Introduction to Psychology, James W. Kalat, Combination of Chapter 2, 3, 6, 9, 11
ego depletion
a study by Roy Baumeister, a state, produced by acts of self-control, in which people lack the energy or resources to engage in further acts of self-control
Interpreter
gazzaniga (2000) infers that the left hemisphere has a function that he calls the interpreter.
standardization
the process of evaluating the questions, establishing rules for administering a test, and interpreting the scores. to determine the meaning of a test's scores, the authors of a test determine the mean and the distribution of scores for a random or representative sample of the population. IQ tests are revised periodically.
Motivation
the process that determines the reinforcement value of an outcome
Acquisition 取得
the process that establishes or strengthens a conditioned response
binding problem 拘束力のある問題
the question of how separate brain areas combine forces to produce a unified perception of a single object
adaptive testing
the range of items used is adapted to the performance of the individual.
Mental Processes (the mind) and brain activity are?
the same
Cognitive Psychology
the scientific study of all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
Psychology
the scientific study of behavior and mental processes,
social psychology
the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another
synapse シナプス
the specialized junction between one neuron and another, a neuron releases a chemical that either excites or inhibits the next neuron
Job design
The scientific-management approach emphasizes efforts to find the best, most efficient, safest way to do a job. according to the human-management approach, jobs should be made interesting enough to give workers a sense of achievement.
20. Suppose a father is red-green deficient and a mother has two genes for normal color vision. What sort of color vision will their children have?
The sons receive a gene for normal color vision from the mother, and a Y chromosome (irrelevant to color vision) from the father. They will have normal color vision. The daughters receive a gene for normal color vision from the mother and a gene for red-green color deficiency from the father. They will also have normal color vision, but they will be carriers who can pass the red-green deficiency gene to some of their children
14. How does stereotype threat affect the validity of a test?
14. because stereotype threat leads some people to per- form at a lower level than they would otherwise, it decreases the validity of the test.
15. What is an advantage of fMRI in comparison to PET scans?
15. An fMRI scan does not expose the body to radiation
15. Suppose that you score 80 on your first psychology test. The mean for the class is 70, and the standard deviation is 5. On the second test, you receive a score of 90. This time the mean for the class is also 70, but the standard deviation is 20. Compared to the other students in your class, did your performance improve, deteriorate, or stay the same?
15. Even though your score rose from 80 on the first test to 90 on the second, your performance actually deteriorated in comparison to other students' scores. A score of 80 on the first test was 2 standard deviations above the mean, better than 98 percent of all other students. A 90 on the second test was only 1 standard deviation above the mean, a score that beats only 84 percent of the other students.
15. Should we be more impressed with results when the 95 percent confidence intervals are large or small? Should we be more impressed if the p value is large or small?
15. In both cases, smaller. A small 95 percent confidence interval indicates high confidence in the results. A small p value indicates a low probability of getting such a large difference merely by chance.
15. Why did Kinsey's results differ from those of later surveys?
15. Kinsey interviewed a nonrandom, nonrepresentative sample of people.
15. What aspects of birdsong learning set it apart from classical and operant conditioning?
15. The most distinctive feature is that birdsong learning occurs when the learner makes no apparent response and receives no apparent reinforcement
What depletes our self control resources?
Decisions Resisting Temptation Paying Attention Comprehension Use of Self- Control
Monozygotic
Generally identical Twins
Origins of sexual orientation
Genetic influences and prenatal environment affect sexual orientation. on the average, heterosexual and homosexual men differ in the size of a structure in the hypothalamus that contributes to certain aspects of sexual behavior. less is known about the role of experience in the development of sexual orientation.
Intrinsic motivation
based on the pleasure that the act itself provides
prosocial behavior
behavior intended to benefit other people
Ineffectiveness of mental explanations
behaviorists prefer to describe what the individuals do instead of inferring what they are trying to do or what they are feeling while they do it
Self efficacy 自己効果
belief of being able to perform the task successfully Whether we imitate a behavior depends on whether we believe we are capable of duplicating it. 自分が行動することで結果が起きるという「結果予測」と、それがうまくできるかどうかという「効力予期（＝自己効力）」との兼ね合いから、「自分にもできる」とどれだけ思ってるかってこと。その自己効力感に関係する要因
Sterotype
belief that members of a group are distinguished by some set of shared characteristics, doesn't necessarily math reality.
Unconditioned reflexes (automatic connections)
between stimulus such as food and a response such as secreting digestive juices
Trust vs. Mistrust; Erikson's Stages of Socioemotional Development (socioemotional child development)
birth to 18 months; helpless baby's basic needs are met by responsible caregiver, fostering trust & establishing that world is a safe place to be independent agents
Endorphins エンドルフィン
blind to the opiate receptors
Reinforcement 強化
process of increasing the future probability of the most recent response Edward Thorndike defined reinforcement as the process of increasing the future probability of the preceding response. ひとたび条件付が成立した後で、無条件刺激と条件刺激を再び条件付すると、反射がより強くなることです。いわば、条件付の上乗せができる法則です。この法則は、スポーツやアートの達人が、素晴らしい反応を見せることをよく説明
Continuous reinforcement 固定強化
provide reinforcement for every correct response 行動をするたびに、必ず何かの行動を強化するものが与えられる お金を入れたら、自分の欲しいものが手に入るわけです。 その欲しいものを手に入れるための行動が、強化されること
Fixed ratio 固定比率
provides reinforcement only after a certain (fixed) number of correct responses
General Research Principles
psychological researchers use scientific methods, but they face problems (1) sampling: people might be unusual in some way (2) people who know they are in a research study often behave differently just because they know someone is watching
Applied behavior analysis (behavior modification) 応用行動分析
psychologist tries to remove the reinforcers for unwanted behaviors and provides reinforcers for more acceptable behaviors
clinical psychologist
psychologist who treats people serious psychological problems or conducts research into the causes of behavior
Skepticism about extrasensory perception.
psychologists care- fully scrutinize claims of extrasensory perception because the evidence reported so far has been unreplicable and because the scientific approach includes a search for parsimonious explanations.
Fluid and crystallized intelligence
psychologists distinguish between fluid intelligence (reasoning ability) and crystallized intelligence (acquired and practiced skills).
Charles Spearman
psychometric approach to intelligence, based on the measurement of individual differences in performance. 1904
Negative punishment
punishment by avoiding something good
scientific-management approach
you should experiment to find the best way to do the job, select appropriate workers, and train them well t do it the right way
Two key points
you use all of your brain, not some percentage of it. although most people take for granted that their mind is separate from the brain, the evidence points to the contrary: mind activity and brain activity are the same thing. to lose part of one is to lose part of the other.
Neurons
your brain consists of an enormous number of separate cells
physical changes in early adulthood (physical adult development)
- early adulthood characterized by ~30 years old - decline in strength/speed - decline in perceptual abilities like hearing and sight
7. The cerebellum is important for behaviors that require which of the following? (a) prolonged exertion (b) accurate timing (c) reflexive action (d) coordinating vision with hearing
7b,
Learning curve 学習曲線
a graph of the changes in behavior that occur over the course of learning
convenience sample,
a group chosen because of its ease of study. 多くの研究者が大学生の研究を使いすぎています。これはいくつかの目的には十分ですが、
set point
a level that the body works to maintain
y-chromosome y染色体
a male has one x-chromosome and one of these chromosomes
The Correlation Coefficient 相関係数
a mathematical estimate of the relationship between two variables. 相関の強さを測定するために、研究者は相関係数、すなわち2つの変数間の関係の数学的推定値を使用します。相関係数が0の場合は、一貫した関係がないことを示します。 11または21の係数は完全な関係を示します。 負の相関は、正の相関と同じくらい便利です。たとえば、ゴルフを練習する頻度が高いほど、ゴルフの得点が低くなるため、ゴルフの練習は得点と負の相関があります。人々がより多くの魚介類を食べる国では、うつ病はあまり一般的ではないので、魚介類の摂取はうつ病と負の相関があります
Standard deviation (SD),
a measurement of the amount of variation among scores in a normal distribution.
Spontaneous recovery 自発的回復
a temporary return of an extinguished response after a delay; requires no additional CS-UCS pairings if the conditioned stimulus is not presented at all for some time after extinction and is then presented again, the conditioned response may return. The return is called spontaneous recovery. 馴化によって一旦起こらなくなった反応は休憩をはさむと復活する
Entity theory
a theory that a person's level of intelligence is fixed and unchangeable
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) 無条件刺激 学んでいない
an event that automatically elicits an unconditioned response 学ばなくても、特定の反応を引き出す刺激
Reinforcer 強化剤
an event that follows a response and increases the later probability or frequency of that response
Neurotransmitters and behavioral disorders
an excess or deficit of a particular neurotransmitter can lead to abnormal behavior, such as that exhibited by people with parkinson's disease.
Action potential
an excitation that travels along an axon at a constant strength, no matter how far it travels.
self-fulfilling prophecy
an expectation that causes you to act in ways that make that expectation come true. Which causes the other person who your acting onto react based on how you acted.
theory 科学理論
an explanation or model that fits many observations and makes accurate predictions. 複製可能なデータが何らかの仮説を支持するならば、結局研究者は理論を提案する。 科学理論は推測以上のものです。 それは多くの観測に適合し、正確な予測をする説明またはモデルです。
Frontal lobe 前頭葉
at the anterior pole of the brain, includes primary motor cortex
How genes affect behavior
genes affect behaviors by altering the chemistry of the brain. They also exert indirect effects by influencing other organs that in turn influence behavior.
sex-linked genes 性関連遺伝子
genes located on the x or y chromosome
cerebellum 小脳
"little brain", part of the hindbrain, is important for any behavior that requires aim or timing, such as tapping out a rhythm, judging which of two visual stimuli is moving faster and judging whether one musical tempo is faster or slower than another
Parsimony and Degrees of Open-Mindedness
"perpetual motion machine," 「永久運動機械」 特許庁: closed-mind, so disagree to build 物理学者: open-mind, so agree to build it and search どんな仕事でもエネルギーを浪費するかなどが見たい
Different Psychology vs Science
(1) history: 科学はアマチュアの仕事から徐々に始まりました。何世紀にもわたり、医師やその他の職業に就いていた人々は、星や惑星の位置を記録したり、化学物質を混合したり、動物を見たりして結果を観察する. 初期の心理学の教授たちは、様々なことを教えた。 心理学は、自然科学の方法を哲学の問題のいくつかに適用して、新しい科学を始めるという意図的な試みとして始まる。初期の心理学の教授たちは、生物学者がすでに感覚器官について発見したこと以外は、率直に言って教えることはあまりありませんでした。 (2) ethics: 化学者は彼らが建物を爆破しない限り、化学薬品の瓶に彼らが望むほとんど何でもすることができます。人を扱う心理学者には厳しい制限があります
Terminal bouton ターミナルボタン
(presynaptic ending) a typical axon has several branches, each ending with a little bulge called ...
