International Migration

self-definition of an ethnic minority

group members develop a consciousness of belonging together in the same group, based on shared characteristics and similar experiences with other

"expats"

high-skilled foreign workers

historical trend for european migration: transition

historical change of Europe from land of emigration, exploration and settlement elsewhere (American, African and Asian colonies) to land of immigration

receiving countries

host or destination countries where migrants go

social remittances

ideas, behavioral repertoires, identities and social capital flowing from destination countries back to origin communities,

incorporation models: assimilation

immigrants can stay permanently But they must -Abandon ties, loyalties, feelings of belonging to origin culture and society -Embrace culture and society of destination country -And ultimately become indistinguishable from natives. republican model of citizenship

republican model of citizenship

The state includes all those who belong to a political community based on constitution and laws. Newcomers are admitted but they have to adhere to our political rules and national culture.

folk or ethnic model of citizenship

The state includes all those who belong to the majority ethnic group.Ethnic minorities don't have citizenship

human capital

a person's knowledge, skills, and competences (education and training), that can be used to yield returns/advantages

refugee

a person who is outside their country of nationality and unable or willing to go back, due to well--founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership in a social group, or political opinion

instrumental source of ethnicity

This happens when ethnicity is produced and used strategically for instrumental reasons. ex; To strengthen group solidarity and mutual support, To obtain access to resources

productivity

the rate at which a given amount of labor produces value

dynamic social processes instead of home vs host

"host' and "home" change or are multiple at the same time. migrants identities, feelings of belonging, and sense of home change over time

migration network theory diffusion process

A - Migration creates networks between people in origin countries and people in destination societies > B. - expanding networks cause the probability of further migration to rise > A - further migration in turn expands migration networks even more self-reinforcing process.

nation

A community of people whose members are bound together by a sense of solidarity, common culture, and national consciousness

supranational citizenship

An individual is citizen of both a state and a supranational entity to which the state belongs. Examples?The European Union

social construction of an ethnic minority

Ethnic minorities are the product of a view of society that creates ethnic hostility and xenophobia-"Ethnic minorities may be the creation of the very people who fear them"

phase 1 of european immigration: 1945-1973

guestworker and post-colonial immigration (1973 oil crisis)

sensitive domains

national and cultural identity, racial and ethnic diversity, and national sovereignty.

what can neoclassical theory help to explain?

migration of highly educated and skilled people between wealthy countries

race

is understood as the set of visible markers of a phenotype(skin color, facial features, type of hair, etc.

Neoliberal globalization and EU integration (1989-2008)

- Initial refugee movement from Central/Eastern to Western Europe after collapse of Soviet Union -EU integration and enlargement leads to more migration and circulation between Central/Eastern Europe and Western Europe -Further economic globalization and increasing labor migration from"new" origin countries in North Africa, West Africa, Latin America -Complete transition of Southern Europe from emigration to immigration region -Beginning of politicization and securitization of immigration

the post 2008 phase

- No significant return of migrants to origin countries following 2008 recession -Immigration slowed down and stabilized, then rebounded to pre-crisis levels in the 2010's -Immigration from non-European origin countries is greater than intra European migration -Politicization of migration and growth of anti-immigrant movements have historical, far-reaching consequences (e.g. Brexit) -EU integration and "migration crises": Europe tries to become internally more integrated while increasingly sealing off its external borders from rest of the world

neoclassical theory ways that migration optimizes the allocation of factors

- labor becomes more abundant in destinations and more scarce in origins. - capital flows in opposite direction through investments from migration destinations to origins - wages and capital become more and more similar between origin and destination countries, origins and destinations become increasingly similar, equilibrium takes the place of disequilibrium and migration slows down and stops.

criteria for acquisition of citizenship

-Length of residency -Good character -Absence of criminal convictions -Oath of loyalty to the nation state -Relinquishment of other citizenships -Sufficient income -Cultural competence: knowledge of nation's language, history, political system, culture

scientific arguments against race realism

-There is more within-race than between-race genetic variation -No single gene or set of genes has ever been found that identifies or predicts"Black", "Asian", "Caucasian", etc. -The same person belongs to different races depending on space (country)and time (historical periods) -Even biological differences between races can be explained by social causes

what percentage of the world's population are migrants?

