Intro to Physical Anthropology Study Guide Test 3

Broken Hill Man

-"Broken Hill Man" found at Kabwe in Zambia ● Many H. erectus-like skull features -in Africa, "Broken H ill Man," one of several individuals found in the Kabwe le ad mine in Zambia, had a large brain (1,300 cc) and taller cranium as well as many Homo erectus-like skull features, including massive brow ridges, a large face, and thick cranial bones -"Broken Hill Man" archaic Homo sapiens cranium found at Kabwe in Zambia. One of several individuals found at this site, this cranium reflects common traits associated with archaic Homo sapiens in Africa including a large brain, taller cranium, and many Homo erectus-like features such as massive brow ridges, a large face, and thick cranial bones.

The Biological Species Concept

-"Species are groups of interbreeding natural populations that are reproductively isolated from other such groups" • emphasizes interbreeding, reproductive isolation, gene flow -Problems: Can't be applied to species that reproduce asexually • Uncertain for populations that are physically separated and don't have the opportunity to breed naturally - how can the "potential to interbreed" assessed? • Reproductive isolation often incomplete: see hybrids such as liger, tigon, etc. • NOTE: Can't be applied to fossil species (we cannot know if fossil species interbred or not, although this is currently changing through modern DNA analysis)

Sahelanthropus Tchadensis

-"The Sahel hominin from Chad" North Chad (found 2001) 1 of only 2 species known in central Africa 7-6 mya old Brain size of small chimp (320-380 cc) Massively built brow ridges Foramen magnum suggests bipedalism -The earliest dated hominin find (between 6 mya and 7 mya, based on radiometric dating of volcanic tufts) has been argued to come from Chad -The find has a small cranial capacity (360 cc) and has canines smaller than those in extant great apes, yet still larger and pointier than those in humans. This implies strongly that, over evolutionary time, the need for display and dominance among males has reduced, as has our sexual dimorphism. -A short cranial base and a foramen magnum (the hole through which the spinal cord enters the cranium) that is more humanlike in positioning have been argued to indicate upright walking.

Homo Sapiens

-"sapiens" = wise, named by Carolus Linnaeus, 1758 No holotype and no inclusive definition All gracile/robusticity-reduced fossils of Pleistocene antecedents included in this species, the key differences we see are in the archaeological record and in behavior globular, vertical forehead, shrinking face, mental eminence thinner bones, smoother features, more slender shapes, longer limb proportions Appear ~300-100 kya in Africa & western Asia, ~40-45 kya in western Europe, ~15 kya in the Americas Rapid pace of technology change -Enlarged, but thinner vault (1000-2000 cc), Reduction of supraorbital tori, Enlarged mastoid, Reduced prognathism Facial shortening Reduction of mandibular robusticity Dental reduction Bony chin Tall forehead -Modern humans, like you and me, have a set of derived traits that are not seen in archaic humans or any other hominin. As with other transitions in hominin evolution, such as increasing brain size and bipedal ability, modern traits do not appear fully formed or all at once. I n other words, the first modern Homo sapiens was not just born one day from archaic parents. -mosaic manner of traits -skeleton of a modern Homo sapiens is less robust than that of an archaic Homo sapiens. I n other words, the modern skeleton is gracile, meaning that the structures are thinner and smoother.

Upper Paleolithic Cultures in Europe

-1. Chatelperronian (40k - 33 kya)- Neandertal made 2. Aurignacian (55 - 32 kya) - toolkits with retouched/backed blades, burins, and scrapers; woodworking tools, beads, tailored clothing, "Venus" figurines first appear 3. Gravettian (33- 21 kya) - smaller blades and denticulates (blades with serrated edge), elaborate burials, semi-sedentism, projectile technology, atlatl, textiles, basketry 4. Solutrean (22 - 18 kya) - toolkits have finely-made stone points and spear-throwers, pressure-flaking 5. Magdalenian (18- 10 kya) - abundance of bone and antler tools and weapons , social networks and trade, harpoons, more stylized "Venus" figurines -

A./P. robustus

-1.7 mya South Africa: Swartkrans, also Kromdraii, Drimolen All robust forms from South Africa are A./P. robustus! Robust species in both regions, South and East Africa, show facial traits indicating an adaptation to rough food items, such as nuts, tubers, roots (Sagittal crest and zygomatics are enlarged because large chewing muscles attached there) -Wide inter - orbital region -Prominent anterior pillars -Supraorbital torus -Flaring zygomatics (cheek bones) -the specialized nature of the teeth and masticatory system, such as flaring zygomatic arches (cheekbone) to accommodate the large temporalis (chewing) muscle, indicated a shift in diet in these taxa. Some argued that the diet of the robust australopithecines was so specific that any change in environment would have accelerated their extinction. -Features that are closer to those of the assumed ancestral type are referred to as P. aethiopicus, and those that have become derived are referred to as both P. boiseiand P. robustus

Obesity in number

-1.9 billion people in the world are overweight ○ 650 million of them are obese ● 70% of Americans are overweight ○ 40% of them meet the criteria for obesity ● First time in human history that most people live in countries where overweight and obesity kill more people than hunger! -Epigenetic component ● Strains ○ Circulatory system ○ Endocrine system ○ Skeletal system ● Contributes to ○ Hypertension ○ Heart disease ○ Stroke ○ Diabetes ○ Osteoarthritis -On a global scale, however, many people not only have enough food to survive but also to gain weight—and, notably, enough extra weight to cause significant health problems. Several aspects of life in modern, industrialized societies contribute to the obesity crisis. -Although studies show differences in daily energy expenditure between modern foraging and farming populations in comparison with industrialized peoples, the major contributor to obesity in Western populations is energy intake. Many people not only eat too much but too much of the wrong things. Biological anthropologist Leslie Lieberman argues that contemporary humans continue to rely on cues from foraging strategies in our evolutionary past that are now counterproductive in the obesogenic environments in which we now live. -Causes: Contemporary humans continue to rely on cues from foraging strategies in our evolutionary past ○ Counterproductive in our obesogenic environments ● Foods today ○ Prepackaged and prepared, allowing us to eat large quantities quickly ○ Often low fiber and calorie-dense ○ Processed foods appeal to hominin preferences for sweet tastes and fatty creamy textures Sedentarism is built into contemporary lifestyles

A./P. boisei

-2.3-1.4 mya East Africa: Kenya, Malawi, Tanzania, Ethiopia Hyper-robust, estimated body weight 35-49 kg Traits indicate adaptation to chewing rough foods Pronounced sexual dimorphism -Brain volume: 510 cc -Sagittal and nuchal crests -Low or absent forehead -Flaring zygomatics -Long flat face

Assimilation Model or Out of Africa with Partial Replacement Hypothesis

-2010: First full Neandertal genome reconstructed with a surprising result: Neandertals & contemporary humans share 1-4% nuclear DNA. This suggests: › Anatomically modern humans evolved in Africa › Interbreeding (mating) between AMH and Neandertals. Since only modern Europeans and Asians carry Neandertal genes, not modern Africans, researchers suggest interbreeding may have only happened outside of Africa. › Interbreeding took place as long as 80 000 years ago. Of the 3 hypotheses explaining the emergence of AMH, this last one has the strongest empirical support, through both, fossil AND aDNA analysis! -proposes that modern Homo sapiens evolved in Africa first and expanded out (from the Out of Afric a model) but also interbred with the archaic Homo sapiens they encountered outside Africa ( from the Multiregionalism model) (Figure 12.2 3). T rue multiregionalism occurred just within Africa as the species evolved from a web of interactions between varied groups. As the modern human population expanded from Africa, they assimilated the alleles of archaic humans they encountered through in interbreeding. The Assimilation model is powerful since i t explains why Africa has the oldest modern human fossils, why early modern humans found in Europe and Asia bear a resemblance to the regional archaics, and why traces of archaic DNA c can be found in our genomes today

Phylogenetic, or Evolutionary Species Concept

-A species is a lineage evolving separately from others with its own unitary evolutionary role and tendencies" ◆ Developed for fossil species! -Problems: When interpreting species of which we have only fossils left, it is often difficult - and sometimes impossible - to differentiate inter-species (between species) differences from intra-species (within species) variation • Intraspecific defines variation accounted for by individual, age, and sex differences seen within a species, such as: • Individual variation - recombination and mutation causes each organism to be unique • Age changes - our bodies change throughout our lives (e.g. overall body size and shape) • Sexual dimorphism - males differ from females in terms of body size and proportions • Interspecific defines variation that represents differences between species