Correlation Coefficient
+1 = Means two values vary in same direction (perfectly) -1 = opposite direction (perfectly) 0 = Nothing vary's together
8. on average, old people who read more books are less likely to develop alzheimer's disease. What conclusion can we draw from this result? (a) reading books tends to prevent alzheimer's disease. (b) people who are already starting to develop alzheimer's disease don't read many books. (c) We can draw neither of these conclusion
, 8c,
Evaluation Erikson's Theory (socioemotional child development)
- Erikson's theory is based primarily on case studies, so some consider it an unfounded theory - idea of capturing each developmental stage in one concept limits other important developmental tasks (there's more than one aspect within each stage of development)
Intuition (5)
- Hunches or guesses like a gut feeling - Sometimes right / Sometimes wrong - Used when we lack knowledge - Substitute a different question, sometimes without realizing it - intuitive answers suffer overconfidence
Common Sense (3)
- Includes Ideas or knowledge we think "any sensible person" would have - Sometimes correct / Sometimes wrong - Can contradict itself
Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development (cognitive child development)
- Jean Piaget (Swiss, 1896 - 1980) believed children actively construct their cognitive world as they go through a series of stages - basically, children create and use schemas to make sense of their surroundings, and these schemas developed by assimilation and accommodation - *theorized that humans go through four stages in understanding the world, and each stage involves qualitatively different ways of understanding the world*
Vygotsky's Sociocultural Cognitive Theory
- Lev Vygotsky (1962) recognized that cognitive development depends on cultural context - children are "apprentice thinkers" who develop as they interact with more knowledgable adults - these "expert thinkers" spur cognitive development by interacting with a child at a level just above what the child previously mastered; these interactions provide framework for thinking that is always at the level a child can strive to attain - **goal of cognitive development is to learn the skills needed to be competent in their particular culture**
Anecdotes (5)
- The story of a particular event - Can be heard / read / personal experience - Usually involves informal observations rather than careful systematic measurements - Sometimes very true / Sometimes very wrong - More persuasive than it should be
aging & the brain (physical adult development)
- adults can grow new brain cells - possible to slow effects of aging by exercising brain - brain has remarkable repair capabilities - lateralization means using both hemispheres to maintain mental abilities
Newborn/infant brain development (physical child development)
- at birth and early infancy, the brain's 100 billion neurons have minimal connections - during the first two years of life, dendrites branch out and neurons interconnect - synaptic connections increase dramatically during childhood - brain continually reorganizes and alters tissue organization; 3-6 years = rapid growth in frontal lobe; these brain changes are a result of both nature and nurture
parent & peer influences (socioemotional adolescent development)
- best parenting style is authoritative; parents must act as managers & effectively monitor - peer relationships teach adolescents how to have intimate relationships
Formal Operational Stage; Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development (cognitive child development)
- develops at ~11 to ~15 years of age, continues through adulthood - characterized by more abstract and logical thinking than concrete operational stage's thinking i.e. more hypothetical thinking processes like making predictions and using logic to come up with hypotheses - idealistic thinking => comparing how things are to how they could be - hypothetical deductive reasoning => identification of the best path of reasoning rather than solving problems through trial and error
Sensorimotor Stage; Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development (cognitive child development)
- lasts from birth to ~2 years - infants construct understanding of the world by coordination sensory experiences with motor actions in a trial and error system; transition from reflexive patterns to complex sensorimotor patterns; beginning of the use of symbols/patterns in thinking - object permanence develops, meaning infants develop the understanding that objects and events continue to exist even when they cannot directly be seen, heard, or touched
Preoperational Stage; Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development (cognitive child development)
- lasts from ~2 to ~7 years - thought is characterized by *egocentrism* - decisions are *intuitive* rather than logical - characterized by *centration*, the tendency to focus on only one aspect of a situation at a time - children begin to represent their world SYMBOLICALLY using words/language, images, drawings, etc. - children cannot yet think about/perform operations i.e. they cannot comprehend that actions can be reversible and restored to original state
Concrete Operational Stage; Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development (cognitive child development)
- lasts from ~7 to ~11 years - involves process of using operations to replace intuitive reasoning with logical reasoning *in concrete situations* - operations tend to be related to properties of certain objects i.e. understanding that actions can be reversible, understanding that even though play-doh changes its shape, it is still play-doh - characterized by classifying things into different sets/subsets and considering interrelations - **logical reasoning in ACTUAL scenarios, not hypothetical ones**
Research on Adult Socioemotional Development
- meaning comes not just from past but present as well socioemotional selective theory: narrowing of social contacts & increase in positive emotion; active satisfaction from present moment, not future
physical changes in middle/late adulthood (physical adult development)
- middle/late adulthood characterized by ~40-50 years old - wrinkles, age spots, hair thinning/graying, height loss, weight gain - women experience menopause - selective optimization with compensation (older adults match their goals with their current abilities and compensate for decline)
Newborn/infant motor & perceptual skills (physical child development)
- motor and perceptual skills develop together and mutually promote each other - experience influences the speed of motor development
research on moral development
- supportive parenting yields increased helping/comforting of others - children show a conscience at ~3 years old
Alcohol
-Effects on the nervous system: Facilitates effects of GABA, an inhibitory neurotransmitter -Short term effects:Relaxation, reduced inhibitions, impaired memory and judgement -Risks: Automobile accidents, loss of job
How do you reduce the stereotype threat?
-Desire to not confirm the stereotype threat backfires -Discussing of the pattern of the threat reduces it -brains and intelligence changing can reduce the pattern -Not highlighting specific group membership in situations prone to the stereotype threat -Don't make new groups of stereotypes
Nicotine ニコチン
-Effects on the Nervous system: Stimulates some acetylcholine synapses; stimulates some neurons that release dopamine -Short-term effects: Increases arousal; abstention by a habitual smoker produces tension and depression -Risks: Lung cancer from the tars in cigarettes
Caffine カフェイン
-Effects on the nervous system: Blocks a chemical that inhibits arousal -Short-term effects: Increases energy and alertness -Risks: Sleeplessness
Methylphenidate(Ritalin) メチルフェニデート（リタリン）
-Effects on the nervous system: Decreases reuptake of dopamine but with slower onset and offset than cocaine -Short-term effects: Increases alertness; much milder withdrawal effects than cocaine -Risks: Increased blood pressure
Marijuana マリファナ
-Effects on the nervous system: Excites negative feedback receptors of both excitatory and inhibitory transmitters -Short term effects: Decreases pain and nausea; distorted sense of time -Risks: Impaired memory; lung diseases; impaired immune response
Rohypnol and GHB ロヒプノールとGHB
-Effects on the nervous system: Facilitate action at GABA synapses (which are inhibitory) -Short term effects: Relaxation, decreased inhibitions -Risks: impaired muscle coordination and memory
Amphetamine アンフェタミン
-Effects on the nervous system: Increases release of dopamine and decreases reuptake, prolonging effects -Short-term effects: increases energy and alertness -Risks:psychotic reaction, agitation, heart problems, sleeplessness, stroke
Phencyclidine (PCP or "angel dust") フェンシクリジン（PCPまたは「エンジェルダスト」
-Effects on the nervous system: Inhibits one type of glutamate receptor -Short term effects: Intoxication, slurred speech; at higher doses hallucinations, though disorder, impaired memory and emotions -Risks: psychotic reaction
MDMA ("ecstasy")
-Effects on the nervous system: Stimulates neurons that release dopamine; at higher doses also stimulates neurons that release serotonin -Short term effects:At low doses increases arousal; at higher does hallucinations -Risks: dehydration, fever, lasting damage to serotonin synapses
Benzodiazepines ベンゾジアゼピン
-Effects on the nervous system:Facilitate effects of GABA, an inhibitory neurotransmitter -Short term effects:Relaxation, decreased anxiety, sleepiness -Risks:Dependence. Life threatening if combined with alcohol or opiates
Morphine, heroin, other opiates モルヒネ、ヘロイン、他のアヘン剤
-Effects on the nervous system:Stimulate endorphin synapses -Short term effects: Decrease pain; withdrawal from interest in real world; unpleasant withdrawal effects during abstention -Risks:Heart stoppage; crime to pay for drugs
LSD
-Effects on the nervous system:Stimulates serotonin type 2 receptors at inappropriate times -Short term effects: Hallucinations, sensory distortions -Risks:psychotic reaction, accidents, panic attacks, flashbacks
Cocaine コカイン
-Effects on the nervous system:decreases reuptake of dopamine, prolonging effects -Short-term effects: increases energy and alertness -Risks:psychotic reaction, heart problems, crime to pay for drugs, death
What influences intelligence?
-IQ scores measure intelligence -Both Nature and Nurture influence IQ scores -Genetic influence studied by measuring IQ similarity among family members
Key Components of College Success
-Intelligence -Self Regulation -Cognitive Strategies If there is a 4th -Feelings of home at a new school
Four types of siblings pairs raised together
-Monozygotic -Dizygotic -Ordinary (Non-Twin) -Adopted Siblings
Good Measurements tools need?
-Reliability -Validity Repeatable vs predictable
decision fatigue
a state of depleted willpower caused by making decisions, which can affect subsequent decisions by causing people to fail to think and choose carefully
Drive
a state of unrest or irritation that energizes on behavior after another until one of them removes the irritation.
Industry vs. Inferiority; Erikson's Stages of Socioemotional Development (socioemotional child development)
6 years to puberty; achieving industry means mastering knowledge and intellectual skills, and failure to master leads to feelings of inferiority
6. "I want my employees to enjoy their work and to feel pride in their achievements." Does that statement reflect a belief in the human-relations approach or the scientific-management approach?
6. It reflects the human-relations approach
1. The introduction to this chapter described people who stood in line to visit a foul-smelling flower. Would that action make sense in terms of drive-reduction, incentive, or homeostasis views of motivation?
1. The action is a response to an incentive, the opportunity for an unusual experience. It would be harder to explain in terms of drive-reduction or homeostasis.
11. After damage to the ventromedial hypothalamus, an animal's weight eventually reaches a higher than usual level and then fluctuates around that amount. What has happened to the set point?
1. The set point increased.
11. Identify each of the following examples using the terms in Table 6.1: (a). Your employer gives you bonus pay for working overtime. (b). You learn to stop drinking caffeinated beverages at night because they keep you awake. (c). You put on sunscreen to decrease the risk of skin cancer. (d). If you get a speeding ticket, you will temporarily lose the privilege of driving the family car.
11. a. positive reinforcement; b. punishment; c. avoidance learning or negative reinforcement; d. punishment
11. Under what condition does a person with full vision experience temporary motion blindness?
11. During and slightly before a voluntary eye movement
Five Benefits of Planning
1) Avoiding rather than resisting temptation 2) Using the power of pre-commitment 3) Preventing decision fatigue 4) Don't waste resources by holding that to do list in memory 5) Train your automaticity to be helpful
1. Which part of a neuron receives input from other neurons (ordinarily)? Which part sends messages to other neurons?
1. Dendrites receive input from other neurons. Axons send mess
1. You read about two explanations for g. What would each of them predict about whether something could impair intelligence in one way and spare it in another
1. If all intelligent abilities depend on a single underlying factor, then anything that impaired that factor (some type of brain damage, for example) would impair all the intelligent abilities. For analogy, an injury that impairs running would also impair jumping. However, if intelligent abilities correlate because they usually grow together, we can imagine something that impairs one ability much more than others—as in the case of Williams syndrome (discussed in Chapter 8). For analogy, amputating a finger does not harm the legs.
1. How does a meta-analysis relate to replicability?
1. If some studies replicate an effect and others do not, a researcher may conduct a meta-analysis that combines all studies as if they were one large study.
1. Why do behaviorists reject explanations in terms of thoughts?
1. Previous events and current stimuli are responsible for thoughts, and therefore the events and stimuli are the real causes of behavior.
10. Suppose you want to reinforce a child for doing chores around the house, and you don't know what would be a good reinforcer. According to the disequilibrium principle, how should you proceed?
10. Begin by determining how the child ordinarily spends his or her time when given unlimited opportunities. Then find which of these activities the child has been deprived of recently. The opportunity to do one of those activities should be reinforcing.
10. Most students find that their scores on any standardized test increase the second time they take it. Does the improvement indicate that the test is unreliable?
10. Not necessarily. If most people's scores improve by about the same amount, then those who had the highest scores the first time still have the highest scores the second time.
10. Over the past few decades, the average age of starting puberty has become younger. What is one explanation, based on this chapter?
10. People have been gaining weight and therefore producing more leptin. Leptin facilitates the onset of pubertly
10. On average, the more medicines people take, the more likely they are to die young. Propose alternative explanations for this correlation.
10. Perhaps people get sick from complications caused by taking too many pills. Or maybe the people who take many medicines are those who already had serious illnesses.
10. How does cortical blindness differ from blindness caused by eye damage?
10. Someone with cortical blindness loses visual imagery, even in dreams. However, sun- light continues to regulate the person's wake-sleep cycle. Also, some people with cortical blindness have blindsight, in which they can indicate the location of a stimulus or other properties of the stimulus without conscious perception of it. Someone with total eye damage can continue to have visual imagery, but light does not drive the wake-sleep cycle, and blindsight cannot occur.
Mean IQ score
100, has changed throughout history but tests have been revised to make sure it stays at 100
10. an elementary school tests whether physical exercise influences children's performance. Children in each class are randomly assigned to physical exercise or movie watching for 30 minutes each afternoon. All children take the same tests, and the instructors compare their performances. The indepen- dent variable is _____, and the dependent variable is _____. (a) exercise versus movie watching . . . scores on tests (b) scores on tests . . . the number of students in each class (c) the number of students in each class . . . Exercise versus movie watching (d) scores on tests . . . exercise versus movie-watching
10a,
10. Which of the following defines the binding problem? (a) The question of how the brain creates a unified experience from sensations analyzed by separate brain areas (b) The question of how a person converts sensory information into motor output (c) The question of how the brain compares information in the left hemisphere to information in the right hemisphere (d) The question of how people coordinate movement of the left hand with movement of the right hand
10a.
11. On average, drug addicts who regularly attend counseling sessions are more likely to stay drug-free than those who drop out. Propose alternative expla- nations for this correlation.
11. Perhaps the counseling sessions are helpful to people who want to quit drugs. Or perhaps the people with the most serious addictions are the ones who quit.
