Intro to Psychology 1315 Exam 2 Review (Chapters 6, 8, & 9)

What is Classical Conditioning? (Chapter 6)

- Learning process in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an innately meaningful stimulus and acquires the capacity to elicit a similar response

What is Observational Learning? (Chapter 6)

- Learning that occurs when a person observes and imitates behavior - AKA: Imitation or modeling

What are Concepts? (Chapter 8)

- Mental categories that are used to group objects, events, and characteristics

What is an example of Taste Aversion? (Chapter 6)

- Mike goes out for sushi with some friends and eats spicy yellow tail, his favorite dish. Several hours later, he becomes very ill with stomach pains and nausea. A few weeks later, he tries to eat spicy yellow tail again but cannot stand it.

What is an example of Insight Learning? (Chapter 6)

- Monkeys are put into a room with bananas in the ceiling (I think). Inside the room, there are a number of boxes that the monkeys will need to stack up in order to get to the bananas. After some time and thinking, the monkeys realize that they need to use all the boxes in order to get the bananas. They do this, and get the bananas from the ceiling.

What is an example of Discrimination? (Chapter 6)

- Pavlov gave the dog food only after the bell made a sound and not any other sound. This way, the dog learned to distinguish the bell and other sounds.

What is Object Permanence? (Chapter 9)

- Piaget's term for the crucial accomplishment of understanding that objects and events continue to exist even when they cannot directly be seen, heard, or touched

What are Heuristics? (Chapter 8)

- Shortcut strategies or guidelines that suggest a solution to a problem but do not guarantee an answer

What was Skinner's approach to Operant Conditioning? (Chapter 6)

- Skinner created an operant chamber, aka the Skinner Box. A device in the box delivered food pellets into a tray at random. After a rat became accustomed to the box, Skinner installed a lever and observed the rat's behavior. As the hungry rat explored the box, it occasionally pressed the lever, and a food pellet was dispensed. Soon the rat learned that the consequences of pressing the lever were positive: It would be fed

What is an example of Positive Punishment? (Chapter 6)

- Spanking your child when they take someone else's toy

What are Schedules of Reinforcement? (Chapter 6)

- Specific patterns that determine when a behavior will be reinforced

What are Algorithms? (Chapter 8)

- Strategies--including formulas, instructions, and the testing of all possible solutions--that guarantee a solution to a problem

What is Creativity? (Chapter 8)

- The ability to think about something in novel and unusual ways and to devise unconventional solutions to problems - Think of many solutions

What is Decision Making? (Chapter 8)

- The mental activity of evaluating alternatives and choosing among them

What is Reasoning? (Chapter 8)

- The mental activity of transforming information to reach conclusions

What is Problem Solving? (Chapter 8)

- The mental process of finding an appropriate way to attain a goal when the goal is not readily available

What is Development? (Chapter 9)

- The pattern of continuity and change in human capabilities that occurs throughout life, involving both growth and decline

What is Positive Punishment? (Chapter 6)

- The presentation of a stimulus following a given behavior in order to decrease the frequency of that behavior - Adding of something bad leads to decrease of behavior

What is Positive Reinforcement? (Chapter 6)

- The presentation of a stimulus following a given behavior in order to increase the frequency of that behavior - Reward leads to increase in behavior

What is Reinforcement? (Chapter 6)

- The process by which a stimulus or event (a reinforcer) following a particular behavior increases the probability that the behavior will happen again - Leads to an increase in behavior

What is Spontaneous Recovery? (Chapter 6)

- The process in classical conditioning by which a conditioned response can recur after a time delay, without further conditioning

What is Discrimination? (Chapter 6)

- The process of learning to respond to certain stimuli and not others

What is Thinking? (Chapter 8)

- The process of manipulating information mentally by forming concepts, solving problems, making decisions, and reflecting critically or creatively

What is Negative Punishment? (Chapter 6)

- The removal of a stimulus following a given behavior in order to decrease the frequency of that behavior - Removal of something good leads to decrease of behavior

What is Negative Reinforcement? (Chapter 6)

- The removal of a stimulus following a given behavior in order to increase the frequency of that behavior - Removal of something bad leads to increase in behavior

What is Generalization? (Chapter 6)

- The tendency of a new stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus to elicit a response that is similar to the conditioned response

What is Base Rate Neglect? (Chapter 8)

- The tendency to ignore statistical information in favor of very specific but vivid information

What is Representativeness Heuristic? (Chapter 8)

- The tendency to make judgments about group membership based on physical appearance or the match between a person and one's stereotype of a group rather than on available base rate information

What is Hindsight Bias? (Chapter 8)

- The tendency to report falsely, after the fact, that one has accurately predicted an outcome - "I knew that was going to happen!"