Lucy (A) Gracile

-A. afarensis -3.6-2.9 mya, East Africa 45% complete skeleton, found by Don Johanson in Hadar, Ethiopia Other East African sites: Laetoli, Koobi Fora, Omo, Maka, Hadar, Lake Turkana. By far the best known Australopith species -Au. afarensisis one of the oldest and most well-known australopithecine species and consists of a large number of f ossil remains. Au. afarensis(which means "from the Afar region") is dated to between 2.9 mya and 3.9 mya and is found in sites all along the EARS system, in Tanzania, Kenya, and Ethiopia. The most famous individual stemming from this species is a partial female skeleton discovered in Hadar (Ethiopia), which was later nicknamed "Lucy,

Better Homes and Hearths

-Abric Romani, Spain • 55kya, repeated occupation of 8-10 separate rooms

Function of Robust Morphology

-Adaptation to cold? 2. Passive result of other cranial changes? 3. Result of accelerated growth of bones? 4. Result of increased anterior dental load? 5. Non-adaptive, result of genetic drift? (Geographic isolation was common during the Ice Age) There were 15 major and 50 minor glacial advances and cold periods in Europe during the existence of Neandertals -many of the unique traits that Neanderthals possess can be attributed to adaptation to the extreme c old environments in which they often lived. Together explained as cold adaptations, these traits are thought to be a response to the cold, dry environments in which Neanderthals lived and which certainly exerted strong selective forces -any o f the Neanderthals' defining physical features are more extreme and robust versions of traits seen in other archaic Homo sapiens, clustered in this single population. Brain size is one of the Neanderthal features that continues to follow the same patterns as seen with other archaic Homo sapiens, namely an enlargement o f the cranial capacity. -H. neandertalensis more robust/stocky than anatomically modern humans › 30% larger bone mass › Stature= 162 cm › Shorter arms and legs › Adaptations to cold climate? Postcranium Comparison: H. neandertalensis (left), H. sapiens

Preagricultural Humans Physical Activity Levels were high

-Adaptations to prevent hyperthermia: Fur loss and sweating External nose regulates temperature and humidity Enhanced ability to cool the brain Elongated, upright body ● Adaptations for endurance running ● Modern day hunters and gatherers walk on average 11 kilometers every day, that's 6.8 miles! -Humans have four derived sets of adaptations for preventing hyperthermia (overheating): (1) fur loss and an increased ability to sweat ( versus panting); (2) an external nose, allowing for nasal regulation of the temperature and humidity of air entering the lungs; (3) enhanced ability to cool the brain; and (4) an elongated, upright bod y. These adaptations suggest an evolutionary history o f regular, strenuous physical activity. Some scholars have gone so far as to argue that, beginning with H. erectus, there are skeletal markers o f adaptations for endurance running. The relevant morphological changes include modifications in the arches of the feet, a longer Achilles tendon, a nuchal ligament and ear canals that help maintain balance while running, shoulders decoupled from the head allowing rotation of the torso independently from the pelvis and head, and changes to the gluteus maximus.

Out-of-Africa (with total replacement) hypothesis

-Anatomically modern humans (AMH) evolve in Africa 150,000 - 200,000 years ago • Spread into Europe and Asia • Replace all existing populations, such as H. erectus, H. heidelbergensis, Neandertal, and other archaic Homo sapiens species (through extinction, conflict, competition, or by simply outlasting them) -supporters of this model saw evidence that modern Homo sapiens first evolved in Africa, then expanded into the other continents without interaction with the archaic Homo sapiens of Eur ope and Asia (Stringer and Andrews 1988). Researchers on this side noted that the oldest modern Homo sapiens fossils were found in Africa, suggesting that that continent was the origin. Genetic analysis found the same conclusion.

Homo Erectus KNM-WT 15000 "TURKANA BOY"

-Approx. 1.6 mya (oldest H. erectus fossils in Africa) • Discovered 1984 in Narikotome, Kenya • Most complete H. erectus specimen yet found (40% complete) • 848 cm3 cranial capacity • Male individual, approx. 9 years old • Allowed scientists to find out information about H. erectus size, growth, and growth rates

Atapuerca 5

-Archaic Homo sapiens found in northern Spain ● Nearly complete skeleton with traits that foreshadow Neanderthals -Atapuerca 5 archaic Homo sapiens found in northern Spain. One of many fossils found at this site, this fossil is representative of traits seen in archaic Homo sapiensin Europe including thick a cranial bone, enlarged cranial capacity, intermediate cranial height, and a more rounded cranium, as well as increased midfacial prognathism

Ardipithecus ramidus

-Ardi = "ground/ floor", Rama = "root" Discovered in the Middle Awash, Ethiopia, woodland environment 5.8 - 4.4 mya 36 specimens Found in a 6 foot-thick bed of bones, with more than 6000 fossils - reconstruction took 15 years Bipedalism in question. Curved phalanges (finger bones), grasping hands and feet - well adapted for climbing -is currently the best known of the earliest hominins . Unlike Sahelanthropusand Orrorin, this species has a large sample size of over 110 specimens from Aramis alone. -This species was announced in 1994 by American palaeoanthropologist Tim White, based on a partial female skeleton nicknamed "Ardi" (ARA-VP-6/500; White et al. 1994). Ardi demonstrates a mosaic of ancestral and derived characteristics in the postcrania. For instance, she had an opposable big toe (hallux), similar to chimpanzees (i.e., "primitive" or more ancestral), which could have aided in climbing trees effectively. However, the pelvis and hip show that she could walk upright (i.e., it is derived), supporting her hominin status. A small brain (300 cc to 350 cc), midfacial projection, and slight prognathism show retained primitive cranial features, but the cheek bones are less flared and robust than in later hominins.

So are we maladapted to our lifestyle?

-Are we genetically programmed to conserve energy and eat too much sugar? Why do we crave salty and sweet foods? • Sugars were a rare treat in the African Savannah. Is that why? Why aren't we programmed to be more active (like a hamster, for example, who can't help but run all night long)? • While physically active, humans also needed to learn strategies to preserve energy, which may have been selected for... -

Artifact

-Artifacts are objects made by humans, such as e.g. weapons, tools • Both, fossils and artifacts are informational about life in the past • - Context (= environmental setting an artifact is found in, is key): e.g. an artifact is most valuable when repetitively found in association with a specific fossil human species -Experimental Archaeology studies how tools were made. E.g. which parts were used, the core, the flake?

Who do we define hominin (a human ancestor)

-Bipedalism (walking on two legs, upright posture): Earliest & most fundamental adaptation and defining trait of hominins • Habitual Bipedalism: Walking on two standard and most efficient form of locomotion • Obligate Bipedalism: Species who cannot locomote efficiently in any other way • When a new fossil is discovered and it shows indicators of bipedalism it is classified as a hominin The ability to walk habitually upright is thus considered one of the defining attributes of the hominin lineage. We also differ from other animals that walk bipedally (such as kangaroos) in that we do not have a tail to balance us as we move. -Skull and spine: The spine has two distinctive curves, a backward (thoracic) one and a forward (lumbar) one, that keep the trunk (and weight) centered above the pelvis. The foramen magnum (hole in bottom of skull) is repositioned farther underneath the skull, so the head is more or less balanced on the spine (and thus requires less robust neck muscles to hold the head upright) -Pelvis and limbs: Basin-shaped pelvis supports internal organs; the ossa coxae are shorter and broader, stabilizing weight transmission. The femur is angled inward, keeping the legs more directly under the body; modified knee anatomy permits full extension of this joint. Elongated lower limbs. Note proportional lengths of various body segments (e.g., in humans the thigh comprises 20% of body height, while in gorillas it comprises only 11%) -Feet: Enlarged big toe brought in line with the other toes; distinctive longitudinal arch helps absorb shock and adds propulsive spring.