11. Can a test have high reliability and low validity? Can a test have low reliability and high validity?
11. Yes, a test can have high reliability and low validity. A measure of intelligence determined by dividing head length by head width has high reliability (repeatability) but presumably no validity. A test with low reliability cannot have high validity, however. Low reliability means that the scores fluctuate randomly. If the test scores cannot even predict a later score on the same test, then they can hardly predict anything else.
11. a double-blind study helps alleviate the problems caused by which of the following? (a) falsifiability (b) independent variables (c) failure to replicate a study (d) demand characteristics
11d,
12. Parietal lobe damage interferes with which aspect of vision?
12. It interferes with identifying the object's locatio
12. What evidence indicates important nongenetic influences on eating and weight gain?
12. People eat more when in social groups than when eating alone. People's expectations about foods, based on such things as the name of the food, influence intake. People eat more when portion sizes are larger.
12. An instructor wants to find out whether the frequency of testing in an introductory psychology class influences students' final exam performance. The instructor gives weekly tests in one class, just three tests in a second class, and only a single midterm exam in the third class. All three classes take the same final exam, and the instructor then compares their performances. Identify the independent variable and the dependent variable in this experiment.
12. The independent variable is the frequency of tests during the semester. The dependent variable is the students' performance on the final exam
12. If physics graduate departments tried admitting some students with low quantitative scores on the GRE and English departments tried admit- ting some students with low verbal scores, what would happen to the predictive validity of the tests?
12. The predictive validity of the tests would increase. The predictive validity is low when most students have nearly the same score. It is higher when students' scores are highly variable.
12. Identify which schedule of reinforcement applies to each of the following examples: (a) You attend every new movie that appears at your local theater, although you enjoy about a quarter of them. (b) You are told that a company will soon announce a job opportunity, and you want to be one of the first to apply. You don't know when they will post the announcement, so you keep checking every hour or two. (c) You tune your television set to an all-news cable channel, and you look up from your studies to check the sports scores every 30 minutes.
12. a. variable ratio. (You will be reinforced for about a quarter of your entries to the theater but on an irregular basis.) b. variable interval. (Checking will be effective after some interval of time, but the length of that time is unpredictable.) c. fixed interval.
12. consider the following distribution of scores: 6, 4, 17, 1, 10, 4, 14, 4, 12. The mean is ____, the median is ____, and the mode is ____. (a) 8...6.. . 4 (b) 8 . . . 10 . . .4 (c) 6...8.. . 4 (d) 4...6..
12a,
13. A company hiring salespeople proposes to test applicants on their ability to speak Spanish. Is this policy biased against people who don't speak Spanish?
13. It depends. A test is biased if it underpredicts or over- predicts performance for a group of people. If the sales- people will be working in a neighborhood with many Spanish-speaking customers, this test will accurately predict success on the job, and it would therefore be unbiased. However, if the sales staff works in a neighborhood with no need to use Spanish, the test is biased.
13. What evidence suggests that imitation produces mirror neurons as opposed to the idea that mirror neurons produce imitation?
13. It is possible to train neurons to respond to one kind of movement the person produces and a different movement the person watches. If people can learn to develop these "anti-mirror" neurons, then presumably, they could also learn to develop mirror neurons
13. What are the arguments against regarding anorexia as a result of emotional problems?
13. Most people with anorexia had no psychiatric problems before developing anorexia. Standard forms of psycho- therapy and drug therapies are not very effective with an- orexia. Also, a treatment based on increasing body warmth and avoiding excessive exercise has been reported to be highly effective.
13. Which of the following would an experimenter try to minimize or avoid? Falsifiability, independent variables, dependent variables, blind observers, or demand characteristics.
13. Of these, only demand characteristics are to be avoided. If you did not remember that falsifiability is a good feature of a theory, check page 29. Every experiment must have at least one independent variable (what the experimenter controls) and at least one dependent variable (what the experimenter measures). Blind observers provide an advantage.
13. Of the procedures characterized in Table 6.1, which one applies to supporting attempts at increased mobility? Which one applies to decreasing attention to inappropriate complaints?
13. Support for increased mobility is positive reinforcement. Decreasing attention for inappropriate complaints is punishment. Reinforcement increases a behavior and punishment decreases it
13. We should be more impressed with a result if the 95 percent confidence intervals are _____. We should be more im- pressed with a result if the p value is _____. (a) large . . . large (b) large . . . small (c) small . . . large (d) small . . . small
13d.
14. What evidence indicates that conditioned taste aversion is different from other kinds of learning?
14. In addition to the fact that conditioned taste aversion occurs over long delays, animals are predisposed to associate foods and not other events with illnesses.
14. After damage to the corpus callosum, a person can describe some, but not all, of what he or she feels. With which hand must the person feel an object before speaking about it?
14. The person must feel something with the right hand, the hand that the left hemisphere feels
14. a. For the following distribution of scores, determine the mean, the median, and the mode: 5, 2, 2, 2, 8, 3, 1, 6, 7. b. Determine the mean, median, and mode for this distribution: 5, 2, 2, 2, 35, 3, 1, 6, 7.
14. a. mean 5 4; median 5 3; mode 5 2. b. mean 5 7; median 5 3; mode 5 2. Note that changing just one number in the distribution from 8 to 35 greatly altered the mean without affecting the median or the mode.
16. Many American politicians campaign with similar styles and take similar stands on the issues. Explain this observation in terms of social learning.
16. One reason that most American politicians run similar campaigns and take similar stands is that they all tend to copy the same models—candidates who have won recent elections. Another reason is that they all pay attention to the same public opinion poll
16. Is testosterone related more to sexual activity or to seeking new partners? What evidence supports this conclusion?
16. Testosterone relates more to seeking partners. Men with higher testosterone levels are less likely to commit themselves to a monogamous relationship.
17. If a human fetus is exposed to very low levels of both testosterone and estradiol throughout prenatal development, how does the sexual anatomy appear?
17. A fetus exposed to very low levels of both testosterone and estradiol throughout prenatal development develops a female appearance
17. While someone is trying to es- cape danger, the heart rate and breathing rate increase. After the danger passes, heart rate and breath- ing rate fall below normal. Which part of the autonomic nervous system is more active during the danger, and which is more active after it?
17. The sympathetic nervous system predominates during the danger, and the parasympathetic system predominates afterward.
Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt; Erikson's Stages of Socioemotional Development (socioemotional child development)
18 months to 3 years; children can either develop positive or negative sense of independence, where positivity = autonomy and negativity = shame/doubt
18. If a human fetus is exposed to high levels of both testosterone and estradiol throughout prenatal development, how does the sexual anatomy appear?
18. A fetus exposed to high levels of both testosterone and estradiol develops a male appearance. High levels of testosterone lead to male anatomy; low levels lead to female anatomy. The level of estradiol is not decisive for external anatomy
18. In the study showing changes in children's brains as they learn to play music, why was it necessary to have a control group of untrained children?
18. It was important to separate the effects of music from the effects of growing 15 months older.
19. What two elements must take place for binding to occur?
19. For binding to occur, the brain must be able to identify that different aspects of the stimulus come from the same location. Also, the different aspects must occur simultaneously
19. What are some of the ways in which men's sexuality differs from women's?
19. Nearly all men identify their sexual orientation early and cannot imagine switching. Some women discover their orientation later, and a fair number have a consistent bisexual response. Measuring penis erections can accurately indicate a man's sexual interest, but vaginal secretions are not a dependable way to measure a woman's sexual interest.
1. The main fuel of the body, especially the brain, is _____. The hormone that increases its flow into the cells is _____. (a) glucose . . . insulin (b) glucose . . . glucagon (c) protein . . . insulin (d) protein . . . glucagon
1a
1. Which of the following did behaviorists reject? (a) The study of conscious thought (b) The principle of parsimony (c) Darwin's theory of evolution (d) The use of scientific methods in psychology
1a,
1. in one survey, 40-year-olds recalled more lifetime sex partners than did 50-year-olds. What is the most likely explanation? (a) a difference between cohorts (b) Memory decay in old age (c) decreased sex drive as people grow older (d) different definitions of the term sex partner
1a,
1. . Which of the following is an operational definition of ambition? (a) a desire to get ahead in life (b) The number of times one has applied for a new or better job (c) Setting high goals and trying to achieve them (d) The ability to overcome obstacles and persist until succeeding at some task
1b,
1. What does it mean to say that a theory is "falsifiable"? (a) research has contradicted the theory. (b) We can imagine results that would contradict the theory. (c) Most people disagree with the theory. (d) people are still debating whether the theory is correct.
1b,
1. What evidence did spearman have for the existence of g? (a) scores of monozygotic twins correlate highly with each other. (b) scores on any test of intelligent performance correlate positively with scores on other tests. (c) children who are identified as intellectually gifted tend to become highly productive adults. (d) on the average, intelligence scores are equal for males and females.
1b,
1. how does the concept of allostasis differ from homeostasis? (a) allostasis pertains to how we maintain constancy within the body. (b) allostasis pertains to how we make changes for new circumstances. (c) allostasis emphasizes the importance of incentives.
1b,
1. Theoretically, the distribution of IQ scores should have a mean of 100 and an equal number of people above and below the mean. how does the actual distribution of scores differ from this prediction? (a) The actual mean is 105. (b) The actual mean is 95. (c) The mode (most common score) is 105. (d) The mode (most common score) is 95
1c,
1. What is the defining difference between operant conditioning and classical conditioning? (a) operant conditioning occurs in humans, and classical conditioning occurs in other species. (b) operant conditioning produces an increase in behavior, and classical conditioning produces a decrease in behavior. (c) in operant conditioning, the response controls the outcome. (d) operant conditioning occurs rapidly, and classical conditioning is slow.
1c,
1. how do stimulant drugs such as cocaine affect neurons? (a) They attach to the same synapses as dopamine and serotonin. (b) They increase reuptake of dopamine and serotonin by the presynaptic neuron. (c) They block reuptake of dopamine and serotonin by the presynaptic neuron. (d) They inhibit release of dopamine and serotonin.
1c,
1. What is meant by "blindsight"? (a) The ability of blind people to find their way around by using other senses (b) The ability to perceive objects without using any sensory information (c) The tendency to see optical illusions, such as thinking one line is longer than another when both are really the same (d) The ability to respond to visual stimuli without conscious awareness of those stimuli
1d,
1. compared to other cells of the body, neurons vary more widely in which of these aspects? (a) acid-to-base ratio (b) color (c) chromosomes (d) shape
1d,
2. What are some criticisms of Maslow's hierarchy?
2. A lower level of need does not always take priority over one at a higher level. Maslow's hierarchy ignores parent- ing and overemphasizes self-actualization. Also, goals vary among cultures.
2. How did Loeb explain why certain animals turn toward the light?
2. According to Loeb, light from the side caused greater muscle tension on one side of the body. Therefore, muscles on one side or the other moved more vigorously than those on the other side. This imbalance of movement continued until the light stimulation on both sides was equal.
2. Suppose a new performer demonstrates what appears to be an amazing ability to read people's minds or predict the fu- ture. Before anyone investigates, why do scientists assume it is more likely to be a trick than a supernatural power?
2. Scientists prefer the more parsimonious explanation. They resist an extraordinary conclusion if they can find a simpler one.
2. If a mouse and a giraffe both get pinched on the toes at the same time, which will respond faster? Why?
2. The mouse will react faster because the action potentials have a shorter distance to travel in the mouse's nervous system than in the giraffe's
2. Was Alan Turing's solution to the slipping bicycle chain, from the introduction to this chapter, an example of fluid or crystallized intelligence? Was the solution provided by a bicycle mechanic fluid or crystallized intelligence?
2. Turing's solution reflected fluid intelligence, a generalized ability that could apply to any topic. The solution provided by a bicycle mechanic reflected crystallized intelligence, an ability developed in a particular area of experience.
20. Most studies find that gay men have approximately the same levels of testosterone in their blood as heterosexual men of the same age. Do such results conflict with the suggestion that prenatal hormonal conditions can predispose certain men to homosexuality?
20. Not necessarily. The suggestion is that prenatal hormones can alter early brain development. In adulthood, hormone levels are normal, but certain aspects of brain development have already been determind
21. Why is it misleading to talk about "the gene" for some behavior or ability?
21. Almost every aspect of behavior depends on the combined influence of many genes and environmental influences. Also, any gene affects more than one outcome
22. What are the effects of acetyl and methyl groups on a gene?
22. Acetyl groups loosen a ball of DNA and expose the genes within it to greater expression. Methyl groups attach to a gene and inactivate it
24. Suppose someone studies adopted children who developed severe depression and finds that many of their biological parents had depression, whereas few of their adopting parents did. One possible interpretation is that genetic factors influence depression more than family environment does. What is another interpretation?