What is Confirmation Bias? (Chapter 8)

- The tendency to search for and use information that supports one's ideas rather than refutes them

What is Loss Aversion? (Chapter 8)

- The tendency to strongly prefer to avoid losses compared to acquiring gains

What is Cognition? (Chapter 8)

- The way in which information is processed and manipulated in remembering, thinking, and knowing

What is Extinction? (Chapter 6)

- The weakening of the conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus is absent

What is Counter-conditioning used for? (Chapter 6)

- Therapists have used counter-conditioning to break apart the association between certain stimuli and positive feelings

What is the Law of Effect? (Chapter 6)

- Thorndike's law stating that behaviors followed by positive outcomes are strengthened and that behaviors followed by negative outcomes are weakened (I doubt this will be on the exam, I don't think we ever went over this in class)

What were the US, UR, CS, and CR in Pavlov's Classical Conditioning experiment? (Chapter 6)

- US: Food - UR: Salivating - CS: Bell (sound) - CR: Salivating (to sound)

What do US, UR, CS, and CR stand for? (Chapter 6)

- US: Unconditioned Stimulus - UR: Unconditioned Response - CS: Conditioned Stimulus - CR: Conditioned Response

What is Fixation? (Chapter 8)

- Using a prior strategy and failing to look at a problem from a fresh new perspective

What was the Little Albert experiment? (Chapter 6)

- Watson and Rayner demonstrated classical conditioning's role in the development of fears with an infant named Albert. They showed Albert a white laboratory rat to see whether he was afraid of it. He was not. As Albert played with the rat, the researchers sounded a loud noise behind his head. The noise caused little Albert to cry. After only seven pairings of the loud noise with the white rat, Albert began to fear the rat even when the noise was not sounded. Albert's fear was generalized to a rabbit, a dog, and a sealskin coat

What is an example of Operant Conditioning? (Chapter 6)

- You spontaneously decide to take a different route while driving to campus one day. you are more likely to repeat that route on another day if you have a pleasant experience -- for instance, arriving at school faster or finding a new coffee place to try -- than if you have a lousy experience, such as getting stuck in traffic

What is an example of Spontaneous Recovery? (Chapter 6)

- You thought that you had forgotten about (extinguished) an old girlfriend or boyfriend, but then you found yourself in a particular context (perhaps the restaurant where you used to dine together), and you suddenly got a mental image of your ex, accompanied by an emotional reaction to him or her from the past (spontaneous recovery)

What are the 4 processes of Observational Learning? (Chapter 6)

1. Attention 2. Retention 3. Motor Reproduction 4. Reinforcement

What are the 4 main types of Parenting and what do each involve? (Chapter 9)

1. Authoritarian: Restrictive, punitive style in which the parent exhorts the child to follow the parent's directions - Correlates w/ the lack of social skills, show poor initiative, and compare themselves with others 2. Authoritative: Encourages the child to be independent but that still places limits and controls on behavior - Correlates w/ being socially competent, self-reliant, and socially responsible 3. Neglectful: Lack of parental involvement in the child's life - Correlates w/ being less competent socially, to handle independence poorly, and (especially) to show poor self-control 4. Permissive: Placement of few limits on the child's behavior - Correlates w/ poor social competence

What are the 2 types of Thinking and what do they mean? (Chapter 8)

1. Divergent: Thinking that produces many solutions to the same problem - MANY solutions 2. Convergent: Thinking that produces the single best solution to a problem - ONE solution

What are the 3 kinds of child and what are each like? (Chapter 9)

1. Easy: Positive mood, quickly establishes regular routines in infancy, and easily adapts to new experiences 2. Difficult: React negatively and to cry frequently, engages in irregular daily routines, and is slow to accept new experiences 3. Slow-To-Warm-Up: low activity level, is somewhat negative, is inflexible, and is very cautious in the face of new experiences