First Africa then the world

-By 20,000, our species was the only member of the genus Homo left Discovering North America Prehistoric Native Americans -Gone were the Neanderthals, Denisovans, and Homo floresiensis. The range of modern Homo sapienskept e xpanding eastward in to—using the name given to this area b y Eur opeans much later—the Western Hemisphere -First North American inhabitants walked from Asia across the Bering Strait (connected Siberia and Alaska during colder intervals of Pleistocene, when global sea levels were lower) Initial emigrants were few in number, they left little evidence of their presence Canadian sites date back to 24 kya Oregon sites date back to 14 kya Monte Verde in Chile dates to 13 kya By 8,000 B.C., human groups had occupied most of the New World from Alaska to the southern tip of South America -For most of the 20th century, the accepted the ory w as that prehistoric northeast Asians (East Asians and Siberians) first expanded across Beringia inland through an ice-free corridor between glaciers that opened in to the western Great Plains of the United States, just east o f the Rocky Mountains, around 13,000 years ago (Swisher et al. 2013). While life up north in the cold environment would have been harsh, migrating birds and an emerging forest might have provided sustenance as generations expanded through this land (Potter e t al. 2018). These residents would have use d a stone tool style that developed into the common Clovis style found later in North America

Georges Cuvier

-Catastrophism -Suggested principle of Catastrophism - cycles of earth shaped by violent events • This could lead to extinction, e.g. of the dinosaurs • Today we know that there were several major extinctions life on earth underwent -catastrophism, the belief that Earth's formation was due to a set of relatively quick biblical catastrophic events. Noah's flood, as described in the book of Genesis, is an example of a catastrophic event.

Neanderthals

-Cave Men Perceptions -Neandertal fossils were discovered & described before any other hominin fossils in Europe At the time, human forms other than Homo sapiens were unthinkable Neandertal fossils were often interpreted as: ➢Pathological anomaly (e.g. modern humans with rickets, a disease affecting bones) ➢Victims of Noah's flood ➢ Congenital idiots ➢Etc. -Species within the genus Homo (H. neandertalensis)? Subspecies within H. sapiens (H. s. neandertalensis)? This is still controversially discussed... Existed ~400-32 kya in Europe and Asia -Long, low vault, Sloping forehead, Occipital bun, Well-developed tori (semicircular in shape), Prognathic midfacial region, Modern Humans: brain over orbits Neandertals: brain over ears, Retromolar space, Flat cranial base, Large frontal siunuses (multichambered) w/ thin walls, Large nasal aperture -There is a clear ge ographic boundary o f wher e N eanderthals lived: w estern Europe, the Middle East, and western Asia. The time period for when Neanderthals lived is widely accepted as between 150 ,000 and 35,000 years ago -Brain Size: 1,500 cc average Skull Shape Long and low Brow Ridge Size Large Nose Size Large, with midfacial prognathism Dentition Reduced, but large jaw size, creating retromolar gap Occipital Region Enlarged occipital region, occipital bun Other Unique Cranial Features Large infraorbital foramina Postcranial Features Short and stocky body, increased musculature, barrel-shaped chest -

Upper Paleolithic Burials

-Clearly intentional pits, open air and cave sites More variation on burial positions/postures Elaborate grave goods Red ochre sprinkled on bodies, symbolizing life?

The Changing Environment (Middle Pleistocene)

-Climate fluctuation impacted temperatures and sea levels throughout the Pleistcene. Cold/dry periods were followed by warm/wet periods. Glaciation versus interglacials -The most interesting and relevant features of Middle Pleistocene glacial events are the sheer number of them and their repeated bouts—this era alternated be tween glacial periods and warmer periods, known as interglacials. In other words, the world wasn't in an ice age the whole time. -the Pleistocene is characterized by shif ts in Earth's temperatures and their impact on plant and animal life. The Middle Pleistocene was an even more in tense period of fluctuation with frequent and severe g lacial and interglacial episodes recorded in marine isotopes, among other data points. -Rather than a single selective force, the Middle Pleistocene was marked b y periods of f luctuation, not just cold periods. Interglacials interrupted g laciations, reversing trends in sea level, coastline, temperature, pr ecipitation, and aridity, as well as glacier size and location.

The Genus Homo

-Dates as far back as 2.4 mya • Includes Homo habilis, Homo ergaster/erectus, Archaic Homo sapiens, Modern Homo sapiens -Large brain size ● Smaller, flatter face ● Smaller jaws and teeth ● Increased use of culture ● Larger overall body size ● Longer legs/shorter arms ● Decline in sexual dimorphism -a relatively large brain size, indicating a high degree of intelligence; • a smaller and flatter face; • smaller jaws and teeth; and • increased reliance on culture, particularly the use of stone tools, to exploit a greater diversity of environments (adaptive zone). -Some researchers would include larger overall body size and limb proportions (longer legs/shorter arms) in this list. There is also an apparent decline in sexual dimorphism (body-size differences between males and females).

Homo Habilis OH 7

-Discovered 1960 at Olduvai George, Tanzania, one of the most important paleoanthropological sites • There are several layers of sediment, each of them from a different time frame, including fossils of many different species. OH7 was found in Olduvai Bed I • This fossil is the species' Holotype, which means the description and name of the species is based on it • Juvenile individual of 12-13 years • Mandible (lower jaw bone), two cranial fragments, and a few hand bones -The key specimen, a juvenile individual, was actually found by their 20-year-old son Jonathan Leakey. Louis Leakey invited South African paleoanthropologist Philip Tobias and British anatomist John Napier to reconstruct and analyze the remains. The fossil of the juvenile shown in Figure 10.5 (now known as OH-7) consisted of a lower jaw, parts of the parietal bones of the skull, and some hand and finger bones. Potassium-argon dating of the rock layers showed that the fossil dated to about 1.75 million years

Orrorin tugenesis

-Discovered 2001 in Tugen Hills, West Kenya (open woodland) • 6.3-5.8 mya • 5 individuals • Approx. 4 ft. tall This femur (upper leg bone) suggests bipedalism, however, their upper-limb morphology suggests they were also good climbers -Smaller cheek teeth(molars and premolars) than those in even more recent hominins (i.e., derived), thick enamel, and reduced, but apelike, canines characterize this species. This is the first species that clearly indicates adaptations for bipedal locomotion, with fragmentary leg, arm, and finger bones having been found but few cranial remains. One of the most important elements discovered was a proximal femur.

Denisovans (a new species)

-Discovered in 2010 Denisova Cave, Altai Mountains, Siberia Fossils were located in a cave, also habituated by Neandertals and AMH DNA analyses suggest all 3 species (or subspecies) interbred -the genetic analysis of a child's finger bone and an adult upper third molar from Denisova Cave in the Altai Mountains in Siberia by a team including Svante P ääbo shocked e ven the researchers when they disc overed that the mitochondrial and nuclear D NA se quences revealed distinct gene tic dif ferences fr om all known archaic populations. Dubbed "Denisovans" after the cave in which the bones were f ound, this population is more closely r elated to Neanderthals than modern humans, suggesting the two groups shared an ancestor who split from modern humans first, then the Neanderthal-Denisovan line diverged more recently. -Genetic analysis reveals that Denisovans potentially had at least thr ee populations and had genetic adaptations for life at high altitudes, preventing them from de veloping altitude sickness and hypoxia. -Both Denisovans and Neandertals had larger brains than AMH

Neanderthal Symbolism

-Drachenloch, Switzerland: A number of bear skulls were stacked in a cave. Bear cult? -Jewelry -Flute made from bone -me tantalizing evidence for symbolism, and debatably, ritual, is the frequent occurrence of natural pigments, such as ochre (red) and manganese dioxide (black) in Neanderthal sites. Such pigments could have been used for art, like some of the spectacular cave paintings produced by modern humans who lived in this area after the Neanderthals. However, how these pigments were actually used by Neanderthals themselves is unclear, as there is very little evidence of art or paintings in Mousterian sites. One exception may be the recent discovery in Spain of a perforated shell that appears to be painted with an orange pigment, which may be some of the best evidence of Neanderthal art and jewelry.

Dolni Vestonice

-Dwelling structures made of mammoth bones At least 100 mammoths were piled up in an area of 40 x 140 feet.

MAN THE HUNTER & WOMAN THE GATHERER?