3%

state

A legal and political organization that (1) has the power to require obedience and loyalty from its citizens, and (2) regulates political, economic and social relations in abounded territory

assimilation is not unidirectional, universal and inevitable

All migrants do not abandon ties with culture and society of origin (remember transnationalism)-Also, maintaining ties with origin does not mean failing to incorporate in host country.

nationalism

Any ideology that believes that state, nation and ethnic group should be one and the same, three facets of the same entity -Each ethnic group should exist as a nation and have its own stat

Where does most forced migration remain?

Asia and Africa

assimilation may be segmented

Before immigrants arrive, the destination society is composed of different social classes, ethnic groups, etc. Different immigrant groups may assimilate to different segments or parts of destination society and culture.

cumulative causation

migration induces changes in social and economic structures that make additional migration likely.

the economic restructuring phase 1973-89

End or decline of government-led recruitment of migrant labor (i.e.the guestworker model) -Trend of family reunions for migrant workers who entered in previous phase, leading to formation of permanent immigrant communities -Development of dual labor markets in Europe -Start of migration transition for Southern Europe (Italy, Spain) from emigration to immigration countries

situational source of ethnicity

Ethnicity only exists when it is invoked (by choice) by in-group members for self-identification

primordialist source of ethnicity

Ethnicity results from being born into a particular religious and linguistic community with specific social practice

arguments against integration policies

From immigrant advocates: these policies may stereotype immigrants, set them apart as "problem groups", discourage their self-emancipation, even increase segregation in neighborhoods and schools - From anti-immigrant positions: nationalist objection that public expenditure on these policies "in favor of immigrants" takes funds away from services in favor of native-born individuals

quasi-citizenship

Immigrant status conferring certain rights (e.g.permanent residence, work) but not others (e.g. voting) Examples: Work visas and greencards in the US

Factors that lead to residential segregation of immigrants in receiving communities

Immigrants are constrained to cluster in the same neighborhood for economic and social reasons, including racism and discrimination. Immigrants want to be together to preserve mutual support and ethnic culture.

arguments in favor of integration policies

Immigrants encounter special disadvantages (e.g. in terms of residential segregation, labor participation, education) which they can't overcome by themselves -These are not just immigrants' problems: immigrant integration is necessary for and beneficial to entire society

Difference between neo classical theory and NELM

In NELM, the migration decision is taken by families not individuals and migration can occur even in the absence of wage differentials

culturism as the new racism

Instead of identifying a group as different and inferior because of an immutable race, dominant groups now identify minority groups as different and inferior because of animmutable culture

incorporation models: differential exclusion

Migrants are allowed to incorporate only in specific areas of society but not in others (e.g. no citizenship or political participation) - Immigrants are seen as temporary: they are allowed, even encouraged, to maintain difference and separation from majority. folk and ethnic model of citizenship

According to migration transition theories...

Migration is an intrinsic component of broader processes of development, therefore it cannot be examined and governed as a separate problem.

According to globalization theory, migration is...

Mostly caused by transformations in production structures, labor markets, and social inequality's in emigration countries

transnational model of citizenship

The state admits transnational communities whose members are citizens of other states too (dual citizenship)

imperial model of citizenship

The state includes all those who are subject to the same power/ruler. Ethnicity is irrelevant.

phase 3 of european immigration: 1989-2000

Neoliberal globalization and EU integration(2008 Great Recession

phase 4 of european immigration: since 2008

New labor migration and politicization/securitization of immigration

social construction of race

Race does not exist in itself (inhuman biology and genetics), it is the product of a particular view of society(i.e., of racism) and the resulting social interactions and institutions

multicultural model of citizenship

Same as Republican but newcomers have to adhere to political rules while they may maintain their own ethnic culture. So the state will include different ethnic communities.

ethnicity

Sense of belonging to the same group based on notions of common origins, history, traditions, culture, experience, value

Where is the most substantial migration to?

South-South or Asia-South. Arab states in the middle east

A common critique to the neo classical theory of migration

The assumption that individuals are rational actors were able to calculate the lifetime benefits and cost of migration is unrealistic.

citizenship

The condition of being member of a political community, with equal rights to all other citizens, and a set of institutions that guarantee these rights

social construction

The process by which entities and classifications that are apparently natural, "objective"and fixed (such as nationality, race, gender, technology, mental illness) are in fact created by human actions and interactions in a society

former colonia empires incorporation type

These had special channels for immigrants from colonies, allowing their permanent settlement and citizenship - Citizenship legitimized the empire (remember the "imperial" model of citizenship) and ensured low-skilled labor supply in destination countries. france, UK

classical immigration countries incorporation type

These were founded through immigration and settlement (mostly from Europe), therefore they have historically encouraged permanent settlement, family reunion and acquisition of citizenship among immigrant. US, Canada, australia

asylum seeker

a person who has applied for refugee status in a destination country. cannot technically be an "illegal immigrant"