What are the 4 steps in Problem Solving? (Chapter 8)

1. Find and Frame Problems 2. Develop Good Problem-Solving Strategies 3. Evaluate Solutions 4. Rethink & Redefine Problems & Solutions over Time

What are the 4 main schedules of reinforcement? (Chapter 6)

1. Fixed Ratio 2. Variable Ratio 3. Fixed Interval 4. Variable Interval

What do each of the 4 main schedules of reinforcement mean? (Chapter 6)

1. Fixed Ratio: Reinforcement after a set # of responses 2. Variable Ratio: Reinforcement will vary but must average out at a specific number 3. Fixed Interval: Reinforcement becomes available after a specific period of time 4. Variable Interval: Reinforcement becomes available will vary but must average out at a specific time interval

What are the 2 types of Reasoning and what do they mean? (Chapter 8)

1. Inductive: Reasoning from specific observations to make generalizations - Specific --> General 2. Deductive: Reasoning from a general case that is known to be true to a specific instance - General --> Specific

Wendell always gets anxious before taking a math test because he is not good with numbers and formulae. When his science teacher announces a physics test that requires him to apply numerical formulae, Wendell begins to feel anxious, even though he enjoys physics. What is Wendall most likely demonstrating in this scenario? A. Positive reinforcement in operant conditioning B. Generalization in classical conditioning C. Discrimination in classical conditioning D. Negative reinforcement in operant conditioning

B. Generalization in classical conditioning

Negative reinforcement in operant conditioning A. Is followed by a desirable stimulus B. Has nothing to do with "good" and "bad" behavior C. Is always followed by something unpleasant D. Decrease the likelihood that a behavior will occur

B. Has nothing to do with "good" and "bad" behavior

Jennifer accidentally plays ar adio channel that she has never heard of before. She loves the music it plays and as a result, she plays only that channel whenever she wants to listen to music. In this scenario, Jennifer's behavior has most likely been learned through _____ in operant conditioning A. Negative reinforcement B. Positive reinforcement C. Positive punishment D. Negative punishment

B. Positive reinforcement

_____ refers to the retention of information about the where, when, and what of life's happenings. A. Semantic memory B. Procedural memory C. Episodic memory D. Implicit memory

C. Episodic memory

As young Javier gets off his school bus, he runs to his mother and proudly shows her the book he read at school today. Which of the following Erikson's childhood stages is Javier demonstrating? A. Autonomy Vs Doubt B. Initiative Vs Guilt C. Industry Vs Inferiority D. Trust Vs Mistrust

C. Industry Vs Inferiority

While giving a cookie to Joe, Mathew drops it on the table, and the cookie breaks into several pieces. Joe starts to cry when he is offered the pieces of cookie instead of the whole cookie. According to Joe, since the sizes of the pieces are smaller than the whole cookie, he is being offered smaller quantity. According to Piaget's theory of cognitive development, Joe is most likely in the _____ stage of development. A. Concrete operational B. Formal operational C. Preoperational D. Sensorimotor

C. Preoperational

What is Counter-conditioning? (Chapter 6)

- A classical conditioning procedure for changing the relationship between a conditioned stimulus and its conditioned response

What is Punishment? (Chapter 6)

- A consequence that decreases the likelihood that a behavior will occur - Leads to a decrease in behavior

What is Operant Conditioning? (Chapter 6)

- A form of associative learning in which the consequences of a behavior change the probability of the behavior's occurrence

What is Aversive Conditioning? (Chapter 6)

- A form of treatment that consists of repeated pairings of a stimulus with a very unpleasant stimulus

What is a Prototype Model? (Chapter 8)

- A model emphasizing that when people evaluate whether a given item reflects a certain concept, they compare the item with the most typical item(s) in that category and look for a "family resemblance" with that item's properties

What is Availability Heuristic? (Chapter 8)

- A prediction about the probability of an event based on the ease of recalling or imagining similar events

What is Taste Aversion? (Chapter 6)

- A special kind of classical conditioning involving the learned association between a particular taste and nausea

What is an example of Extinction? (Chapter 6)