24. Perhaps biological mothers who are becoming depressed eat less healthy foods, drink more alcohol, or in some other way impair the prenatal environment of their babies.
25. Because of the multiplier effect, should we expect estimates of heritability to be higher for children or for adults?
25. In most cases, heritability estimates should be higher for adults. As people grow older, their behavior tendencies alter their environment in ways that increase or exaggerate the initial differences that genes produced.
26. What explanation do evolutionary psychologists offer for the human infant's grasp reflex?
26. Although the reflex is useless for humans, it was important to ancestral species in which infants had to cling to their mothers while the mothers were walking
2. What is meant by the "all-or-none" law of the axon? (a) either the axon produces an action potential, or it doesn't. (b) When one axon produces an action potential, all of them do. (c) all axons throughout the nervous system produce action potentials of equal strength. (d) incoming input must excite all the dendrites, or the axon won't produce an action potential.
2a,
2. Which of the following could be an operational definition of political activism? (a) The number of hours one has devoted to political campaigns (b) a tendency to read about political issues and discuss them (c) Willingness to stick to one's own political opinion even when friends disagree (d) a set
2a,
2. according to the disequilibrium principle, what constitutes a reinforcer? (a) an opportunity to do something that you haven't been able to do as much as usual (b) any event or activity that is biologically useful (c) any stimulus that increases brain activity (d) a set of stimuli that are more familiar to you than they are to most other people
2a,
2. if someone has trouble recognizing faces despite normal vision in other regards, what is a possible explanation? (a) Fewer than average connections from the fusiform gyrus in the left temporal cortex (b) abnormal shape of the eyeball, with one axis longer than the other (c) damage to the primary visual cortex in the occipital cortex of both hemispheres (d) damage to the language areas in the temporal lobe of the left hemisphere
2a,
2. Which of the following is not good advice about making a new Year's resolution? (a) Make your resolution realistic. (b) Make it general, such as "i will do my best." (c) tell other people about your resolution. (d) keep track of how successful you are in keeping your resolution.
2b,
2. on average, how does intelligence change from young adult- hood to old adulthood? (a) Both fluid and crystallized intelligence decline. (b) Fluid intelligence declines, but crystallized intelligence remains constant or increases. (c) Fluid intelligence remains constant or increases, but crystallized intelligence declines. (d) Both fluid and crystallized intelligence remain constant or increase.
2b,
2. Women differ most strongly from men, on average, in which of these aspects of sexual experience? (a) Men go through four stages of sexual arousal, whereas women go through three. (b) Women go through four stages of sexual arousal, whereas men go through three. (c) Women are more likely to experience more than one orgasm in a short time. (d) Men are more likely to experience more than one orgasm in a short time.
2c,
2. in what way is the term stimulus-response psychology more appropriate for Jacques Loeb than for the behaviorists of today? (a) today's behaviorists agree that thoughts and emotions are the true causes of behavior. (b) today's behaviorists study only humans, not other species. (c) today's behaviorists recognize that sleepiness and other internal processes modify responses to a stimulus. (d) today's behaviorists study only the stimuli and not the responses.
2c,
2. Which hormones strongly influence appetite? (a) estradiol, testosterone, and epinephrine (adrenalin) (b) insulin, epinephrine (adrenalin), and leptin (c) estradiol, testosterone, and ghrelin (d) insulin, ghrelin, and leptin
2d,
2. in what way do the effects of methylphenidate (ritalin) differ from those of cocaine? (a) cocaine increases activity at dopamine synapses, whereas methylphenidate decreases the activity. (b)cocaine decreases activity at dopamine synapses, whereas methylphenidate increases the activity. (c) cocaine and methylphenidate attach to different types of receptors. (d) methylphenidate, taken as a pill, reaches the brain more slowly and its effects decline more slowly
2d,
2. on average, how do males and females compare in IQ (a) on average, males have a higher IQ. (b) on average, females have a higher IQ. (c) on average, males and females are equal on all subtests and on overall IQ. (d) on average, males and females differ on certain subscores, but are equal on overall IQ.
2d,
Initiative vs. Guilt; Erikson's Stages of Socioemotional Development (socioemotional child development)
3-5 years; children learn what it's like to forge their own interests; if they take on new responsibility, they learn initiative, but if they don't, they may feel guilty/anxious
3. Which of the following is an operational definition of intelligence? a. The ability to comprehend relationships b. A score on an IQ test c. The ability to survive in the real world d. The product of the cerebral cortex of the brain
3. (b) A score on an IQ test is an operational definition of intelligence, because it provides a measurement—perhaps not a completely accurate measure, but that is a separate issue. None of the other answer choices tells us how to measure or produce intelligence.
3. What conclusion would have followed if the early-deadline students did better than the late-deadline students did but that the class on the average did as well as the assigned- deadline students?
3. If students in the two sections had equal performance overall, we could not conclude that deadlines help. Instead, the conclusion would be that brighter students tend to set earlier deadline
3. Every time an army drill sergeant calls out "Ready, aim, fire," the artillery shoots, making a painfully loud sound that causes you to flinch. After a few repetitions, you tense your muscles after the word "fire," before the shot itself. In this example, identify the CS, UCS, CR, and UCR.
3. The conditioned stimulus is the sound "Ready, aim, fire."The unconditioned stimulus is the artillery shot. The unconditioned response is flinching; the conditioned response is tensing
3. What evidence would we need to determine whether music, mathematics, social sensitivity, and so forth are really different kinds of intelligence or just different aspects of a single type of intelligence?
3. We would need to determine whether ability at each kind of intelligence correlates highly with the others. If they correlate highly, they are simply different aspects of g. If they do not, and if the differences reflect more than just different amounts of practice at different skills, then they are separate kinds of intelligence.
3. Fill in these blanks: When the axon membrane is at rest, the inside has a ______ charge relative to the outside. When the membrane reaches its threshold, ____ ions enter from outside to inside, bringing with them a ______ charge. That flow of ions constitutes the _____ _______ of the axon.
3. negative . . . sodium . . . positive . . . action potenti
3. Which of the following results in a child with an "intersex" appearance of the genitals? (a) exposure of a female fetus to higher than average levels of testosterone (b) exposure of a male fetus to higher than average levels of estradiol (c) absence of the Y chromosome (d) stressful experiences to the mother during pregnancy
3a,
3. Which of these brain areas is considered most important for regulating hunger and satiety? (a) hypothalamus (b) corpus callosum (c) locus coeruleus (d) Fusiform gyrus
3a,
3. Which of these procedures produces a random sample of the students in your class? (a) interview all the students whose telephone numbers end with (b) interview the first person in each row. (c) interview the last 10 people who show up for class. (d) interview anyone who is willing to volunteer.
3a,
3. Why have psychologists needed to restandardize IQ tests repeatedly over the years? (a) to prevent the mean from increasing above 100 (b) to prevent the mean from decreasing below 100 (c) to match the changes in school curricula (d) to measure newly evolved abilities
3a,
7. Which indicates a stronger relationship between two variables, a 10.50 correlation or a 20.75 correlation?
7. The -0.75 correlation indicates a stronger relationship— that is, a greater accuracy of predicting one variable based on measurements of the other. A negative correlation is just as useful as a positive one.
3. in the primary somatosensory cortex in the parietal lobe, the greatest amount of space is devoted to which parts of the body? (a) The most sensitive areas, such as the lips and hands (b) The areas with the most muscle, especially the arms and legs (c) The areas closest to the brain, such as the face and neck (d) The areas with the greatest amount of skin, such as the abdomen and back
3a,
3. What is an action potential? (a) an impulse that flows down an axon by electrical conduction (b) an impulse that flows down an axon by movement of chemical ions (c) a decision someone makes to start doing something (d) a machine that measures brain activity
3b,
3. if you are supervising employees who say they can finish a challenging job in six weeks, what kind of bonus should you promise them? (a) a bonus they can earn only by finishing within six weeks (b) a bonus they can earn by finishing within six weeks but also a not-quite-so-good bonus for finishing within eight weeks (c) a bonus they can earn regardless of when they finish
3b,
3. at the start of training, the cs elicits ___ and the ucs elicits ___. after repetitions of the cs followed by the ucs, the cs elicits ___ and the ucs elicits ___. (a) cr . . . cr . . . ucr . . . ucr (b) cr . . . ucr . . . cr . . . ucr (c) no response . . . ucr . . . cr . . . ucr (d) ucs . . . ucr . . . ucr . . . cr
3c
3. Frequently spanked children are likely to misbehave. What conclusion can we draw from this observation, if any? (a) We can conclude that spankings cause misbehavior. (b) We can conclude that misbehavior leads to spankings. (c) We can draw no cause-and-effect conclusion from this observation.
3c,
3. alcohol and anxiolytic drugs (tranquilizers) facilitate synapses that release which transmitter? (a) dopamine (b) serotonin (c) gaBa (d) glutamate
3c,
3. many educators maintain that different children have differ- ent learning styles, such as visual learner or auditory learner. What does the evidence say about this proposal? (a) most children are visual learners and only a few are auditory learners. (b) most children are auditory learners and only a few are visual learners. (c) about 50% are visual learners and 50% are auditory learners. (d) The research does not support the idea of different styles of learning
3d,
14. Under what circumstances would an eating binge produce an experience similar to taking an addictive drug?
4. Eating a meal high in sugars and fats right after a deprivation period produces an experience comparable to those produced by addictive drugs
4. What is one advantage of the Wechsler IQ tests over Raven's Progressive Matrices? What is an advantage of the Progressive Matrices?
4. The Wechsler tests provide separate scores for different tasks and therefore identify someone's strengths and weaknesses. Raven's Progressive Matrices are fairer for someone who is not a native speaker of English.
4. In Pavlov's experiment on conditioned salivation in response to a buzzer, what procedure produces extinction? What procedure produces spontaneous recovery?
4. To bring about extinction, present the buzzer repeatedly without presenting food. To bring about spontaneous re- covery, first bring about extinction. Then wait and present the buzzer again.
4. What would you propose as an operational definition of sense of humor?
4. We might define sense of humor as the number of times someone laughs during a movie or the number of times someone says something that makes other people laugh. Other definitions are possible if they include a method of measurement.
4. What is the difference between the presynaptic neuron and the postsynaptic neuron?
4. the presynaptic neuron releases a neurotransmitter that travels to the postsynaptic neuron, where it activates an excitatory or inhibitory receptor
4. Suppose someone reports that blood levels of a certain chemical are negatively correlated with aggressive behavior. What does that mean? (a) The higher the level of that chemical, the lower the probability of aggression. (b) The lower the level of that chemical, the lower the probability of aggression. (c) levels of that chemical have no consistent relationship to the probability of aggression. (d) as people grow older, that chemical declines and so does the probability of aggression.
4a,
4. When people moved one finger while they saw someone else move a different finger, certain neurons began responding to both of these events. What does this finding imply about mirror neurons? (a) some mirror neurons develop their properties by learning. (b) mirror neurons make it possible for us to imitate. (c) each mirror neuron corresponds to a different movement. (d) each mirror neuron has a corresponding mirror neuron with similar properties on the opposite side of the brain
4a,
4. THC, the active component of marijuana smoke, produces its behavioral effects by what action on neurons? (a) it blocks the reuptake of dopamine and serotonin. (b) it decreases release of glutamate or gaBa. (c) it attaches to serotonin receptors. (d) it facilitates transmission at inhibitory synapses.
4b.
4. What evidence would demonstrate the existence of an intellectual ability separate from g? (a) people with this ability do well on all measures of intelligent behavior. (b) people with this ability do not do well in school. (c) The ability predicts some type of intelligent behavior but has a low correlation with the tests that measure g.
4c
4. What is the usual consequence of resisting a temptation? (a) regret at having resisted it (b) increased probability of resisting the next temptation (c) decreased probability of resisting the next temptation (d) a desire to brag about resisting temptation
4c,
4. Which of the following generally increases how much food people eat? (a) people eat more when they are alone. (b) people eat more when the weather is hot. (c) people eat more when offered a larger portion size. (d) people eat more if they have been inactive.
4c,
4. Which of the following is an example of negative reinforce- ment, also known as escape learning or avoidance learning? (a) You learn to stop practicing your accordion at 5 a.m. because your roommate threatens to kill you if you do it again. (b) Your swimming coach says you cannot go to the next swim meet (which you are looking forward to) if you break a training rule. (c) You turn off a dripping faucet, ending the "drip drip drip" sound. (d) You learn to avoid undercooked seafood because you have felt sick after eating it
4c,
4. a hundred people take a test. We find that the person with the highest score on the odd-numbered items also has the highest score on the even-numbered items. someone else has the second highest score on both sets of items, and so forth down to the 100th person. Which of the following can we conclude about this test? (a) It has high reliability and validity. (b) It has low reliability and validity. (c) It has high reliability and unknown validity. (d) It has unknown reliability but high validity.