-Early hominins were likely more passive hunters than sometimes depicted... 3 models for acquiring meat: 1. Hunting - attack and slaughter 2. Active scavenging - fight off predators 3. Passive scavenging - creep up to stripped carcasses, must be elusive

Effects of Agriculture

-Effects of agriculture (invented by humans around 15-10000 years ago): High dependence on carbohydrates (planted grains) - decreased quality of food Higher population densities and less movement across space - higher risk of infectious diseases Domestication of animals - higher risk of zoonoses (diseases transmitted from animals to humans) BUT: Without agriculture, the planet could not support the billions of people alive today! -This involved manipulating the natural landscape to facilitate intensive food production, including the clearing of forest and construction of wells, irrigation canals, and ditches, exposing humans to water-borne illnesses and parasites, and attracting mosquitos and other vectors of disease to human settlements. The heavy, repetitive physical labor of early agricultural production resulted in negative impacts on articular joints, including osteoarthritis. At the same time, nutritional diversity became restricted, focused on major cereal crops that continue to dominate agricultural production today, including corn, wheat, and rice. This represented a major shift in diet from a wide variety of plant and animal foods to dependence on starchy carbohydrates, leading to increases in dental caries (cavities), reductions in stature and growth rates, and nutritional deficiencies. Domesticated animals added new foods to the human diet, including meat that was higher in fat and cholesterol than wild game as well as dairy products -Sedentismand a rise in population density accompanied the move to agriculture, increasing the risk of infectious disease. Agriculture often provided enough calories, if not enough nutrition, to increase fertility. Tha t is, although diets were worse and people unhealthier, populations continued to grow, even in the midst of high levels of child and maternal mortality and short life expectancies. Hygiene became an issue as large settlements increased the already difficult problem of removing human wastes and providing uncontaminated water

Diabetes

-Endocrine disorder characterized by excessively high blood glucose level Growing in all regions of the world Rates of diabetes have nearly doubled in the past 30 years Cause: obesity and sugar -rates of diabetes have nearly doubled in the past three de cades, largely due to increases in obesity and sugary diets. One in 11 people around the world, 435 million people, now have diabetes, including over 30 million Americans. In the United States, the disease is rising fastest among millennials (those ages 20-40) (BCBSA 2017), and one in every two adults with diabetes is undiagnosed. Obesity and diabetes are linked: that is, obesity causes a diet-related disease (diabetes) be cause of humans' evolved metabolic homeostasis mechanism, which is mismatched to contemporary energy environments

Mary Anning

-Famous fossil hunter • Collection of fossil reptiles included Ichthyosaurus and Plesiosaurus (evidencing the water-to-land transition) • Her collection was evidence of the diversity of species and that some species existed only in the past -Continuing her father's passion for fossil hunting, Anning scoured the crumbling cliffs after storms for fossilized remains and shells. The work was physically demanding and downright dangerous. -around the age of 10, Anning located and excavated a complete fossilized skeleton of an ichthyosaurus ("fish lizard"). She eventually found Pterodactylus macrons and a 2.7-meter Plesiosaurus, considered by many to be her greatest discovery. These discoveries proved that there had been significant changes in the way living things appeared throughout the history of the world.

Fossil and Taphonomy

-Fossils are the mineralized (transformed into stone-like composition) or otherwise preserved remains or traces of animals, plants, and other organisms • Taphonomy is the study of organisms after death -the mineralized copies of once-living organisms -Taphonomy can be defined as the study of what happens to an organism after death It includes the study of how an organism becomes a fossil. -The fossil record is not a complete representation of the composition of past biological communities. Things rarely become fossilized, and fossils are rarely found, preserved, and studied! -• Mold fossils- a fossilized impression • Cast fossils- formed when a mold is filled in • Trace fossils - fossilized nests, gastroliths (middle), burrows, prints • True form fossils (right) - fossils of the actual animal or animal part

Homo Naledi

-Found in 2013 by recreational spelunkers, a collection of bones was uncovered in a deep cave network in Johannesburg, South Africa. -armed with small excavation tools and a video camera, which streamed the footage up to the surface, the team worked together and uncovered a total of 1,550 bones, representing at least 15 individuals. Later, an additional 131 bones, including an almost-complete cranium, were found in a nearby chamber of the cave, representing three more individuals

Charles Lyell

-Founder of modern Geology • Suggested the earth was very old • Introduced Uniformitarianism: Forces affecting Earth's features are the same now as in the past, e.g. changes in the earth's crust during geological history have resulted from the action of continuous and uniform processes. This means modern geological principles can be used to explain the earth's past -Charles Lyell, propelled Hutton's work into his own theory of uniformitarianism, the doctrine that Earth's geologic formations are the work of slow geologic forces. Uniformitarianism was a theory that clashed with the church's doctrine of catastrophism, the belief that Earth's formation was due to a set of relatively quick biblical catastrophic events.

Upper Paleolithic

-Harpoons, needles, points, pendants Use of adhesives and resins to make composite tools (combining 2 different materials) Tools for making other tools Coordinated group hunting -The style associated with the start o f the Upper Paleolithic is the Aurignacian, starting around 40,000 y ears ago and ending around 27,000 y ears ago. Items in this tradition include stone blades as well as beads made from shell, bones, and teeth. Next is the Gravettian, which lasted from 6,000 years to 21,000 y ears ago. This culture is associated with most of the known curvy female figurines, often assumed to be "Venus" figures. Hunting technology also advanced, such as with the first known boomerang, atlatl(spear thr ower), and archery. The Solutrean, marked by fur ther innovation in delicate tool work, is the following style fr om 21, 000 to 17,000 y ears ago. After that time, the Magdalenian tradition spread. This culture further expanded on fine bone tool work, including barbed spearheads and fishhooks (Figure 12.16 ). The end of the Magdalenian is also the end of the Later Stone Age and the Pleistocene Period.

Mosaic Evolution

-Hominins are characteristic of a Mosaic Evolution: Different traits changing at different rates and at different times. Example: Larger, more complex brains evolved after bipedalism. -Some early species appear to have a mix of primitive (arboreal) and derived (bipedal) traits, which indicates mixed locomotion and a more mosaic evolution of the trait.

Sima de los Huesos

-Homo heidelbergensis, pit of bones, found in Atapuerca, spain, 200-300 kya. -Around 400 kya Skeletal elements of ~30 individuals intentionally thrown in a pit Earliest evidence of body disposal of the dead?

The Middle Age Hurdle

-Ideas common in Europe's Middle Age inhibited a spread of Evolutionary Theories -Earth was thought of as relatively young, existing since around 4004BC (Archbishop James Ussher) -Fixity of Species, Perfect Design, Great Chain of Being • -Blending Inheritance ... change came slowly -Prior to the 19th century, the overwhelming majority of Westerners believed that the physical appearances of humans and all living things were unchanged since creation and that " Creation" was the work of " God -there was no tolerance for the possibility of natural forces in science to bring about change in speciation.

Human Cultural Evolution and Civilization

-In this short period, we went through all of this: 1. Small scale hunter-gatherers or foraging groups 2. Invention of the domestication of plants and animals, beginnings of agriculture (~15-10 000 years ago) 3. First larger civilizations, e.g. Mesoamerica, Mesopotamia, Chinese Dynasties, Egypt, each of them eventually collapsing 4. Occupation of the entire planet by 8 billion people!

Cardiovascular disease (CVD)

-Includes coronary heart disease, hypertension, and stroke (leading cause of death globally) ● Risk factors: Poor diet Obesity/overweight Diabetes Physical inactivity Smoking and alcohol consumption Chronic psychological stress -Cardiovascular disease (CVD)—which includes coronary heart disease, hypertension (high blood pressure), and stroke—is the leading cause of death globally, and heart disease remains the number one cause of death in the United States. Risk factors for cardiovascular disease include diet, obesity/overweight, diabetes, and physical inactivity, as well as smoking and alcohol consumption. -Obesity/overweight contribute to cardiovascular disease directly thr ough increases in total blood volume, cardiac output, and cardiac workload. In other words, the heart has to work much harder if one is overweight (Akil and Ahmad 2011). Obesity also relates to CVD indirectly thr ough elevation of blood pressure (h ypertension) and diabetes. High le vels of blood glucose from diabetes can damage blood vessels and the nerves that c ontrol the heart and blood vessels.

Social Changes in the Upper Paleolithic

-Increased population size/ density → more permanent seasonal sites, built shelters Increased life span About 30 kya there was a rise in people over 30 yrs old More efficient subsistence Labor division between sexes and ages Symbolism rampant Ideas of death

ZHOUKOUDIAN CAVE

-Initial interpretation: • Evidence of fire - suggested as a gathering place for sharing food, socializing, etc. • Abundance of prey fossils - Men as huntersgatherers, cooperatively killing deer, horses, and other animals, bringing food back to families We now know that it is just as likely that: • ...burning occurred after fossilization, ash levels are natural organic sediment ► questionable use of fire, permanent hearths unlikely • ...remains in cave result of hyena, not hominin activity. Hominin inhabitants might have scavenged, only, supplementing their diet with herbs, wild fruits, tubers and eggs -More recent excavations, at Longgushan "Dragon Bone Cave" at Zhoukoudian, of tools, living sites, and food remains, have revealed much about the lifestyle of Homo erectus during this time.