Jus domicilii

You are a citizen if you have lived in the state for a certain length of time

critiques to traditional transnationalism theory

_____ and assimilation are not in contrast: sometimes the most integrated immigrants are also the most ______ ones.

according to the international law, seeking refuge is...

a fundamental human right

agency vs. structure

a major fault line in sociology and the social sciences between theories and scholars that assign more weight to individual agency, and theories and scholars that attribute more importance to structure in determining social phenomena and outcomes

financial capital

a set of financial assets that can be invested in productive activities to yield returns

nested citizenship

a type of supranational citizenship with simultaneous membership in multiple, nested political communities that may involve the subnational, national, and supranational level

the guestworker model

adopted in different versions by West European countries - These countries experienced strong growth of industrial sector -With national governments leading, investing and intervening to drive economic expansion •A problem for industrial expansion was the shortage of low-skilled factory labor •One way in which governments promoted industrial expansion was by actively recruiting low-skilled factory workers from foreign countries on behalf of manufacturing companies•Workers were recruited from "European periphery" of Southern Europe and North Africa

segmented labor market

advanced economies and global cities have this type of market. while manufacturing can be outsourced abroad, services need local labor supply. globalization creates the supply of immigrant labor. and these markets create demand.

neoliberalism

an aggregate of economic ideas and policies adopted since the 70s in capitalist countries, which are based on the notion that free market, privitizations, and reduction of government regulations are the most efficient means to allocate resources and promote development

climate refugees

an environmental exodus. migrants seeking relief from environmental degradation and undermining livelihoods in certain origin countries.

(social) institutions

any pattern of behaviors, practices, or relationships, which acquires a degree of coercion in a society due to repetition, sanctions and/or legal reinforcement (ex: marriage, family, school, government, market, etc)

climate change and migration link

are often too simplistic and deterministic. migration is a multi-factor phenomenon. after natural disasters, people tend to move short distances.

migration

change in usual residence that implies crossing administrative borders

two defining features of migration

change in usual residence, crossing of (internal or international) borders

historical trend for european migration: diversification

changes in immigrant population in Europe in terms of national origin, ethnicity, gender and educational level

nation state

claims of the nation state: - provides order and security -represents the will and aspirations of the people This implies that there is agreement on who are "the people", i.e., thecitizens -Need to define and regulate citizenship: Who is a citizen? Who is not? -In the historical definition of nation state, the citizens are the members of the nation-So in its original conception, State requires Nation

sending countries

countries from which migrants originate

assimilation can have negative consequences

disparities within the communities

risk sharing (NELM)

diversify income sources (through remittances) to reduce poverty in markets with little access to insurance

labor supply side non-migration policy

economic insecurity and relative deprivation are among the main determinants of migration. policies that limit these can limit emigration in origin countries.

phase 2 of european immigration: 1973-1989

economic restructuring and settlement of "guestworkers" (1989 fall of Berlin Wall

ethnic minority

ethnic group in a society that denies immigrant settlement, does not grant citizenship to immigrants and refuses cultural diversity. is seen by majority as a threat to economic well-being, public order and national identity. subordinate position

ethnic community

ethnic group in a society that is open to immigrant settlement, grants citizenship to immigrants and accepts diversity. seen by a majority as natural, legitimate component of a multicultural society.

the post war phase 1945-73

europe emerges as a major immigrant destination for the first time in history -Industrialization in Northern and Western Europe leads to development of the guestworker model of immigration -Migration from European periphery (Italy, Spain, Turkey, Greece, Yugoslavia,Morocco) to the most industrialized European countries (Germany, France,UK, Belgium) -Decolonization leads to migration from former colonies to European countries -From Latin America, Africa, Asia to former centers of European colonial empires (UK, France, Netherlands, Belgium)

policies often advocated by political movements/parties that want to limit migration that are likely to increase immigration

free trade areas, reduction of efforts against climate change, reduction of legal channels of migrations

migration policies/administration

government agencies and politicians

incorporation models: multiculturalism

immigrants can stay permanently •And they should be able to participate in all domains of receiving society and ultimately achieve equal life quality and chances as natives •Without being expected or forced to abandon their own culture, religion, language, etc. •multicultural model of citizenship

problems with host vs home country view

imply a view of migrants as people who are temporary visiting a "host" country while their home remains somewhere else. it is fixed, essentialist view.

migration as a luxury

in order to migrate, people need financial resources and connections.