4c,
4. although Alfred Kinsey reported that 13 percent of men and 7 percent of women had a predominantly homosexual orientation; later surveys reported much lower numbers. Why? (a) The prevalence of homosexuality has decreased over the last several decades. (b) kinsey lied about his results. (c) kinsey did not interview a representative sample of the population. (d) The definition of homosexuality has changed over time
4c,
4. When a neurotransmitter excites the postsynaptic neuron, how long do the effects last? (a) Just milliseconds (b) about a tenth of a second (c) several seconds or longer (d) The results vary from one synapse to another.
4d,
4. how does extinction differ from forgetting? (a) extinction is more complete and more permanent. (b) Forgetting depends on changes in brain activity. extinction does not. (c) extinction depends on changes in brain activity. Forgetting does not. (d) Forgetting depends on passage of time. extinction depends on a specific experience.
4d,
5. Some people with schizophrenia take haloperidol, a drug that blocks dopamine synapses. How would haloperidol affect someone with Parkinson's disease?
5. Haloperidol would increase the severity of Parkinson's disease. In fact, large doses of haloperidol induce symptoms of Parkinson's disease in anyone
5. What types of evidence support a genetic contribution to individual differences in IQ scores?
5. One type of evidence is that monozygotic twins resemble each other in IQ more than dizygotic twins do. A second type of evidence is that IQs of adopted children correlate significantly with those of their biological parents.
5. What advice would you give someone who wants to resist a temptation?
5. The best advice is to avoid the situation in which you might feel temptation! Second, don't expose yourself to one temptation just after successfully resisting a different type of temptation. If it is possible to make a commitment far in advance, do so. Think of people who yield to the temptation as different from yourself. Also, remind yourself of ethical norms
5. When someone develops tolerance to the effects of a drug injection, what are the conditioned stimulus, the unconditioned stimulus, the conditioned response, and the unconditioned response?
5. The conditioned stimulus is the injection procedure. The unconditioned stimulus is the entry of the drug into the brain. Both the conditioned response and the unconditioned response are the body's defenses against the drug.
5. Suppose you stand on a street and you interview every 10th person who walks by. What kind of sample is this—convenience, representative, or random?
5. This is a convenience sample. You made no effort to get a sample that matches the total population in age or any- thing else, so it is not a representative sample. Everyone in the population did not have an equal chance of participat- ing, because not all kinds of people are equally likely to be walking down that street at that time of day.
5. Which of the following would increase your probability of contributing money to a charity? (a) several weeks in advance, someone asks you to estimate your probability of contributing to the charity. (b) The person asking you for a contribution starts by telling you that you are a good person. (c) The person asking you for a contribution says your contribution is needed, because other people have not been contributing
5a,
5. of the following correlation coefficients, which one indicates the weakest relationship between two variables—that is, the lowest accuracy of using one variable to predict the other one? (a) 0 (b) +0.5 (c) -0.75
5a,
5. shaping a behavior for an experiment in operant conditioning begins with which of the following? (a) placing an animal into the proper position to make the response (b) reinforcing a simple approximation to the desired behavior (c) demonstrating a response for the individual to try to imitate (d) punishing all responses other than the one the experimenter is trying to teach
5b,
5. after damage to the corpus callosum, a person can describe what he or she feels only after feeling it with the ____ hand, which sends information to the ____ hemisphere. (a) left . . . left (b) left . . . right (c) right . . . left (d) right . . . right
5c,
5. at which kind of college, if any, would you expect sat scores to have the highest validity for predicting grades? (a) a highly competitive college that admits only students with high sat scores (b) a moderately competitive college (c) a college that admits everyone, ranging from those with high sat scores to those with very low scores (d) no difference among colleges
5c,
5. suppose an individual undergoes extinction, and then a delay ensues with no exposure to either the cs or the ucs. What will probably happen? (a) Forgetting (b) consolidation (c) spontaneous recovery (d) stimulus discrimination
5c,
5. in which of these ways do male homosexuals differ, on aver- age, from male heterosexuals? (a) concentration of testosterone in the blood and brain (b) concentration of estradiol in the blood and brain (c) anatomy of one part of the hypothalamus (d) number of older sisters
5c.
5. What led to significant weight gain among the Pimas? (a) a genetic change (b) increased life stress (c) decreased exercise (d) a change in diet
5d,
5. What was the original purpose of Binet's first IQ test? (a) to select the brightest students for advanced training (b) to compare the performance of ethnic groups (c) to determine the relationship between intelligence and brain size (d) to identify slow learners who needed special education
5d,
5. Which of the following is true of receptors for neurotransmitters? (a) all neurotransmitters attach to the same type of receptor. (b) excitatory transmitters attach to one type of receptor, and inhibitory transmitters use another. (c) each neurotransmitter has its own receptor. (d) each neurotransmitter can attach to several types of receptors with different properties.
5d.
6. The drug AMPT(alpha-methyl- para-tyrosine) prevents the body from making dopamine. How would a large dose of AMPT affect someone's later responsiveness to cocaine, amphetamine, or methylphenidate?
6. Someone who took AMPT would become less responsive than usual to amphetamine, cocaine, or methylphenidate. These drugs prolong the effects of dopamine, but if the neurons cannot make dopamine, they cannot release it.
6. What evidence suggests an influence of infectious diseases on intellectual development?
6. The mean IQ score is lowest in those countries and states where children have the highest exposure to infectious diseases.
16. Someone with a cut through the upper spinal cord still shows many reflexive movements but no voluntary movements of the arms or legs. Why not?
6. The spinal cord controls many reflexes by itself. However, voluntary control of muscles depends on messages from the brain to the spinal cord, and a cut through the upper spinal cord interrupts those messages
6. How did researchers measure drug tolerance in rats?
6. They first measured the ability of morphine to decrease rats' pain responses. Then they administered morphine daily for a few days and tested the rats' pain responses each day. After repeated injections, the rats showed increased pain responses, and therefore tolerance to the effects of the drug.
6. Identify each of these as a positive, zero, or negative correlation: a. The more crowded a neighborhood, the lower the income. b. People with high IQ scores are neither more nor less likely than other people to have high telephone numbers. c. People who awaken frequently during the night are more likely than other people to feel depressed.
6. a. Negative correlation between crowdedness and income. b. Zero correlation between telephone numbers and IQ scores. c. Positive correlation between awakenings and depression.
Genetics and Intelligence
60-90% of intelligence is based on genetics, correlation between IQ's of Children and parents
6. under what circumstances do environmental interventions most strongly promote intellectual development? (a) if they start in early childhood (b) if they take place during school hours (c) if they start during adolescence (d) if large numbers of children are taught together at the same time
6a.
6. Suppose some researcher reports a low correlation between stress and depression. One possible explanation is that stress had little to do with depression in that researcher's sample of the population. What is another possible explanation for these results? (a) The people varied widely in their level of stress. (b) The researcher made inaccurate measurements of either stress or depression. (c) people with great stress are likely to become depressed. (d) depression is more common in some countries than in others
6b,
6. What evidence indicates that rats' tolerance to morphine injections is at least partly due to classical conditioning? (a) rats that have been exposed repeatedly to morphine salivate when they receive morphine. (b) rats that have developed a tolerance to morphine salivate when they receive morphine. (c) repeated injections of salt water increase the later effects of morphine. (d) repeated injections of salt water decrease the later effects of morphine.
6c,
6. When a rat runs in a running wheel before a meal, what is the main motivation? (a) to increase salivation (b) to increase body strength (c) to keep warm (d) to increase appetite
6c,
6. Which schedule of reinforcement describes the following: You phone a company and hear a busy signal. You don't know how soon someone will hang up, so you try again every few minutes. (a) Fixed interval (b) Fixed ratio (c) Variable interval (d) Variable ratio
6c,
6. Pet measures ____ and fmri measures _____. (a) electrical activity on the scalp . . . magnetic activity on the scalp (b) magnetic activity on the scalp . . . electrical activity on the scalp (c) oxygen use in brain areas . . . glucose supply to brain areas (d) glucose supply to brain areas . . . oxygen use in brain areas
6d,
6. Which of these bits of advice is best for someone who is trying to resist a temptation? (a) practice resisting various types of temptation. (b) Be confident of your ability to resist the temptation. (c) Watch what happens to other people who yield to temptation. (d) remind yourself of ethical norms.
6d,
6. suppose on some new IQ test tall people generally get higher scores than short people. Which of the following would be the strongest evidence that the test is biased against short people? (a) The fact that short people get lower scores is in itself strong evidence that the test is biased. (b) It would be strong evidence if short people believed the questions were unfair to them. (c) It would be strong evidence if it were revealed that most of the test's authors were tall. (d) It would be strong evidence if someone demonstrated that short people get better grades in school than the test scores predict.
6d,
7. What is meant by a "standardized" test?
7. A standardized test has clear rules for administering the test, and previous studies have established the norms to which a new score can be compared. In most cases, the authors of the test have taken care to remove or revise any unclear, poorly worded items.
7. What are some factors that con- tribute to high job satisfaction
7. Factors associated with high job satisfaction include high ability to perform the job, a happy personality, a perception that the pay scale is fair, and old age.
7. If classical conditioning depend- ed entirely on presenting the CS and UCS at nearly the same time, what result should the experimenters have obtained in Rescorla's experiment?
7. If classical conditioning depended entirely on presenting the CS and UCS at nearly the same time, the rats in both groups would have responded equally to the conditioned stimulus, regardless of how often they received the unconditioned stimulus at other times.
7. Some people with attention deficit disorder report that they experience benefits for the first few hours after taking methylphenidate pills but begin to deteriorate in the late afternoon and evening. Why?
7. Remember what happens after taking cocaine: Neurons release dopamine and other transmitters faster than they resynthesize them. Because cocaine blocks reuptake, the supply of transmitters dwindles, and the result is lethargy and mild depression. The same process occurs with methylphenidate but more slowly and to a smaller degree.
7. Which of the following is an example of a variable-ratio schedule? (a) stargazing in hopes of finding a comet (b) opening oysters in hopes of finding a pearl (c) Buying ice cream cones at a place that offers a free one after every 10 purchases (d) taking a test that is given in class once a week
7b.
7. Which of the following is another way to state the idea of stereotype threat? (a) on most tests, younger people do better on reasoning and older people do better on factual knowledge. (b) If you expect to do poorly on a test, you probably will. (c) on average, test scores are higher for some groups than for others. (d) people tend to stay away from others whom they consider dangerous.
7b.
7. research on rats suggests that bulimia nervosa resembles what other condition? (a) sleep apnea (b) drug addiction (c) Bipolar disorder (d) Phobia
7b.
7. Which of the following is evidence against pavlov's explanation for classical conditioning? (a) conditioning always occurs if a cs repeatedly precedes the ucs. (b) other things being equal, longer cs-ucs delays lead to weaker evidence of conditioning. (c) in some cases the cr is different from the ucr.
7c,
What are the main ways in which motivation affects job performance? (a) extrinsic motivation increases both quality and quantity of performance. (b) intrinsic motivation increases both quality and quantity of performance. (c) extrinsic motivation mainly increases quantity, and intrinsic motivation mainly increases quality. (d) extrinsic motivation mainly increases quality, and intrinsic motivation mainly increases quantity.
7c,
7. Suppose researchers find a 10.4 correlation between the number of vitamin pills people take and their mental health. Which conclusion, if any, can we draw from this result? (a) taking vitamin pills improves mental health. (b) Strong mental health improves people's probability of taking action to maintain health. (c) Wealthier people are more likely than average to take vitamin pills, and also to be mentally healthy. (d) We can draw none of these conclusions.
7d
8. What is the behavioral effect of anxiolytic drugs?
8. Anxiolytic drugs reduce anxiety and help people relax
8. What jobs are especially vulnerable to job burnout?
8. Job burnout is especially common in the helping professions, such as nursing or therapy.
8. The correlation between students' grades and their scores on a self-esteem questionnaire is very low, not much above 0. Why might that be?
8. One possibility is that grades are unrelated to self- esteem. Another possibility is that we used an inaccurate measurement of either self-esteem or grades or both. If anything is measured poorly, it cannot correlate strongly with anything els
8. Why is it unlikely that improved education accounts for much of the Flynn effect?
8. Why is it unlikely that improved education accounts for much of the Flynn effect?
8. Suppose you have already learned to flinch when you hear the sound of a dentist's drill. Now your dentist turns on some soothing back- ground music during the drilling. The back- ground music is paired with the pain just as much as the drill sound is. Will you learn to flinch at the sound of that background music?