The Atlatl- New Hunting Technology

-Lengthens the arm permitting a spear to be thrown harder and further

Why become bipedal?

-Less energy expenditure? • Less calories spent per meter traveled - better suited for long distance travel • Saved energy used for reproduction & other fitness? -Arboreal origin? • Were brachiation and temporary bipedal locomotion, such as knucklewalking with tendency to upright position, preadaptive? -Visual Surveillance? Better view of landscape and predators -Ability to Carry? Objects and/or offspring? •-Seed-eating? Picking in an upright position? - Hunting? This one is unlikely, since there is no evidence of hunting until after the appearance bipedalism. -Male Provisioning? • Extended life spans means a need for social bonds, males carry resources for women and offspring? • Suggests monogamy, however, relatively elevated sexual dimorphism (morphological differences between males and females) suggest our early ancestors were not monogamous -Thermoregulation? • Vertical posture exposes less of the body to direct sun and increases its exposure to breezes

Ape-like Traits in Proto-Hominins

-Long, low, and narrow cranial vault -Sagittal crest -No forehead -Large supraorbital torus -Small brain- 350 cc -U-shaped arcade

Australopiths

-Longest-enduring hominin genus documented, numerous species discovered, e.g. Australopithecus (=genus) anamensis (=species), Australopithecus afarensis, etc. • Fossils cover a time frame of over 3 million years (4-1 mya) • Sites in East AND South Africa • Co-existed with early Homo species • Some characteristics all Australopiths share: Small bodied (Chimp size, 40-54 kg), small brained, clearly bipedal, large teeth -The Australopithecines are a diverse group of hominins comprised of various species. Australopithecusis the given group or genus name. It stems from the Latin word Australo, meaning "southern," and the Greek word pithecus,meaning "ape." -Gracile: • Before and after 2.6 mya • Lighter - 27-45 kg, 105-151 cm tall • Smaller teeth • Robust: • Appear 2.6 mya • Heavier- 32-49 kg, 110-137 cm • Larger teeth -Some researchers suggest gracile and robust forms all belong to one genus and lump them together as Australopiths, others prefer to split them into two different genera (Australopithecus is used for the gracile forms, Paranthropus for the robust forms). -Despite this genus' ancestral traits and small cranial capacity, all members show evidence of bipedal locomotion. It is generally accepted that Australopithecus species display varying degrees of arborealism and bipedality—these individuals were walking on the ground on two legs but were probably still comfortable with climbing trees

Intentional Burial, Ritual, Symbolism

-Many Neandertal sites indicate intentional burying of deceased: La Ferrassie, France burial complex of several in adults and subadults Teshik Tash, Uzbekistan 9 year old interred with 6 pairs of goat horns Shanidar-4, Iraq badly injured individual buried and covered in wildflower pollen Murcia, Spain body paint pigment in shells -The care expressed in taking care of the sick or injured may have been expressed upon death as well. Full Neanderthal skeletons are not uncommon in the fossil record, and many of these skeletons were so well preserved due to having been placed in deliberate burials. These burials appear intentional, as the graves are dug down a bit, and the bodies found in the graves are in specific positions quite distinct from the natural position the body automatically goes into after death during rigor mortis. Neanderthal burials are often in a flexed position, or fetal position. -La Chapelle-aux Saints: 1908, France 40,000yrs old "Old Man" with infirmities Buried in flexed position -Shanadar 1: Shanidar Cave, Iraq 60-80 kya Skull injuries - was possibly blind Right lower arm and hand missing - atrophied and fell off? Amputation? Signs of long-term healing Proof for Neandertal compassion and humanity?

Africa was home of the earliest human ancestors

-Many sites located in Rift Valley (Ethiopia, Kenia, Tanzania, South Africa) • Volcanoes, Earthquakes, Faults, Rock mass movement common - many fossils preserved

Multiregional Continuity Model

-Modern Homo sapiens evolved multi-regionally from previously existing forms: H. erectus spread worldwide, developing adaptations to regional (clinal) conditions Continuous gene flow prevented speciation Living humans in Europe and Asia are direct descendants of H. erectus Neandertals are a regional variation of archaic Homo sapiens (Homo sapiens neanderthalensis) -Multiregionalists argue modern human regional variation is the result of an AMH's multiregional evolution -the view of the data by scientists on this side was that modern Homo sapiens evolved from the archaic humans in Africa, Eur ope, and Asia simultaneously. Gene flow would have kept the species cohesive across the great distance while producing local variation as well. The multiregionalist experts pointed to the sharing of traits from Homo erectus, through archaic Homo sapiens, and then to the modern humans in different parts of the world as supporting their model. For example, in Europe, the Oase modern humans possessed Neanderthal-like traits and certain modern humans possess alleles that came from Neanderthals and Denisovans.

Phylogenetic Trees (Phylogenetics)

-More traditional approach to show relationships between species • Graphically presented as phylogenetic trees, in which presumed ancestors and descendants are traced in time • Uses analysis of superficial similar traits to classify, and to see how closely related species are (puts all similarities and differences together and compares) -The study of phylogeny which is the study of the evolutionary relationships between groups of organisms

The Chain Reaction of Agriculture and Cultural Effects

-Neolithic transition: Around 10000 years ago, humans started to domesticate animals and plants and to farm From foraging bands (hunter and gatherers) to farmers This marks the beginning of the Holocene epoch Independent invention and diffusion in several parts of the world -Sedentarism Population growth Specialization of labor Urbanization Institutions Monumental architecture -Farming opened a pathway for the development and sustainability of larger civilizations, such as the Maya in Mesoamerica

Clothing

-No sewing tools have been found, but probably used animal skins/furs for warmth

Neanderthal Tool Culture: Mousterian Technology (200-300 kya)

-Not confined to Neandertals ➢Also found in context with other archaic forms in Europe and Asia -Stone-tipped Mousterian spear (a hypothetical example). -Mousterian artifacts. By 100,000 years ago, artifacts of many types were of composite form, that is, made from several different parts. -known as Mousterian tools, after the Le Moustier site in southwest France, the Neanderthal's toolkit was truly tha t—a se to f tools with specific applications and unique forms for each desired purpose. Mousterian tools were significantly smaller, thinner, and lighter than Acheulean handaxes and formed a true toolkit. The materials used for Mousterian tools were o f higher quality, which allowed for both more precise toolmaking and tool reworking when the tools broke or dulled after frequent reuse. The use of higher-quality materials is also indicative of required forethought and planning to acquire them for tool manufacture. It is noteworthy that the Neanderthals, unlike Homo erectus, saved and reused their tools, rather than making new ones each time a tool was needed.

Archaic Homo Sapiens

-Old World (Africa, Europe, and Asia) Middle Pleistocene 600,000-200,000 years ago Transitional between H. erectus and modern H. Sapiens Sometimes splitted into several species: H. antecessor, H. heidelbergensis, H. georgicus, H. neanderthalensis, H. rhodesiensis -Brain size of at least 1,100 cc Less angular and higher skulls than H. erectus Smaller brow ridges than H. erectus Wider nasal apertures Midfacial prognathism Robust postcranial Regional variation -all archaic Homo sapiens share the defining trait of an increased br ain siz e—specifically a brain of a t le ast 1,100 cc and averaging 1,200 cc—but are also characterized b y significant r egional and temporal ( time) variation

HOMO ERECTUS

-Oldest hominin species found in Africa, Europe, and Asia • Oldest fossils found in East Africa, approx. 1.7 mya • Youngest fossils are from Java, 27-50 tya • Some researchers place African fossils into a separate species, called Homo ergaster • Asian fossils have more robust (thick) facial features • Could be first species who intentionally used fire -H. erectus migrated out-ofAfrica and rapidly spread across the world (first to migrate out of Africa) -Body size: over 100 pounds, with an average adult height of about 5 feet 6 inches • Brain size: considerable brain enlargement, cranial capacity of about 700 to 1,250 cm³ • Cranial Shape: thick cranial bone, large brow ridges (supraorbital tori) above the eyes, and a projecting nuchal torus at the back of the skull -Postorbital constriction, Large orbits, Broad face/ broad palate, Broad nasal aperture, projecting nasals (human-like nose -Compared to Homo habilis, Homo erectus showed increased brain size, smaller teeth, and a larger body. -Homo erectusshows evidence of being fully committed to life on the ground. This meant long, powerfully muscled legs that enabled these hominins to cover more ground efficiently.