Important trends in contemporary migration

increase in absolute number of international migrants, globalization of migration, growing concentration of migration into specific immigration regions of the world.

multiplication of states and borders

increase of absolute numbers of international migrants is a result of this. 74 independent countries in 1946 to 195 countries in 2018

historical trend for european migration: increase

increase of immigration to Europe both in absolute numbers and as a percentage of resident population

agency

individual capacity for free thought, choice and action

micro level of migration

individual choices, behaviors, practices, habits, motives, goals, etc.

meso level theories of migration

intermediate structures and institutions. examples: families, social networks, neighborhoods, local communities

immigrant integration

is the process by which immigrants become "integrated" into receiving society -This normally means developing social ties with natives, finding a job and starting upward mobility, attaining similar life quality and chances as natives. still implies the end point of the process is the absorption of the immigrant group into mainstream society

according to human capital theory...

migration is a way in which people invest their human capital by going to work in a country where work productivity is higher

assimilation changes the mainstream too

it doesn't entail changes in the immigrant group only -It "remakes" the mainstream too: the immigrant group changes but also the mainstream changes, it expands and incorporates characteristics of immigrant groups

migration motives

labor or economic, family, study, or business

main reasons being the family decision to migrate (NELM)

lack of social security (higher risk), poor access to insurance and credit (higher risk, inability to invest), income/wealth fluctuations (higher risk), high inequality (relative poverty).

macro level theories of migration

large-scale structures, institutions and processes. examples: political economy, international relationships, migration law, labor markets, etc.

Inaccurate government categories of migrants

low skilled - "temporary workers" even after years or decades of residence, high-skilled - are allowed to still be on "temporary exchange" visas.

"migrant workers"

low-skilled foreign workers

family migration

mainly linked to family reunification. also called network or "chain" migration because it happens through networks

public discourse

media and politicians

migration network theory

middle between agency and structure, meso. focus on social ties, networks and migrants' agency. migrants maintain social ties with other migrants, and with families and friends in origin countries.social capital makes migration easier.

transnationalism theory

middle of agency and structure, meso. migrants dont necessarily interrupt ties with origin country and assimilate to destination. maintain social, economic, and political networks that lead them to live in 2 societies at the same time.

what is the socio-economic status of most migrants who go to western countries

middle-upper classes with higher degrees and wealth than most.

feedback mechanisms

migration causes flows of information, ideas, resources from destination country back to origin country. encourage further migration from origin to destination. financial remittances, social remittances, "culture of migration" and ethnic niches.

what can globalization and NELM theories help explain?

migration in situations of oppression and poverty

why is migration the "tip of the iceberg"

migration is normally the visible symtpom rather than the cause of broader transformations. development, globalization, migration systems, ....

neoclassical equilibrium

migration results from disequilibria between countries (in terms of quality of labor, wages, productivity) and converges toward equilibrium.

forced immobility

mobility is actually what is forced, people who do not have resources to migrate and to flee difficult situations are those who are really being forced to do (or not do) something

New Economics of Labor Migration (NELM)

more agency, micro. critical response to neoclassical theory. migration is not. adecision is not taken by isolated individuals, but by families or households. migration can occur even with no wage differential between countries (unlike neoclassical).

aspirations - capabilities model

more agency, micro. human mobility enhances a person's general capabilities. people's capability to migrate is increased by factors like income, education, social capital, better communication/transporation tech. similar factors increase aspirations. development increases both, so emigration may continue despite initial development. further development of a country increases capability to migrate, but may decrease aspiration.

migration systems theory

more structure, between meso and macro. migration often arises from other, previous relationships between countries due to colonization, political influence, wars, trade, cultural ties etc. migration is just one of the flows happening within the broader networks of exchange.

globalization theory

more structure, macro. economic ___ and neoliberal policies that deregulate cross-border flows of capital, technology and services have allowed corporations from the Global North to penetrate the economy of poorer countries in the global south (economic resturcting). this has forced people to emigrate bc of inequality and displacement

human capital theory

more structure, micro. migration is a person's investment to increase the productivity of human capital. those who can gain more from the investment are more likely to migrate.

neoclassical theory

more structure, micro. migration is caused by wage differentials between countries. individuals are rational actors who act in isolation (from families, social networks, social groups) and understand that migration will increase their income. they identify the countries that maximize their income.

relative deprivation (NELM)

more than absolute poverty, the feeling that one's family is substantially poorer compared to others in the community or country can be important incentive to migrate

a major difference between historical structural theories and neoclassical theory of migration

neoclassical theory views migration as a process that eventually results in more equilibrium, while historical-structural theories view migration as a process that reinforces disequilibrium

migration system

network of countries that exchange large and stable numbers of goods, capital, information, ideas and people.