8. You will not learn to flinch at the sound of the back- ground music. Because the drill sound already predicted the pain, the new stimulus is uninformative and will not be strongly associated with the pain.
8. What is a transformational leader? (a) someone who is seen as visionary and stimulating (b) someone who makes an organization more efficient by proper rewards (c) someone who is still learning how to be a leader (d) someone who has recently changed his or her style of leadership
8a.
8. Why do many cold remedies interfere with sleep? (a) They decrease sympathetic nervous system activity and increase parasympathetic activity. (b) They decrease parasympathetic nervous system activity and increase sympathetic activity. (c) They increase production of hormones, especially the sex hormones. (d) They decrease production of hormones, especially the sex hormones.
8b,
8. rats repeatedly received one stimulus followed by a ucs. Then they repeatedly received that stimulus and a second stimulus, followed by the same ucs. What happened, and what is this phenomenon called? (a) rats stopped responding to either of the two stimuli. This is the spontaneous recovery effect. (b) rats learned to respond equally to the first and second stimuli. This is the stimulus generalization effect. (c) rats started responding to the second stimulus instead of the first stimulus. This is the blocking effect. (d) rats showed little response to the second stimulus. This is the blocking effect.
8d.
9. Insulin levels fluctuate over the course of a day. Would they be higher in the middle of the day, when people tend to be hungry, or late at night, when most are less hungry
9. Insulin levels are higher in the middle of the day (LeMagnen, 1981). As a result, much of your meal is stored, and you become hungry again. At night, when insulin levels are lower, you draw from your supplies to make more glucose.
9. An overdose of opiates produces a life-threatening decrease in breathing and heart rate. Large doses of marijuana do not produce those effects. Why not?
9. Opiate receptors are abundant in the medulla, which controls heart rate and breathing. The medulla has few receptors sensitive to marijuana.
9. Suppose we find a 0.8 correlation between students' report- ed interest in psychology and their grades on a psychology test. What conclusion can we draw?
9. We can conclude only that if we know either someone's interest level or test score, we can predict the other with reasonably high accuracy. We cannot conclude that an interest in psychology will help someone learn the material or that doing well on psychology tests increases someone's interest in the material. Either conclusion might be true, of course, but neither conclusion follows from these results. A correlational study cannot demonstrate a cause-and-effect relationship.
9. Someone has just devised a new "intelligence test." It measures your intelligence by dividing the length of your head by its width and then multiplying by 100. Will the scores on this test be reliable?
9. Yes! To say that a test is "reliable" is simply to say that its scores are repeatable. This test will give useless scores, but they will be highly reliable (repeatable).
9. When a bell rings, an animal sits up on its hind legs and drools; then it receives food. Is the animal's behavior an example of classical conditioning or operant conditioning? So far, you do not have enough information to answer the question. What else do you need to know before you can answer
9. You need to know whether the bell always predicts food (classical conditioning) or whether the animal receives food only when it sits up (operant conditioning).
9. in what parts of the adult human brain, if any, can new neurons form? (a) in all parts of the brain (b) only in the cerebral cortex (c) only in the hippocampus and basal ganglia (d) in none of the brain
9c,
9. on average, students who attend class every day get better grades than those who frequently miss. Which conclusion, if any, can we draw from this result? (a) attending class helps people improve their grades. (b) Brighter students, who are likely to get good grades, are more likely than average to attend class conscientiously. (c) We can draw neither of these conclusions.
9c,
psychiatrist
A medical doctor who has specialized in the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders, can prescribe drugs
Case histories.
A case history is a detailed research study of a single individual, generally someone with unusual characteristics. 大きな制限がある
Inferring causation. 推論 因果関係
A correlational study cannot uncover cause-and-effect relationships, but an experiment can. Inferring causation. correlational≠causation 第一に、相関関係は私たちが予測をするのを助けます。第二に、相関研究は後の実験への道を開き、それが結論につながるかもしれません。たとえば、両親の半数にスパンキングをやめさせるように説得することができれば、子供の行動が改善するかどうかがわかります。
Correlations. 相関研究
A correlational study examines the relationship between variables that are outside the investigator's control. The strength of this relationship is measured by a correlation coefficient that ranges from 0 (no relationship) to plus or minus 1 (a perfect relationship). 相関研究では、研究者はどちらも制御せずに2つの変数間の関係を測定します。たとえば、人の身長と体重の間の相関関係、または外向性質問票の得点と誰かの友達の数の間の相関関係を測定する
mind-body problem
A fundamental psychological issue: Are mind and body separate and distinct, or is the mind simply the physical brain's subjective experience?
Steps in a scientific study.
A scientific study goes through the following sequence of steps: hypothesis, method, results, and interpretation. Because almost any study is subject to more than one possible interpretation, we base our conclusions on a pattern of results from many studies.
Surveys.
A survey is a report of people's answers on a questionnaire. It is easy to conduct a survey and, unfortunately, easy to get misleading results. A study of the prevalence of certain beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors based on people's responses to questions. 調査結果が有用または誤解を招く可能性がある方法もある 時折うそをつきます 質問がどのように表現されたか、またどのような選択肢が提供されたかを尋ねます。わずかに異なる表現でも、異なるパーセンテージを生み出す可能性 an organization words the questions of a survey to encourage the answers they hope to receive.
standardized test
A test with uniform procedures for administration and scoring. Many standardized tests allow a person's performance to be compared with the performance of other individuals.
Depressants うつ病
Alcohol, Benzodiazepines
Variability in Human Sexual Behavior
Alfred Kinsey, who conducted the first extensive survey of human sexual behavior, found that sexual activity varies more widely than most people realize.
Random assignment
An experimenter randomly assigns individuals to the experimental and control groups. All participants should have an equal probability of being chosen for the experimental group. The experimenter uses a chance procedure, such as drawing names out of a hat, to make sure that all participants have the same probability of being assigned to a given group.
Overcoming experimenter bias.
An experimenter's expectations influence the interpretations of behavior and the recording of data. To ensure objectivity, investigators use blind observers who do not know what results are expected. In a double-blind study, neither the observer nor the participants know the researcher's predictions. the tendency of an observer (unintentionally, as a rule) to misperceive the results. 実験者の偏見は、観察者が（意図せずに、一般に）結果を誤解する傾向
False Knowledge
Anecdotes, common sense, intuition, illusory correlations, confirmation bias, and good intentions are all inadequate as guides to fully and accurately understand ourselves and others, sometimes we see patterns that aren't there
Why does the desire to prove the stereotype wrong backfire?
Anxiety and Distraction have been shown to be among the causes -it requires a belief that others have lower expectations
Median
Arranging the results from small to big and finding the middle one arrange the scores in order from the high- est to the lowest. 2,5,10 then median is 5
conditioned taste aversion 味覚嫌悪
Associating a food with illness First documented by John Garcia and his colleagues (garcia, ervin, & Koelling, 1966). animals, including people, learn to avoid foods, especially unfamiliar ones, if they become ill afterward. This type of learning occurs reliably after a single pairing, even with a long delay between the food and the illness. illness is associated much more strongly with foods than with other stimuli.
Adding together changes of speed and direction elicited by various stimuli result in
Complex behavior
Acetylcholine アセチルコリン
increases brain arousal
Sampling.
Because psychologists hope to draw conclusions that apply to a large population, they try to select a sample that resembles the total population—either a representative sample or a random sample. To apply the results to people worldwide, they need a cross-cultural sample. getting a random or representative sample is important in any research, but especially with surveys. 2つの集団を比較するとき、研究者はそれらの集団の同様のサンプルを必要とします
Replicability.
Because researchers generally publish only the results that look impressive, an unknown number of the reported results may have arisen by accident. Psychologists are becoming more interested in trying to the replicate results.
Behaviorists' interest in learning.
Behaviorists' goal is to explain behavior without relying on terms such as idea or understanding. much of invertebrate behavior can be described in simple terms, but the greater challenge was to explain learning.
Anxiolytics
Benzodiazepines, widely used to relieve anxiety, can also relax muscles and promote sleep. anxiolytics and alcohol act by facilitating inhibitory synapses.
Illusory correlations. 錯覚的な相関関係
Beware of illusory correlations— relationships that people think they observe between variables after casual observation. 実際には存在しない相関関係があると思うことがあります。例えば、多くの人々は、砂糖を摂取すると子供たちが活動亢進すると信じています。しかしながら、広範な研究は活性レベルに対する糖の影響をほとんど見いださず、そしていくつかの研究は糖が挙動を落ち着かせることを見出した。。つまり、人々は自分たちが期待するものを見ているのです。 人々が2つの出来事（例えば、砂糖と活動レベル）の間の関係を見ることを期待するとき、彼らは関係を支持し例外を無視する事件を覚えています。 満月は人間の行動に影響を与えるという一般的な考えを考えます。しかし、データを注意深く見直しても、月の満ち欠けと犯罪または精神病との間に関係は見られない
Test bias
Bias means inaccuracy of measurement. psychologists try to remove from a test any item that tends to be easy for one group of people to answer but difficult for another group. They also try to evaluate whether the test as a whole makes equally accurate predictions for all groups
human brain has?
Billions of neurons
Social neuroscience
Biological mechanisms of social behavior have received increasing attention. The hormone oxytocin enhances love and trust toward people that you already regarded highly.
Differences between men and women
Bisexual orientation is more common in women than men. Measurements of penis erection accurately gauge a man's sexual interest, but vaginal secretions do not measure a woman's sexual interest.
insulin
increases the flow of glucose and several other nutrients into cells
More recent surveys
Both men and women cite vaginal inter- course as their most preferred sexual activity. Most people remain sexually active throughout life if they remain healthy and have a loving partner.
What you ARE thinking?
Brain Activity
What you CAN think?
Brain Structure
Brain Activity
Brain cells have neurons Neurons form networks The connections of neurons is the brain structure The pattern of Brain structure changes slowly The Brain signals = "firing" difference in firing speed + Pattern = Brain activity
Pattern of connections is what?
Brain structure -Brain structure does change but very slowly
Applying Parsimony: Clever Hans, the Amazing Horse
Hans tough math to horse, and it could answer to math problem by tapping. But Oskar Pfungst said that the horse did not understand math, it is really smart, so it can find answer from people's faces.
Range.
a statement of the highest and lowest scores.
procrastination
Intentionally putting off doing something that should be done
How can you increase the rate of conditioning?
Conditioning occurs more rapidly if the conditioned stimulus is unfamiliar 強い（複雑な）刺激より、弱い（単純な）刺激のほうが早く馴化する。
Alfred Binet
Created first intelligence test to identify special education among children; find that they can learn differently despite their cognitive disability
Adopted Siblings
Different Biological parents
Nitric oxide 一酸化窒素
Dilates blood vessels in most active brain areas
Behaviorist
Dominated the study of animal learning Insist that psychologists should study only observable, measurable behaviors, not mental processes Seek the simplest possible explanation for behavior and resist interpretations in terms of understanding or insight goal was ambitious and optimistic. It was to find basic laws of behavior, especially learning, that would be analogous to the laws of physics.
Replicability Issues
Dr.Hopeful 研究者が結果を再現できないとはどういう意味ですか？最も簡単な答えは、元の結果は事故またはエラーだったということですが、他の答えも可能です 公開されたすべての結果のうち、そのうちのいくつか（どれほどの数がわからないか）は、おそらく偶然の発見です。それが期待されるための良い理論的な理由がなかった場合は特に、我々はそれが複製されるまでどんな結果にも懐疑的
Difference of Drive and Incentive
Drive is the state of unrest or irritation that energizes one behavior after another until one of them removes the irritation while incentives are stimuli that pull us toward an action
Halucinogens ハルシノゲン
Drugs that induce sensory distortions
Norepinephrine ノルエピネフリン
Enhances sorage of memory of emotional or otherwise meaningful events
Erik Erikson's Theory of Socioemotional Development (socioemotional child development)
Erikson proposed that first four stages of development take place in childhood while the last four take place in adulthood
nurture
Everything not genetic
Claude Steele
First described Stereotype threat [Steele-> metal (stereotype)] (Stereotype threat: a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype, they realize a stereotype and end up falling into it)
4. How could you increase your probability of getting a good start on writing a term paper
First, find some way to boost your confidence. Then make specific plans, such as, "I will spend Monday night at the library looking for materials."You could also esti- mate your probability of completing the first part of the paper.
category of Partial Reinforcement
Fixed-ratio schedule Variable-ratio schedule fixed-interval reinforcement Variable-interval reinforcement
What is "g"?