H. HABILIS OLDOWAN STONE TOOLS

-Oldowan = 1st stone tool industry, ~2.5mya • Unifacial tools, so only one side of the tools was manufactored • Percussion method (see right): • Striking one stone with another stone to obtain sharp flakes • Used for cutting & scraping • Led to new food possibilities: H. habilis could slice meat and break bones to get the marrow! -, stone tools become more frequent at sites dating to about 2 million years ago, the time of Homo habilis. This suggests that these hominins were increasingly reliant on stone tools to make a living. -The oldest stone tool industry is the Oldowan, named after the site of Olduvai Gorge where the tools were first discovered. The time period of the Oldowan is generally considered to last from about 2.5 mya to 1.6 mya. The tools of this industry are described as "flake and chopper" tools—the choppers consisting of stone cobbles with a few flakes struck off them -Studies of animal bones at the site show leg bones are often cracked open, suggesting that they were extracting the marrow from the bone cavities.

Earliest discovery of Homo Sapiens in Africa: Omo

-Omo I & II Omo, Ethiopia, Africa 197 kya - one of the oldest specimens of AHM -particularly informative sites with fossils of the earliest modern Homo sapiens are Jebel Irhoud, Omo, and Herto. -Research separated by nearly f our decades uncovered fossils and artifacts from the Kibish Formation in the Lower Omo Valley in Ethiopia. These Omo Kibish hominins were represented by braincases and fragmented postcranial bones of three individuals found kilometers apart, dating back to 195, 000 years ago (Day 1969; McDougall, Brown, and Fleagle 2005). One interesting finding was the variation in braincase size between the two more complete specimens: While the individual now named Omo I had a more globular dome, Omo II had an archaic-style long and low cranium. In more recent fieldwork, an informative section of the Omo I pelvis was found in a re-excavation in 2001

Osteoarthritis

-Osteoarthritis is seen in skeletal remains from the Neolithic Manual labor associated with early agricultural production Modern populations Overweight and obesity contribute to arthritis Overloading of joints that comes with excess weight Action of fat cells generate low-level inflammation in response to high levels of glucose in the blood Diabetes: risk factor for osteoarthritis Excess body weight and lack of physical activity are mismatch for Stone Age bodies! -The appearance o f osteoarthritis in skeletal remains from the Neolithic has been attributed to the repetitive loading of articular joints due to the manual labor associated with early agricultural production . In modern populations, overweight and obesity ar e major contributing factors to arthritis, due not only to the overloading of joints that comes with excess weight but also to the action of fa t c ells that generate lo w-level inflammation in response to high levels of glucose in the blood. Meaning, diabetes is a risk factor for osteoarthritis. A high percentage of obese individuals with knee osteoarthritis are sedentary, suggesting lack of physical activity ma y increase susceptibility to inflammation. Again, excess body w eight and lack of physical activity are a mismatch for Stone Age bodies making their way in the space age

Continental Drift

-Pangaea was a supercontinent that existed during the Permian period. • Shifting land masses frequently created and disrupted routes of movement between landmasses. -Approximately 200 million years ago (mya), Pangea started to slowly break apart, with the resulting pieces of land shifting and moving through the process of continental drift. I n the late Triassic (roughly 135 mya), Pangea broke into two supercontinents called Laurasia and Gondwanaland, with additional movement that changed the physical representation of the landmasses and resulted in our current land configuration of seven continents. It is important to remember that continental drift continues to this day and will continue for the life of our planet. In another 250 million years, the map of Earth will look significantly different than it does today. -Important effects on gene flow, genetic drift, macroevolution

Preagricultural Humans: Diet

-Preagricultural foragers ate. Wider variety of foods ○ More protein and less fat ○ More fiber, fresh fruits, vegetables, grasses, legumes, tubers ○ Less sodium ○ No refined white sugar or corn syrup ○ High in complex carbohydrates, low in salt, and high in calcium Since humans lived as hunter-gatherers for more than 95% of their existence, this is the lifestyle we have adapted for! -Given our nutritional requirements and caloric needs, it is not surprising that humans are omnivorous and evolved to choose foods that are dense in essential nutrients. One of the ways we identified high-calorie resources in our evolutionary past was through taste, and it is no accident that humans find sweet, salty, fatty foods appealing. -Foragers took in more protein, less fat, much more fiber, and far less sodium than modern humans typically do -Whenever cooking became established, it opened up a wider variety of both plant and animal resources to humans and led to selection for gene variants linked to reductions in the musculature of the jaw and thickness of tooth enamel. however, the protein, carbohydrates, and fats pr agricultural peoples ate were much different from those we eat today. Wild game, for example, lacked the antibiotics, growth hormones, and high levels of cholesterol and saturated fat associated with industrialized meat production today. -Preagricultural diet differed from today's diet ○ From Wild game to industrialized meats: ■ Cancer risk ■ Antibiotics ■ Growth hormones ■ Cholesterol ■ Saturated fat

Absolute or Chronometric Dating Techniques

-Provide chronologic age estimates based on the amount of radioactivity lost or gained -provide specific dates and time ranges. work in other disciplines such as chemistry and physics. The modern developments in studying radioactive materials are extremely accurate and precise in establishing dates for ancient sites and remains. -many of the chronometric dating methods are based on the measurement of radioactive decay of particular elements -Radiocarbon dating: The chronometric dating method based on the radioactive decay of 14C in organic remains. -Carbon 14 Absolute Dating: Uses decay of unstable/radioactive 14C into stable 12C • Can only be used to date once-living organic material • Accurate from 40 tya to less than 1 tya, becomes less accurate past 40 tya • Half-life of 14C: 5730 years ± 40 years -Animals get the 14C by eating the plants. Humans take it in by eating plants and animals. Carbon 14 has a half-life of 5, 730 years. That means that in 5,730 years, half the amount of 14C will have converted back into 14N. Because the pattern of radioactive decay is so reliable, we can use 14C to accurately date sites up to 50,000 years old. However, 14C can only be used on the remains of biological organisms. This includes shell, wood, plant material, and bone.

Biocultural Evolution

-Remember: Modern humans are the product of their biology AND their culture. Culture and technology are rapidly changing the environment humans and all other organisms live in, shifting selective pressures and changing the effects of natural selection ...with many devastating results, such as environmental depletion and species extinction ...and many negative effects on our health

DMANISI

-Republic of Georgia • Site important as location of earliest hominins outside Africa, 1.78-1.95 my • Note: As soon as there is evidence of H. erectus, this species left Africa • Dmanisi individuals share characteristics with African and Asian erectus forms • Relatively small brains (shows that large brains were not necessary for migration out-of-Africa). -600 - 780 cm3 cranial capacity • Low braincase, sagittal keeling • Less robust and thinner brow ridge (more similar to African Homo erectusfossils) -An extraordinary collection of fossils from the site of Dmanisi in the Republic of Georgia has revealed the presence of Homo erectusin Western Eurasia between 1.75 million and 1.86 million years ago. Dmanisi is located in the Caucasus mountains in Georgia. -Compared to African Homo erectus,they have smaller brains and bodies. However, despite the small brain size, they show clear signs of Homo erectustraits such as heavy brow ridges and reduced facial prognathism.

A Variety of gracile (A.) and robust species (A./P.) discovered in East and South Africa

-SOUTH AFRICA: • When: 3.5-2 mya • Where: Taung, Sterkfontein, Makapansgat, Swartkrans, Malapa • Who: A. africanus, A./P. robustus, A. sediba -EAST AFRICA: • When: 4.2- 1.2 mya • Where: Rift Valley & Awash regions- many more sites than south Africa • Tanzania, Kenya, Ethiopia • Lake Turkana sites, Olduvai, Laetoli, Hadar, Middle Awash, etc. • Who: A. anamensis, A. afarensis, A./P. bahrelghazali, A. platyops, A. garhi, A./P. boisei, A./P. aethiopicus

Cancer

-Second leading cause of death globally Cancer in ancient humans exists, but was rare Risk factors Obesity HPV (Human Papilloma Virus) Exposure to estrogen: earlier menarche Protective factors Breast feeding (protects from breast cancer) Multiple births -Cancer is the result of in teractions between a person's genes and three c ategories of e xternal agents: physical c arcinogens (e.g., ultraviolet r adiation), chemical c arcinogens (e.g., tobacco smoke, asbestos), and biological carcinogens, such as infections from c ertain viruses, bacteria, or parasites -most cancer occurs in soft tissue, which rarely preserves, and fast-growing cancers would likely kill victims before leaving evidence in bone. It is also difficult to distinguish cancer from benign growths and inflammatory disease in ancient fossils, and there is often post-mortem damage to fossil evidence from scavenging and erosion.