- After conditioning the dog to salivate at the sound of a bell, Pavlov rang the bell repeatedly in a single session and did not give the dog any food. Eventually the dog stopped salivating

What is Intelligence? (Chapter 8)

- An all-purpose ability to do well on cognitive tasks, to solve problems, and to learn from experience

What is Attachment? (Chapter 9)

- An emotional bond

What is Temperament? (Chapter 9)

- An individual's behavioral style and characteristic ways of responding

What is an example of Generalization? (Chapter 6)

- As you drive, you see the flashing lights of a police car behind you (CS) and you feel a sense of dread of being pulled over (US). We don't have to relearn this feeling when, at a different time, you see flashing police lights.

What is Infant Attachment? (Chapter 9)

- Close emotional bond between an infant and its caregiver

What is Habituation? (Chapter 6)

- Decreased responsiveness to a stimulus after repeated presentations

What's the famous Classical Conditioning experiment? (Chapter 6)

- Dog would salivate at the sound of a bell

What are examples of methods of Aversive Conditioning? (Chapter 6)

- Electric shocks and nausea-inducing substances are examples of noxious stimuli that are used in aversive conditioning

What is Functional Fixedness? (Chapter 8)

- Failing to solve a problem as a result of fixation on a thing's usual functions

What is an example of Negative Punishment? (Chapter 6)

- Getting rid of a kid's favorite toy when they hit another kid

What experiment did Harlow do that related to Attachment? (Chapter 9)

- Harlow separated infant monkeys from their mothers at birth and placed them in cages with two artificial "mothers." One of the mothers was a physically cold wire mother; the other was a warm, fuzzy cloth mother (the "contact comfort" mother). Each mother could be outfitted with a feeding mechanism. Half of the infant monkeys were fed by the wire mother, half by the cloth mother. The infant monkeys nestled close to the cloth mother and spent little time on the write one, even if it was the wire mother that gem them food. When afraid, the monkeys would go to the cloth mother.

What is an example of Latent Learning? (Chapter 6)

- Hungry rats are put into a maze and the researches required them to find their way from a starting point to an end point

What is an example of Positive Reinforcement? (Chapter 6)

- If someone you meet smiles at you after you say, "Hello, how are you?" and you keep talking, the smile has reinforced your talking

What is an example of Negative Reinforcement? (Chapter 6)

- If your father nagged you to clean out the garage and kept nagging until you cleaned out the garage, your response (cleaning out the garage) removed the unpleasant stimulus (your dad's nagging) - Taking an aspirin for a headache (a reduction of pain reinforces the act of taking aspirin)

What is another term for Operant Conditioning? (Chapter 6)

- Instrumental Conditioning

What are Subgoals? (Chapter 8)

- Intermediate goals or intermediate problems devised to put the individual in a better position for reaching the final goal or solution

Which physiologist is known for their Classical Conditioning? (Chapter 6)

- Ivan Pavlov

What are the 2 types of Cognitive Learning and waht do they mean? (Chapter 6)

1. Insight Learning: A form of problem solving in which the organism develops a sudden insight into or understanding of a problem's solution - AKA: experience "AHA!" moment 2. Latent Learning: Unreinforced learning that is not immediately reflected in behavior - AKA: Hidden/Implicit learning

What are the 3 levels of Development and what do they mean? (Chapter 9)

1. Physical: involve changes in an individual's biological nature 2. Cognitive: involve changes in an individual's thought, intelligence, and language 3. Socioemotional: involve changes in an individual's relationships with other people, in emotions, and in personality

What are the two types of Punishment? (Chapter 6)

1. Positive Punishment 2. Negative Punishment

What are the two types of Reinforcement? (Chapter 6)

1. Positive Reinforcement 2. Negative Reinforcement

What are Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development and what do each mean? (Chapter 9)

1. Preconventional: Based primarily on the consequences of behavior and punishments and rewards from the external world - Right/Wrong = Reward/Punishment 2. Conventional: Abides by standards learned from parents or society's laws - Agrees w/ laws and society 3. Postconventional: Recognizes alternative moral courses, explores the options, and then develops an increasingly personal moral code - Disagrees w/ laws and society

According to Piaget, what are the 4 stages of Cognitive Development and what does each stage mean? (Chapter 9)