General ability when you are able to do well on a multitude of subjects
Pavlov and dog
His hypothesis is animal have automatic connections -> Food the unconditioned stimulus, and he called salivation the unconditioned response.
One or many types of intelligence?
Howard Gardner argued that people have many independent types of intelligence, including social attentiveness, musical abilities, and motor skills. however, so far, no one has demonstrated that different types of intelligence are independent of one another.
intuition
Hunches or guesses that are sometimes right, sometimes wrong (used when we lack knowledge)
What influences Intelligence
IQ score Genes Environment
Distribution of IQ scores
IQ tests have a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of about 15 or 16, depending on the test. however, the mode (most frequent score) is higher than 100, and a bulge of lower scores exists.
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Fourth Edition (WAIS-IV) Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Fifth Edition (WISC-V),
IQ tests originally devised by David Wechsler, and later modified by others,
23. If our society changed so that it provided an equally good environment for all children, would the heritability of behaviors increase or decrease
If all children had equally supportive environments, the total amount of variation in behavior would decrease, but whatever variation remained would have to depend largely on heredity (because differences in the environment have been minimized). Therefore heritability would increase.
nature of reinforcement
If someone has been deprived of the opportunity to engage in a behavior, then the opportunity to return to that behavior is reinforcing.
Entity theory in teachers
If techers have this they are quicker to judge students, will provide emotional support but not solve problems
Cheating
If you see someone do it, you're more likely to do it, but if you see a person you dont like do it, youre less likely to do it
Experiments.
In an experiment, an investigator manipulates an independent variable to determine its effect on the dependent variable. A before-and-after study often leads to results that are hard to interpret. It is better to compare the results for different groups.
Histamine ヒスタミン
Increases arousal and alertness
Inferential statistics.
Inferential statistics are attempts to deduce the properties of a large population based on the results from a small sample of that population.
Environment on poor kids
Intellectual ability is stunted and it becomes way more dependent on nurture
Environmental influences
Intellectual development depends on many aspects of the environment, including physical health in early childhood. extensive interventions can help children's intellectual development, if started early in life and continued for years.
College Success
Intelligence Self-Regulation Study Strategies
Defining intelligence
Intelligence is difficult to define. psychological researchers try to measure it, hoping to learn something from the measurements.
Elements to Student Success
Intelligence, Self-regulation, and Cognitive Strategies
Overcoming temptations
It is better to avoid tempting situations than to try to combat temptation. resisting a temptation helps people to later resist the same type of temptation, but it often weakens their ability to resist other types. seeing another person yield to temptation increases the risk of also yielding, unless one sees the other person as an outsider, different from oneself. a reminder about ethical norms decreases cheating in some situations
How does IQ measure Intelligence?
It is controversial but not well -the definition of intelligence is disputed over -IQ scores have been misused in many ways
Hallucinogens 幻覚薬
LSD, MDMA("ecstasy"), Rohypnol and GHB, Phencyclidine(PCP or "angel dust") hallucinogens induce sensory distortions. lsd acts at one type of serotonin synapse. mdma produces stimulant effects at low doses and hallucinogenic effects at higher doses.
muscle analogy
Like going to weightroom, your muscles get super tired but then become stronger after, same with your brain
Self-Regulation Distal Goal
Long term persistence towards a goal, Takes "Grit", operates over months, years, decades
Homeostasis and Allostasis
Many motivated behaviors tend to maintain body conditions and stimulation at a near-constant, or homeostatic, level. in addition, behaviors anticipate future needs.
Walter Mischel
Marshmallow Study
Short-term regulation of hunger
Meals end by several mechnisms, principally distension of the stomach and intestines. Hunger resumes when the cells begin to receive less glucose and other nutrients. The hormone insulin regulates the flow of nutrients from the blood to storage.
Descriptive statistics 記述統計
Measuring a central tendency the central score—that is, the middle or average 中心スコアを表す3つの方法は、平均値、中央値、および最頻値です(central score are the mean, median, and mode.) mathematical summaries of results.
Difference between Mind and Brain, Mind
Mental Activity Conscious and Non-conscious (Seeing Color) Invisible Process Described in language of thoughts and feelings
Serotonin セロトニン
Modifies many types of motivated and emotional behavior
Heritable Intelligence
More commonly families having similar IQ's Monozygotic: Identical similarity Dizygotic: High Similarity Non-Twins siblings: Similar Adopted Siblings: No genetic similarity but high environmental Strangers: No Similarity what so ever
Narcotics 麻薬
Morphine, heroin, other opiates
Weight-loss techniques
Most people fail to lose weight for the long term by dieting, often because they fail to follow the diet. A combination of diet and exercise works better, although the success rate is still disappointing.
Mode
Most prevalent results the score that occurs most frequently. for example, in the distribution of scores 1, 1, 1, 4, 7, 9, and 10, the mode is 1.
Characteristics of motivated behaviors
Motivated behaviors vary from time to time, from situation to situation, and from person to person. They persist until the individual reaches the goal.
Motivation as Incentive
Motivations are partly under the control of incentives—external stimuli that pull us toward certain actions. Both drives and incentives control most motivated behaviors.
Extrinsic and intrinsic motivations
Motivations include the possible rewards and the joy of the task itself.
Naturalistic observations.
Naturalistic observations provide descriptions of humans or other species under natural conditions. A careful examination of what happens under more or less natural conditions. 生物学者のJane goodall（1971）は、野生のチンパンジーを観察しながら、彼らの食習慣、社会的相互作用、身振り、そして生き方を記録するのに何年も費やしました
What influences structure?
Nature vs Nurture -Genes vs Everything non genetic -Same event can effect 2 people differently because of genes
What influences Brain structure?
Nature: genetic Influences Nurture: Environmental Influences
Dopamine ドーパミン
One path is important for movement (damaged in Parkinson's disease). Another path is important for memory and cognition.
Mean, median, and mode.
One way of presenting the central score of a distribution is via the mean, determined by adding all the scores and dividing by the number of individuals. Another way is the median, which is the middle score after all the scores have been arranged from highest to lowest. The mode is the score that occurs most frequently.
Basis for classical conditioning
Pavlov believed that conditioning occurred because presenting two stimuli close to each other in time developed a connection between their brain representations. Later research showed that animals do not treat the conditioned stimulus as if it were the unconditioned stimulus. also, being close in time is not enough. Learning occurs if the first stimulus predicts the second stimulus. csとucsの間の遅延が長ければ長いほど、コンディショニングは弱くなりますが、他のことは同じです。ただし、csとucsを時間内に近付けるだけでは不十分です。それらが離れて発生するよりも一緒に発生することが不可欠
Cognitive and social influences on eating
People eat more in groups than when eating alone. They eat more, drink more, and enjoy their meal more when they have high expectations for the meal, based on such things as the name of the food or the supposed location of the winery. They eat more when they are offered larger portions.
Motivation Conflict
People seldom do anything for just one reason. in general, biological needs take priority over other motivations, but not always.
Difference between Mind and Brain, Brain
Physical Organ Inside the Nervous system Visual Object Described in language of anatomy and physiology
Evaluating Piaget's Theory; Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development (cognitive child development)
Piaget may have overestimated cognitive acumen (ability to make good judgements and quick decisions). The Formal Operational Stage does not emerge as consistently and universally in adolescence as Piaget believed. Piaget may have underestimated cognitive abilities of young children. Many cognitive abilities emerge earlier than he theorized.
How does IQ do with reliability and validity on school performance?
Pretty good for school performance -GPA & Test Scores -Prediction of length someone will be in school
brain activity
Relates to the mind because mental activity is brain activity, consciousness cannot exist without brain activity, the brain changes
Ethics of experimentation.
Research on human participants should not proceed until the participants have given their informed consent. Psychologists try to minimize risk to their participants, but they sometimes face difficult ethical decisions.
Demand characteristics.
Researchers try to minimize the effects of demand characteristics, which are cues that tell participants what the experimenter expects them to do
Ivan P Pavlov
Russian physiologist; founder of "classical conditioning" coined the term conditional reflex
Carol Dweck
Self-Theories Theory Mindsets. Importance of student's beliefs about their own intelligence. Wellbeing.
Anadamide, 2AG, and others アナダミド、2AGなど
Sent by the postsynaptic neuron back to the presynaptic neuron to decrease further release of transmitters
Self-Regulation Proximal Goal
Short term is self regulation, operates over moments, hours, and days (pushing it), delay of gratification, Not procrastinating
What helps restore our self control resources?
Sleep Eat Develop more Prepare for running low Avoiding temptation
Inferential statistics 推論統計
Statements about a large population, based on an inference from a small sample 推計統計量で結果を評価します。推論統計量は、小さな標本からの推論に基づいて、大きな母集団についてのステートメントです。ある種の統計的検定は、純粋に偶然の変動が観察されたものと同じくらい大きい差異を達成するであろう確率を決定する。結果はp（確率のように）値によって要約されます。例えば、p、0.05は、無作為に生成された結果が観察された結果に似る確率が5パーセント未満であることを示します。 p値が小さいほど、結果はより印象的です。
Anecdotes
Stories of a particular single event (persuasive but often misleading)
multiple selves
Sunday self can help Monday help by preparing the weekly plan
IQ tests
The Stanford-Binet, Wechsler, and other IQ tests were devised to predict the level of performance in school. culture- reduced tests such as raven's progressive matrices are more appropriate for people not fluent in english.
test validity
The accuracy with which a test, interview, and so on measures what it purports to measure or fulfills the function it was designed to fill.
GABA (Gamma-amino-butyric acid) ガンマアミノ酪酸
The brain's main inhibitory transmitter
Central and peripheral nervous systems
The central nervous system consists of the brain and the spinal cord. The peripheral nervous system consists of nerves that communicate between the central nervous system and the rest of the body.
The cerebral cortex
The cerebral cortex has four lobes: occipital lobe (vision), temporal lobe (hearing and some aspects of vision), parietal lobe (body sensations), and the frontal lobe (preparation for movement). damage in the cerebral cortex produces specialized behavioral deficits.
Corpus callosum
The corpus callosum enables the left and right hemispheres of the cortex to communicate with each other. if the corpus callosum is damaged, the two hemispheres cannot share information
Validity
The degree to which an instrument or test measures what you want it to measure; prediction
Leadership
The demands of leadership depend on the situation. organizations generally work best if many people can take a leadership role, depending on the situation. When an organization thrives, its leader is perceived as visionary. leaders perceived as using rewards to get employees to do their work efficiently are effective in situations when the business is stable.
Intelligence as a hierarchy
The g factor can be subdivided into more specific categories, such as verbal, perceptual, and image rotation; or language, short-term memory, and reasoning.
Oxytocin
The hormone oxytocin, released by women when nursing a baby and by both men and women during sexual activity, has received much publicity as the "love hormone." "love-magnifying" hormone would be a more accurate term.
Free will
The idea that human beings are free to make their own choices, not everything happens for a reason
sensitive period
The male learns most readily during a sensitive period early in his first year of life (Marler, 1997) similarly, human children learn language most easily when they are young
Learning Styles
The manner in which one gains knowledge or skill through education, no evidence to support that these work
defining intelligence is not easy.
The mental abilities that enable one to adapt to, shape, or select one's environment The ability to deal with novel situations The ability to judge, comprehend, and reason The ability to understand and deal with people, objects, and symbols The ability to act purposefully, think rationally, and deal effectively with
What is the Mind quote
The mind is what the brain does
Progressive Matrices
The most widely used culture-reduced test John c. raven.
Dependent Variable
The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.
Karl Popper
The philosopher 研究の目的はどの理論が間違っているかを見つけることであると言って彼らの理論を否定するという科学者の意欲を強調した。すなわち、研究のポイントは誤った理論を偽造することであり、そして良い理論はそれを偽造しようとするあらゆる試みに耐えるもの
Stanford-Binet IQ test
The test that Binet and Simon designed was later modified for English speakers by Stanford psychologists and published
the binding problem
Theoretically, it is problematic to understand how one brain area responsible for vision, another area responsible for hearing, and another area responsible for touch combine forces to yield a unified perception of an object. Binding different senses into one experience requires perceiving the various aspects as occurring in the same place at the same time.
Howard Gardner
Theory of multiple intelligences, can be outstanding in one but not another
Why don't educators teach you how to think?
They don't know how -No known method to rapidly increase intelligence -Experience effects the brain
Probability of chance results.
Traditionally, psychologists have used inferential statistics to calculate the probability that a given research result could have arisen by chance. That probability is low if the difference between the two groups is large, if the variability within each group is small, and if the number of individuals in each group is large. Currently, the trend is to present the means and 95 percent confidence intervals for each group and let readers see the size of the effect.
monozygotic twins
Twins have very similar IQ scores
Ordinary (Non-Twins)
Two Non-Twin siblings with the same biological parents
A puff of air is blown into a rabbit's eye just after a tone is played. After several repetitions of this procedure, the rabbit closes its eye when the musical tone is played. What are the: UCS, UCR, Neutral Stimulus/CS, And CR?