First Appearance of mammals

-Some primitive mammals existed during the Jurassic Period (before 65 million years ago) • After dinosaurs became extinct, mammals underwent a rapid adaptive radiation, resulting in a rapid geographic expansion and species diversification

Neanderthal Diet

-Stable isotopes are markers of consumed foods that remain in bones and teeth even after death. They can be used to reconstruct ancient people's diets • Neandertals consumed a stable amount of meat • Successfully and cooperatively hunted large Ice Age game, such as cave bears and mammoths -The animal remains in Neanderthal sites show that unlike earlier archaic Homo sapiens, Neanderthals were very effective hun ters who were able to kill their own prey, r ather than relying on scavenging. Oftentimes, this included very large animals like de er, horses, and bovids ( relatives o f the cow). I n fac t, isotopes from Neanderthal bones show tha t me at w as a primary and significant component o f their diet, similar to that seen in carnivores like wolves (Bocherens et al. 1999). Of course, Neanderthals' diet varied according to the specific environment in which they lived, but according to Christoph Wiẞin and colleagues (2015), meat comprised up to 80% of their diet. -in addition to large bovids, prey included ibex, seals, rabbits, and pigeons. Though red me at was a critical component of the Neanderthal diet, evidence shows that at times they also ate limpets, mussels, and pine nuts. Tartar examined from Neanderthal teeth in Iraq and Belgium reveal that plant material including wheat, barley, date palms, and tubers were also eaten by Neanderthals and were cooked to make them palatable.

Cladograms (Cladistics)

-Studies only derived traits = newly evolved traits • Focusses on the pattern of branching • Clade = group of species that shares a derived trait (e.g. turtle and leopard share the trait "amniotic egg") • Length of branches has no special significance -cladistics groups organisms according to their last common ancestors based on shared derived traits. These are traits (in the case of early hominins, morphological) that are evolved, differing from those seen in earlier populations or forms. These new or modified traits or characteristics provide evidence of evolutionary relationships, and organisms with the same derived traits are grouped in the same clade -A good example is the grouping of what is known as the "Robust Australopithecines," whose cranial and dental features differ from those of other hominins of a similar or earlier time period and can therefore be considered derived.

The Molecular Clock

-The Molecular Clock suggests the rate of evolution of DNA (accumulation of mutations) is constant over time and across lineages. It uses the genetic difference between species to estimate when they split from each other • E.g.: The genetic difference between living chimps and modern humans suggests a common ancestor lived 4-6 million years ago -Genetic analyses helps us determine when, e.g. common ancestors of living non-human primates and Hominins lived

Did Neanderthals speak?

-Their anatomy suggests they were able to speak. But had they invented speech? Anatomy: Neandertal brain morphology very similar to modern humans Throat anatomy slightly different › Identical hyoid (tongue bone) › Most likely less range of sounds, higher pitched voice (caused by smaller space between tongue and throat). › Watch the video "Homo Sapiens versus Neandertals: The Evolution of Language" ❖ Cooperative hunting, symbolism, intentional burials, etc., strongly suggest they were not only able to speak, but had invented language. -impressive cultural innovations and behavioral expansions seen in the Neanderthals would have required at least a basic form of communication in order to function, which suggests to many researchers that Neanderthals spoke. The challenge with this line of research is that speech, itself, of course is not preserved, so indirect evidence must be used to support this conclusion. It is thought that Neanderthals would have possessed some basic speech, as evidenced from a variety of sources, including throat anatomy and genetic evidence.

Hunters or Scavengers?

-There is often evidence that hominins processed long bones for marrow, suggesting scavenging rather than hunting... -However... more complex tools appear 1.7-1.5 mya (Acheulean), around the extinction of some larger carnivores (e.g. saber-tooth tigers, see image above). When/where evidence of carnivore activity is low, evidence for hominin meat consumption is higher. Transition from scavenging to hunting?

Homo heidelbergensis

-Time frame: 850 kya - 200 kya • First discovered in Europe, then Africa and Asia • Large browridge, larger braincase, flatter face than older early Homo species • Clear evidence of controlled fire, hearths -A transitional species between Homo erectus and Homo sapiens -Bodo cranium (Ethiopia) 600 kya, earliest definite evidence of Homo heidelbergensis in Africa: Shows cutmarks on skull bones, was he defleshed after death? Earliest evidence of cannibalism? Ritual?

ACHEULEAN TOOL TRADITION 1.4 MYA - 250 KYA, USED BY H. ERECTUS

-Tools more sophisticated • Handaxes pear-shaped, teardrop shaped, or rounded • Usually 12-20 cm long • Flaked over at least part of the surface of each side (bifacial) • Considerable variation in size and quality of workmanship • Multi-purpose tools used in a variety of tasks • Tools transported over long distances -Analysis of Acheulean stone tools suggest that at some sites, the toolmakers selected their raw materials carefully—traveling to particular rock outcrops to quarry stones and perhaps even removing large slabs of r ock at the quarries to get at the most desirable material. -ese tools-classified together as constituting the Acheulean tool industry-are more complex in form and more consistent in their manufacture. Unlike the Oldowan tools, which were cobbles modified by striking off a few flakes, Acheulean toolmakers carefully shaped both sides of the tool. This type of technique, known as bifacial flaking, requires more planning and skill on the part of the toolmaker; he or she would need to be aware of principles of symmetry when crafting the tool. One of the most common tool forms is the handaxe -sides handaxes, forms such as scrapers, cleavers, and flake tools are present at Homo erectus sites. -One striking aspect of Acheulean tools is their uniformity. They are more standardized in form and mode of manufacture than the earlier Oldowan tools. For example, the aforementioned handaxes vary in size, but they are remarkably consistent in regard to their shape and proportions. They were also an incredibly stable tool form over time—lasting well over a million years with little change.

Potassium Argon Absolute Dating

-Volcanically superheated rock/ash vents all Argon gas • Potassium (K) in the rock degrades back into Argon (Ar) gas at a predictable rate • Superheating the rock and measuring the released gas indicates the age since formation • Accurate from millions of years to just thousands of years ago -can reach further back into the past than radiocarbon dating -Used to date volcanic rock, these techniques are based on the decay of unstable potassium 40 (40K) into argon 40 (40Ar) gas, which gets trapped in the crystalline structures of volcanic material. It's important to note that this form of dating is not done directly on the fossil in which you are interested. This is where stratigraphy becomes important. The K -Ar method dates the layers around the fossil to give approximate dates for when that fossil was deposited. The benefit of this dating technique is that 40K has a half-life of circa 1.3 billion years, so it can be used on sites as young as 100 kya and as old as the age of Earth. -it is particularly useful in dating early hominin sites in Africa

What happened to Neanderthals?

-Were they out-competed by early anatomically modern H. sapiens? 2.Defeated in conflict with early anatomically modern H. sapiens? 3.Never disappeared but interbreed with anatomically modern H. sapiens? 4.Simply outlasted?