1. Sensorimotor: Lasting from birth to about 2 years of age, during which infants construct an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences with motor (physical) actions - Object permanence !! 2. Preoperational: Lasting from about 2 to 7 years of age, during which thought is more symbolic than sensorimotor thought 3. Concrete Operational: Lasting from about 7 to 11 years of age, during which the individual uses operations and replaces intuitive reasoning with logical reasoning in concrete situations 4. Formal Operational: Which begins at 11 to 15 years of age and continues through the adult years; it features thinking about things that are not concrete, making predictions, and using logic to come up with hypotheses about the future

What are Erikson's 8 Stages of Socioemotional Development? (Chapter 9)

1. Trust Vs. Mistrust 2. Autonomy Vs. Shame & Doubt 3. Initiative Vs. Guilt 4. Industry Vs Inferiority 5. Identity Vs Identity Confusion 6. Intimacy Vs Isolation 7. Generativity Vs Stagnation 8. Integrity Vs Despair

Which of the following best exemplifies an innate unconditioned stimulus-unconditioned response connection? A. A child sneezing after accidentally inhaling pepper B. A child throwing a temper tantrum C. A girl raising her hand before asking a question in class D. A boy learning to ride a bicycle by watching his older brother ride is bicycle.

A. A child sneezing after accidentally inhaling pepper

Matt's school ends at 3 in the afternoon. So, whenever it becomes 3 in the afternoon, he feels happy, even if he is not in school. In this scenario, Matt has learned to associate a fixed timing with happiness through A. Classical conditioning B. Observational learning C. Preparedness D. Imitation

A. Classical conditioning

Henry loves animals and has always wanted a pet animal. H owever, when he met his neighbor's dog, it bit him. Now, Henry stays awy from dogs. In this scenario, in the context of classical conditioning, Henry's fear of dogs is a(n) A. Conditioned response B. Positive reinforcer C. Neutral reinforcer D. Unconditioned response

A. Conditioned response

Caleb, an infant, can be taken just about anywhere and seems to adapt quickly to new surroundings. According to Alexander Chess and Stella Thomas, which of the following temperaments best describes him? A. Easy child B. Slow-To-Warm-Up child C. Resilient child D. Competent child

A. Easy child

Janet has memorized one of John Keat's poems for an upcoming school play. The poem has four verses, and Janet can recite the entire poem verbatim. With reference to the serial position effect in memory retrieval, which of the following verses is Janet most likely to remember in the future? A. First and fourth verse of the poem B. First and third verse of the poem C. Second and fourth verse of the poem D. Third and fourth verse of the poem

A. First and fourth verse of the poem

In the context of Piaget's stage of cognitive development, which of the following statements is true of the sensorimotor stage? A. Object permanence is the biggest event of the sensorimotor stage B. The sensorimotor stage lasts from 2 to 7 years of age C. Infants lack any physical actions during the sensorimotor stage D. The sensorimotor stage is the last stage in the cognitive development of infants

A. Object permanence is the biggest event of the sensorimotor stage

Miguel's son Lucas is fighting with his younger brother over a toy. Miguel gently explains to Lucas on how he could have avoided the fight with his brother. Instead of scolding his son, he communicates his points in a calm and peaceful manner on ways to end his fight with his brother. Miguel is most likely a(n) _____ parent. A. Conventional B. Authoritarian C. Permissive D. Authoritative

D. Authoritative

Ivan has misplaced his room keys. Which of the following would he do if he decides to use an algorithmic approach to find them? A. He will avoid searching and instead get a replacement key made B. He will break open the door C. He will call his wife to get the spare keys D. He will go through each drawer in his house

D. He will go through each drawer in his house

Which of the following is true of short-term memory? A. It gets store din iconic memory B. It lasts lesser amount of time than echoic memory C. It reduces the memory span of an individual D. It is a limited-capacity memory system

D. It is a limited-capacity memory system

Janet scolds her daughter, Kelley, each time Kelley pinches her little brother. After two weeks, Janet notices that Kelley has stopped pinching her little brother. In this scenario, scolding Kelley is an example of _____ in operant conditioning. A. Positive reinforcement B. Negative reinforcement C. Negative punishment D. Positive punishment

D. Positive punishment