Are migration terms neutral?

no. they often convey implicit meanings or have implications that have real consequences for migrant lives, migration policies, and destination societies.

what are the most effective types of policies to influence migration?

non-migration policies

human mobility as a stratifying factor

only some people can afford it, depending on their resources, and it influences people's life chances and well-being

other definition of an ethnic minority

others (dominant group) ascribe undesirable characteristics and inferior social position to the ethnic group

capability

people's ability to live a life they have reason to value and to expand the range of substantive choices (freedoms) they have.

what view does social science and sociology towards migration trends?

probabilistic (if A occurs, B is more likely/less likely to happen) rather than deterministic.

simultaneous immigration/emigration

prominent immigration countries may be at the same time important emigration countries (Ex: Germany and Italy).

migrants as "target earners"

their goal is to save enough money in high-wage destination countries to improve their and their family's conditions in origin country and then return

investment (NELM)

provide resources to invest in family business in origin country in markets with little access to credit.

immigrant assimilation

refers to a process of gradual decline in differences and separation between immigrant group and natives

primary market

requires highly educated and skilled workers (financial services)

secondary market

requires lower-skileld manual workers for manufacturing and services (catering cleaning and care). tend to be occupied by people who are disadvantaged in terms of gender, race, irregular legal status.

migration research/analysis

researchers and scholars

reasons for migration according to NELM

risk sharing, investment, relative deprivation

problems with terminology of sending vs receiving countries

risks to conceal certain migration processes that are independent from states and do not involve state planning. may alos foster an innacurate, binary division of the world in fixed sets of "sending" countries in the North/West vs. receiving countries in the South

cultural maintenance is a ....

source of identity

what is particularly likely to increase migration?

technological development

Amartya sen's definition of capability

the ability of human beings to (1) to lead lives they have reason to value (2) to enhance the substantive choices they make. increased by factors such as income growth, education, and improved communication and transportation tech

political economy

the aggregate of large-scale social and economic phenomena of a country and their relationships to politicial institutions

structure

the broad set of constraints on individual choice and action resulting form repeated pattens of action, social relationships, environments, norms, collective beliefs, ideologies, political and economic institutions, etc.

what can migrant network theory help explain?

the continuation of migration as a self-reinforcing process even after original determinants cease to exist

labor demand side non-migration policy

there is often a demand for exploitable, vulnerable labor force. policies are more effective if they reduce the demand rather than only address the symptom

stratification

the division of a society into strata i.e. catergories or groups, which differ in terms of a stratifying principle (ex: wealth, race, gender) are hierarchically ranked, and obtain different access to resources.

NELM's 3 major motivations leading to migration

the need to reduce economic risk by diversifying income; the goal of accumulating resources for investment and economic activities; and the sense of relative deprivation compared to others.

migration network theory, migration is a self reinforcing process because...

the process of migration creates social networks between origin and destination countries, which make further migration more likely

problems with the forced/voluntary dichotomy

the reality of most migrants doesnt neatly fit into one category, but falls along a spectrum between more forced and more voluntary. there is some degree of forced and voluntary in any migration trajectory.

social capital

the resources resulting from a person's social relations, which can be used to yield returns/advantages

globalization

the widening, deepening, and speeding up to worldwide interconnectedness in all aspects of social life

guestworker immigration countries incorporation type

these viewed immigration as a temporary means to obtain needed labor force, but did not envision immigrants as a permanent part of society, so strongly limited permanent settlement, family reunion, and citizenship for immigrants. germany and now asian and gulf countries.

non-migratory mobility

they dont meet the criteria for migration, in particular in "usual residence." ex: communting, tourism, shopping mobility, business-related mobility

international cooperation

to promote development in emigration countries is often touted as a way to limit migration

migratory mobility

when mobility meets the definition of migration

jus soli

you are a citizen based on birthplace, i.e. if you're born within national borders (typically including territories and protectorates

jus sanguinis

you are a citizen based on lineage (e.g. if at least one of your parents is a citizen)

marriage to a citizen

you are a citizen if you are married to a citizen