Hominin-like Traits

-Wide inter-orbital region -Orthognatic face -Small canines No honing -Horizontal nuchal plane -No diastema -Anterior foramen magnum

Lumpers

-assume speciation was less common and see much variation as being intraspecific -argue that large variability is expected among multiple populations in a given species over time. These researchers will therefore prefer to "lump" specimens of subtle differences into single taxa. -Common with paleozoology and paleoanthropology

Proto-Hominins

-earliest hominin ancestors (Sahelanthropus, Orrorin, and Ardipithecus) -are potential, or at least close to a common ancestor, of modern chimps and humans Note: Their fossil ages fit well within the predicted split between modern chimps and humans 4-6 mya (million years ago) - genetic and fossil evidence match up

relative dating techniques

-establish the age of a fossil only in comparison to other materials found above and below it in a sediment layer -Dating methods that do not result in numbers of years but, rather, in relative timelines wherein some organisms or artifacts are older or younger than others. -first used because they rely on simple observational skills -restriction of relative dating is that you don't know specific dates or how much time passed between different sites or artifacts. You simply know that one artifact or fossil is older than another. -Stratigraphy: Steno's Law of Superposition states that a lower stratum (layer of sediment) is older than a higher stratum: -Fluorine analyses (see right): the more fluorine, the longer time spent in the ground - measured on fossil bone directly (fluorine dating is considered a hybrid form of relative and chronometric dating methods. used to compare the age of the soil around artifacts located in close proximity -Paleomagnetic Polarity Relative Dating: "Fossil Compass" • Polar north constantly shifts • As rocks form, their magnetic minerals orient themselves toward magnetic north • Up to 5 my, sedimentary rock • Usually used to cross-check results of absolute dating techniques

Homo Floresiensis "The Hobbit"

-in a small cave called Liang Bua, on the island of Flor es, in Indonesia, a small collection of f ossils were discovered beg inning in 2003 (Figure 11.17). The fossil fragments represent as many as nine individuals, including a nearly complete female skeleton. The features o f the skull are very similar to that of Homo erectus, including the presence o f a sagittal k eel, an arching brow ridges and nuchal torus, and the lack of a chin (Figure 11.18 ). Homo floresiensis, as the new species is called, had a brain size that w as remarkably small at 400 cc, and recent gene tic studies suggest a common ancestor with modern humans that predates Homo erectus. -the complete female skeleton, who was an adult, was approximately a meter tall and would have weighed just under 30 kg, which is significantly shorter and just a few kilograms more than the average, modern young elementary-aged child. The small size of the fossil has earned the species the nickname "the Hobbit."

Geology

-provides classification of time -vertebrate evolution encompasses three eras: •Paleozoic • (appearance of first vertebrates, capacity to form bone 500 mya) -Mesozoic (Reptiles dominant land vertebrate) • Cenozoic (Age of mammals)

Splitters

-researchers who claim speciation occurred frequently during evolution -argue that species variability can be measured and that even subtle differences can imply differences in niche occupation that are extreme enough to mirror modern species differences. In general, splitters would consider geographic differences among populations as meaning that a species is polytypic(i.e., capable of interacting and breeding biologically but having morphological population differences). -common with paleozoology and paleoanthropology

Second epidemiological transition

-resulted in ○ Improved standards of living and hygiene ○ Nutrition that minimized the effects of infectious disease ○ Rise of noncommunicable Diseases (NCDs)

First epidemiological transition

-resulted in ○ Increases in dental caries ○ Nutritional deficiencies ○ Infectious disease ○ Skeletal conditions, like osteoarthritis ○ Decreases in growth and height

PLEISTOCENE EPOCH

-the first epoch of the Quaternary period -2.6 mya to 11,000 years ago ● "Ice Age" ● Cycles between interglacial (warm/wet) and glacial (cool/dry) -Geography and climate affect hominin migration ● Paleoclimate of Africa ○ Grassland: expanded and shrunk ● Homo adaptations ○ New foods ○ Cultural solutions ○ Behavioral adaptations -The early hominin species covered previously, such as Ardipithecus ramidusand Australopithecus afarensis, evolved during the late Pliocene epoch. -The Pliocene (5.3 million to 2.6 million years ago) was marked by cooler and drier conditions, with ice caps forming permanently at the poles. Still, Earth's climate during the Pliocene was considerably warmer and wetter than at present. The subsequent Pleistocene epoch (2.6 million years to 11,000 years ago) ushered in major environmental change. The Pleistocene is popularly referred to as the Ice Age. Since the term "Ice Age" tends to conjure up images of glaciers and woolly mammoths, one would naturally assume that this was a period of uniformly cold climate around the globe. But this is not actually the case. Instead, climate became much more variable, cycling abruptly between warm/wet (interglacial) and cold/dry (glacial) cycles. The climate pattern was likely influenced by changes in Earth's elliptical orbit around the sun.

Taung

-the first gracile Australopith -A. africanus - "the southern African ape" • Found by Raymond Dart in Taung, 1923 • About 2.8 million years old • Endocast (Mold of the inside of the skull) • Suggested to be a child of 3-4 years -Endocast shows long narrow vault Brain volume: 525 cc (as adult) -No sagittal crest -Human -like circular orbits (eye sockets) -Narrow interorbital distance -The well-known fossil of a juvenile Australopithecine, the "Taung Child," was the first early hominin evidence ever discovered and was the first to demonstrate our common human heritage in Africa -The Taung Child is an excellent example of how understanding the morphology and physiology of teeth can reveal information about our evolution.

Paleoanthropology

-the study of the history of human evolution through the fossil record -interdisciplinary approach to understanding our evolutionary past. -Evidence of past human ancestors is gained through: • Geology, and an understanding of the earth's age • Fossils, showing variation and adaptation • Artifacts, e.g. stone tools, showing cultural evolution and technological development • Dating techniques, to understand how old things are • Genetic analyses, to understand relationships between species -

major problem in todays world

-unequal distribution of resources -Western capitalistic culture promotes overconsumption, while around half of the world's population lives on less than $2 a day -Agriculture provided the means to produce a storable surplus for the first time in human history, allowing some individuals to grow and consume more than others, leading to the beginnings of e conomic inequality. Social hierarchies led to the unequal distribution of the basic resources for healthy living, concentrating infectious disease among the poor and malnourished, a situation that continues to plague humanity today -Both, deficiencies and excesses cause many health problems we are facing all across the world, including many deaths... In many industrialized nations: Obesity, atherosclerotic disease, arthritis, heart attack, stroke, diabetes, hypertension, etc.... ...while millions face undernutrition, malnutrition, and even starvation.

Homo habilis

-• "Handy man" • 2.4-1.8 mya, Olduvai Gorge, East Africa • Brains still relatively small, habitual bipedalism • Found in context with oldest stone tools = Oldowan pebble tool industry • Tools produced and used "ad hoc" — needed, made, dropped (similar to chimps) -earliest species placed in the genus Homo -Compared to the australopithecines in the previous chapter, Homo habilishas a somewhat larger brain size-an average of 650 cubic centimeters (cc) compared to less than 500 cc for Australopithecus. Additionally, the skull is more rounded and the face less prognathic. However, the postcranial remains show a body size and proportions similar to Australopithecus

Remember

1) The earth is very old 2) Humans have existed on our planet for a relatively short time (only during the end of the Miocene, the Pliocene, Pleistocene, and the Holocene (since about 6-8 million years ago))

Taxonomy

= Rules of classification • 2 ways to interpret evolutionary relationships: Phylogenetic trees versus Cladograms -The science of grouping and classifying organisms -In the past, taxonomy was primarily based on morphology (i.e., the physical features of organisms). Today they are tied to known relationships based on molecular phylogeny(such as based on DNA) or a combination of the two.

Fossils continued

Fossilization is rare and fossils are hard to find. • The fossil record is never complete (many missing links). • Still, analyzing fossils helps us understand our past

Different time periods

Jurassic period and Mesozoic were dominated by reptiles. Cenozoic (red circle) is the golden era of mammals.

Classification of humans

Kingdom: Animalia • Subkingdom: Metazoan • Phyla: Chordata • Subphyla: Vertebrata • Class: Mammalia

HOMO ERECTUS FROM ZHOUKOUDIAN, CHINA

• 40 male and female adults and children have been found near Zhoukoudian • The site was occupied intermittently for 250,000 years • 40% of the bones were from individuals less than 14 years old, 2.6% individuals between 50-60 years • "Dragon bones": fossils often used as medicine and aphrodisiacs in traditional Chinese medicine. Many were destroyed for this reason -Homo erectusfossils from northern China, collectively known as "Peking Man," are some of the most famous human fossils in the world. Dated to about 400,000-700,000 years ago, they were excavated from the site of Zhoukoudian, near the outskirts of Beijing. Hundreds of bones and teeth, including six nearly complete skulls, were excavated from the cave in the 1920s and 1930s. Much of the fossils' fame comes from the fact that they disappeared under mysterious circumstances -Large brow ridge, slight sagittal crest and nuchal torus • Thick skull bones • Protruding face (mouth region coming forward) • Cultural remains: choppers, retouched flakes fashioned into scrapers, points, burins and awls