increase or decrease in the production of one output changes the amount of the factor of the supply of the others, thus creating a linkage among the outputs. This source of jointness i.a. relates to farmland and self-employed labour • The overall jointness effect is often due to a combination of different sources, the relative importance of which can be difficult to assess

11. Identify necessary actions to allow women to access information and technologies for improving their livestock keeping

The aim of allowing women to have access to information and technologies is that women can be independent and develop their own businesses. Necessary actions are: - Giving women access to transport, like carts of transport animals - Giving access to credit - Being able to generate their own income. - Women are in charge of domestic affairs (children, household). If technology makes this job less time consuming, the women has more time for other businesses and generate their own income. Training is mostly directed to men. Extension workers barely focus on women. Education is necessary! Increase womens' access to credit... mostly goes to men too

5. Define the concept of sustainability for (Livestock-)Agriculture

The concept of sustainability is essentially goal-oriented, implying that resources should be used in such a way that the value of the entire stock of capital (including its option value) does not diminish. Sustainability in (Livestock-) Agriculture relates to: 1) Integration of biological and ecological processes (nutrient cycle, nitrogen fixation, soil regeneration, allelopathy, competition, predation, and parasitism) 2) Minimization of usage of those non-renewable inputs that cause harm to the environment or to the health of the farmer 3) Make use of knowledge and skills of farmers to improve their self-reliance, by substituting human capital for costly external inputs 4) Make use of people's collective capacities to work together to solve common agricultural problems, like pest management, watershed management, irrigation management, forest management and credit management. 5) Successful agricultural sustainability arise from shifts in the factors of agricultural production. Think of the 5 types of assets

42. How do quality demands of the export market impact on the Brazilian production system?

The demand for quality of the export markets forces the system to invest in technology to comply with sanitary requirements as well as in traceability systems. This leads to an increase in the production costs. Overall positive impact since also domestic consumer benefit from the improvements (more controls on safety standards etc.) In this context we need to consider that most of the beef produced is for domestic consumption (around 80%). The cost of these investments may therefore impact domestic consumers. Also need to increase traceability of food products, and this requires for huge investments

59. List factors influencing the fast growth of aquaculture production.

The growth oft he aquaculture sector has mainly been enhanced by: • The current state of natural fish stock which are under high pressure • Increasing global demand for high quality proteins • Feasibility of production in almost every region oft he world • In developing countries it represent an important source of income diversification (relation with food security/poverty alleviation) It is the commonly accepted way of thinking that aquaculture can and will increase in the coming years to 1) help palliate for declining wild stocks and 2) permit to increase the total amount of available food on the planet (to answer to the world's growing population). Many people have high hopes for aquaculture. With over 50% of stocks fully exploited and 32% overexploited, any increase in wild catches means that we are exerting even more pressure on the natural resource and simply accelerating the irreversible emptying of the oceans. With a decrease of wild catches, the only way to maintain the present world availability of fish and hope to increase it in the future (to follow growing world population) is to rely on aquaculture. The question is than: Is this wishful thinking or really possible? • The fastest growing animal-food-producing sector (average of 6.6% per year since the 70s) • Interesting because it permits the production of large amounts of high quality food (animal protein, essential fatty acids) • Adaptable to almost every region of the world. Does not/would not require high technological resources. • Can contribute to alleviating poverty and increasing the livelihood of many people in developing countries: - increase nutrition and food security, - diversify income, - offer alternative employment, massive glonal increase due to technological and knowledge based advancements - Feeds - Artificial reproduction - More efficient rearing facilities

41. Why is the Brazilian export of beef to the global market increasing in importance?

The increase in Brazilian export is mainly driven by improvements in food safety and traceability. In the past exports have mainly been restricted due to the widely spread Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD), endemic to most Brazilian states. Moreover, another factor contributing to the increasing importance of Brazilian exports is related with the increasing demand for grass-fed cattle, which is considered by consumers in developed countries to be more sustainable/greener/healthier. due to lower resource use, no antibiotics and hormones and natural manure spreaders.

57. Describe traditional management practices to optimize resource utilization in pastoral systems.

Three basic informal rules are common to all African pastoralists: Avoid areas already in use, Keep at an appropriate distance from others, and avoid areas just recently vacated by others." (Niamir, n.y.) Traditionally, resource utilization was optimized by • composing the herd of different species and breeds. They use a different spectrum of the vegetation. Also, they have different reproduction cycles, that don't overlap, like this, a constant supply of milk is assured. • Mixed ownership: put different parts of the herd in different places. This is to reduce the risk of climate variability. In this way, also age mixtures can be made, since it depends on the type of animal and age how far an animal can move. • Pasture rotation: For this, there are informal territorial rights about which agreements might have been made with neighbouring groups. • Specific areas might be preserved for the dry season • Water can be transported by donkeys, so that the grazing radius can be increased. • Rules on migration frequency, there are often also spiritual beliefs around this • Monitoring for indicator forage species: when certain grasses are/aren't there, it might mean that other tribes have already been there. This land can then not be grazed again. • Shifting pasturage: overgrazing for 2-3 years, then letting it rest for 20 years. • Hay production: this is only for transhuman or sedentary pastrolaism. In this case, hay is stored and left for the dry season. • Well management is done by traditional chiefs, elders or elected boards. Strong governance is needed. + strong social control. In the past, grazing rights (and conflicts with farmers) have ben settle by using military force rather than by consensus.

37. Why is beef production shrinking in the EU

To understand why beef production is shrinking in the EU we first need to focus on the current system under which beef is produced. In this context it is relevant to consider that: 1. In the EU beef is produced mainly in two categories of farms: a. Specialized beef farms b. Dairy farms for which beef production is a by-product of milk production 2. Dairy farms make up 2/3 of the bovine cattle herd in the EU. EU beef production is declining mainly due to a decrease in the total number of cows. This decrease is mainly driven by a decline in the number of dairy cows due to increased efficiency (in turn mainly linked with genetic progress).For instance, in France the number of dairy cows fell by 40 % between 1980 and 2010 while milk production remained stable. Obviously, the reduction in the dairy herd leads to a reduced supply of beef. This phenomenon is even more accentuated in northern countries where intensification has been even higher due to lack of agricultural land. Future prospects: In order to change the current trend a significant increase in EU exports of dairy products would be likely to counterbalance this trend (this is likely to happen since the milk quota will be removed in 2015, allowing dairy farmers to expand their herd/production) On the other hand, much will depend on the profitability of the beef sector (Direct subsidies) - Due to CAP reforms. Payments were decoupled from the number of heads of cattle towards a direct payment scheme > Single Payment scheme and Basic Payment Scheme.

18. Explain why production and consumption of poultry and pigs products are expanding faster than those of other livestock products

Urbanization and income rise: Higher dependency on rural areas for the food production. More meat is consumed. Generally, first is opted for cheap meat. (smaller ruminants and poultry) these have a lower conversion rate, but they need more protein, this explains the increased price for protein meal.