UCS - Air puff UCR - Closing eye Neutral stimulus/CS - Musical tone CR - Closing eye
The television commercial for Mega Burger shows a big delicious cheeseburger. A 50's rock-and-roll song is played during the commercial. You see the commercial several times, and now when the song is playing on the radio, you get hungry. What are the: UCS, UCR, Neutral Stimulus/CS, and CR?
UCS - Cheeseburger UCR - Hunger Neutral Stimulus/CS - Rock and Roll song CR - Hunger
Dependent variable
Variable that is being measured the item that an experimenter measures to determine the outcome— for example, how many questions people answer correctly or how rapidly they respond to signals.
Mind-Brain Problem
We don't know much about the relationship yet
Why we need psychology
We need a science of psychology to study how people learn and retain knowledge
Vicarious (激しい) reinforcement and punishment
We tend to imitate behaviors that lead to reinforcement for other people. We are less consistent in avoiding behaviors that are unsuccessful for others.
Structure of the brain shows and determines what?
What thoughts and non-conscious processes are possible
long-term regulation of hunger
When someone gains weight, the fat cells increase release of leptin, which decreases hunger. When someone loses weight, fat cells decrease leptin release and hunger increases.
Primary Somatosensory *body-sensory) cortex 一次体性感覚*体性感覚皮質
a strip in the anterior portion of the parietal lobe, has cells sensitive to touch in different body areas
Flynn Effect
World Wide, correct IQ responses have been growing in the 20th century
Monism
Your mind and body are together, bot separate, Opposite of Dualism
amygdala 扁桃体
a structure in the temporal lobe, responds strongly to emotional situations
Prophet Nostradamus
a 16th-century french writer who allegedly predicted many events of later centuries. 彼の予想はすべて曖昧さにある。何かが起こった後、人々はその出来事に合うように彼の文章を想像的に再解釈
biological psychology
a branch of psychology concerned with the links between biology and behavior
human factors psychology
a branch of psychology that explores how people and machines interact and how machines and physical environments can be made safe and easy to use
developmental psychology
a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span
clinical psychology
a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders
Environmental modification of genetic effects.
a change in the environment can alter or cancel what would otherwise be a major genetic effect. The phenylketonuria gene would lead to mental retardation, but a special diet minimizes its effects.
neurotransmitter 神経伝達物質
a chemical that activates receptors on other neurons
Alcohol アルコール
a class of molecules that includes methanol, ethanol, propyl alcohol, (rubbing alcohol) and others. Ethanol is the type that people drink. alcohol, the most widely abused drug in our society, relaxes people and relieves their inhibitions. it can also impair judgment and reasoning.
epilepsy てんかん
a condition in which cells somewhere in the brain emit abnormal rhythmic, spontaneous impulses
anorexia nervosa
a condition in which someone intensely fears gaining weight and refuses to eat a normal amount People suffering from anorexia nervosa deprive themselves of food, sometimes to a dangerous point. Most show extreme physical activity, which can be interpreted as a mechanism of temperature regulation. A therapy based on keeping the person warm, restricting exercise, and monitoring food intake has shown promise.
Parkinson's disease パーキンソン病
a condition that affects about 1% of people over the age of 50. The main symptoms are difficulty in initiating voluntary movement, slow movement, tremors, rigidity, and depressed mood.
x-chromosome X染色体
a female has 2 of these chromosomes
Conditioned stimulus (CS) 条件付き刺激 学んでいる
a neural stimulus that is paired with the UCS i.e. a dog's response to it depends on the preceding conditions 元々は全く関係のない刺激が、無条件刺激と何らかの理由で結びついた後、反応を引き出す刺激 ex) 最初、犬はメトロノームの音には反応しても、よだれは出ず、foodとconnecteしなかった。 何度もその音を聞かせてからご飯をあげると、そのうちに音にも反応して、涎 (UCR) を見せた
How neurons communicate
a neuron communicates with an- other neuron by releasing a chemical called a neurotransmitter at a specialized junction called a synapse. a neurotransmitter can either excite or inhibit the next neuron, with vary- ing durations of effect.
Neuron structure
a neuron, or nerve cell, consists of a cell body, dendrites, and an axon. The axon conveys information to other neurons.
subjective well-being
a persons cognitive and effective evaluations of his or his/her life
job satisfaction
a positive feeling about one's job resulting from an evaluation of its characteristics
Grit
a positive, non-cognitive trait based on an individual's passion for a particular long-term goal or end state, coupled with a powerful motivation to achieve their respective objective.
Persuasion ( behavior modification) 説得
a psychologist removes reinforcement for unwanted behaviors and provides reinforcement for more acceptable behaviors.
Psychoanalysist
a psychologist who studies how unconscious motives and conflicts determine human behavior, this job was pioneered by Sigmund Freud
Stereotype threat
a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype, they realize a stereotype and end up falling into it
corpus callosum 脳梁
a set of axons that connect the left and right hemispheres of the cerebral cortex
control group 対照群
a set of individuals treated in the same way as the experimental group except for the procedure that the experiment is designed to test. 実験が試験するように設計されている手順を除いて、実験群と同じ方法で治療された一組の個体である。実験群の人々が特別な経験を受けた場合、対照群の人々は同じ時間の間に何か他のことをする。実験群の人々が薬を服用している場合、対照群の人々はプラセボを服用しています。
acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS)
a sexually transmitted disease that attacks the body's immune system.
dominant 支配的
a single copy of the gene is sufficient to produce its effect
multiplier effect 乗数効果
a small initial advantage in some behavior, possibly genetic in origin, alters the environment and magnifies that advantage if a gene promotes an advantage in some aspect of behavior, the individual may practice that behavior in ways that multiply the initial slight advantage.
resting potential 安静時の可能性
an electrical polarization across the membrane (or covering) of an axon
heritability 遺伝率
an estimate of the variance within a population that is due to heredity researchers estimate heritability by comparing monozygotic and dizygotic twins, by comparing twins reared in separate environments, by examining how adopted children resemble their biological parents, and by finding associations between particular genes and observed outcomes.
Resilience
ability to recover from/adapt to challenges; resilient children grow up into capable adults
prevalence of homosexuality
according to surveys in several countries, 1 to 6 percent of adult men and somewhat fewer women regard themselves as primarily or exclusively homo- sexual. sexual orientation varies in degree from exclusively homosexual to exclusively heterosexual with intermediate gradations.
Crystallized intelligence
acquired skills and knowledge and the ability to apply that knowledge in specific situations.
Identity vs. Identity Confusion; Erikson's Stages of Socioemotional Development (socioemotional adolescent development)
adolescents, in seeking identity, must explore different paths => if they do not explore, they end up confused about who they are
Split-brain patients
after damage to the corpus callosum, people can describe information only if it enters the left hemisphere. such people in some ways act as if they have separate fields of consciousness, and in some ways they act as if they are unified.
Behaviorists assume what?
all behaviors have causes, that mental explanations are unhelpful, and that the environment acts to select effective behaviors and suppress ineffective ones
"g" relating to scores
all tests have something with memory
Psychoactive drugs 向精神薬
alter experience by altering activity at synapses
bulimia nervosa
alternate between self-deprivation and periods of excessive eating, while feeling a loss of control People suffering from bulimia nervosa alternate between periods of strict dieting and brief but spectacular eating binges. Bulimia has been compared to drug addiction.
Mechanism of the action potential
an action potential de- pends on the entry of sodium into the axon. anything that blocks this flow stops the action potential.
Unconditioned response (UCR) 無条件の応答 学んでいない
an action that the unconditioned stimulus elicits 学ばなくても出てくる反応
temperament (socioemotional child development)
an individual's behavioral style and characteristic way of responding (self regulation, inhibition, negative affectivity); emotional characteristics of young child is thought to serve as foundation for adult personality; earliest social bonds influence later social relationships - easy child is in a generally positive mood, quickly establishes regular routines, and easily adapts to new experiences - difficult child reacts negatively/cries frequently, engages in irregular routines, slow to accept new experience - 'slow to warm up' child has low activity level, is somewhat negative, inflexible, cautious in face of new experiences
phenylketonuria (PKU) フェニルケトン尿症（PKU）
an inherited condition that, if untreated, leads to mental retardation
Raven's Progressive Matrices
an intelligence test that is based on pictures, not words, thus making it relatively unaffected by language or cultural background
hierarchy of needs
an organization from the most insistent needs to the ones that receive attention only when all others are under control
Interpretations
analyze the collected data and draw conclusions
Basis for classical conditioning
animals do not treat the conditioned stimulus as if it were the unconditioned stimulus. Also, being close in time is not enough; learning requires that the first stimulus predict the second stimulus
Prefrontal cortex 前頭前皮質
anterior secitons of the frontal lobe, important for memory of what has just happened and what you are planning to do next
Teratogen; prenatal development (physical child development)
any agents that cause birth defects, such as chemical substances, illnesses, alcohol, STI's; their effects depend on the time of exposure i.e. the organ system developing at time of exposure will be the one affected
replicable results
anyone can obtain the same results, with relative proximity, following the same method. The results of a given study are taken seriously only if other investigators following the same method obtain similar results. だれでも少なくとも同じ手順に従って入手できるものです。 The lack of replicability is one major reason to be skeptical of eSp, but another reason is parsimony. if someone claims that a horse does mathematics or a person foresees random events, we should search thoroughly for a simple explanation (複製可能性の欠如は、eSpに懐疑的な主な理由の1つですが、もう1つの理由は節約です。馬が数学をやっている、または人がランダムな出来事を予見していると誰かが主張する場合、簡単な説明を徹底的に探さなければなりません) 逸話や舞台公演は、制御されていない条件下で行われるため、科学的証拠としてはほとんど価値がない
Forensic Psychology
area of psychology that applies the science and practice of psychology to issues within and related to the justice system
transformational leader
articulates a vision of the future, intellectually stimulates subordinates and motivates them to use their imagination to advance the organization
reliability
as the repeatability of its scores.
Cross sectional studies (research methods)
assess a number of people at different ages at one point in time; measures differences between individuals of different ages; problem is the cohort effect, which is when differences occur not because of biological age but environmental time period (shared generational experiences rather than age)
Longitudinal studies (research methods)
assess same participants over long period of time to find whether age groups differ AND how individuals change over time
Occipital lobe
at the rear of the head, is specialized for vision.
Explanations of classical conditioning
at the start of conditioning, activity in the UCS center automatically activates the UCR center; after sufficient parings of the CS and UCS, a connection develops between the CS and UCS centers. Afterward, activity in the CS center flows to the UCS center and therefore excites the UCR center
bisexuality
attraction to both sexes
Parenting & Childhood Socioemotional Development (socioemotional child development)
authoritarian parenting, authoritative parenting, neglectful parenting, and permissive parenting
Mean
average the sum of all the scores divided by the total number of scores. The mean is especially useful if the scores approximate the normal distribution (or normal curve), a symmetrical frequency of scores clustered around the mean.
double-blind study,
both the observer and the participants are unaware of which participants received which treatment. 観察者と参加者の両方が、どの参加者がどの治療を受けたかを知らない。もちろん、研究を組織化した実験者は、どの参加者がどの手順を受けたかについて記録を残す必要があるでしょう（すべての手順をこの手順で行う場合は、「トリプルブラインド」と呼ばれます）
vicarious reinforcement (vicarious punishment)
by substituting someone else's experience for your own.
Evolution of human behavior
certain aspects of human behavior, such as the infant grasp reflex, make no sense except as an evolutionary carryover from ancestors for whom the behavior was useful. however, it is important to distinguish between convincing evolutionary explanations and speculative explanations that await further research.
plasticity 可塑性
change as result of experience
parasympathetic nervous system 副交感神経系
controlled by cells at the top and bottom levels of the spinal cord, decreases heart rate, increases digestive activities, and in general promotes body activities that take place during rest and relaxation
cellular-clock theory, biological themes of aging (physical adult development)
cells can divide ~100 times, but as aging occurs, cells become less dividable
Autonomic nervous system 自律神経系
controls the heart, digestive system, and other organs
Spinal cord 脊髄
controls the muscles from the neck nown
egocentrism (adolescent cognitive development)
characteristic of adolescent thinking, especially early adolescent thinking; individual is both unique and invincible
hormones ホルモン
chemicals released by glands and conveyed by the blood to alter activity in various organs
estrogen; pubertal change/puberty (adolescent physical development)
class of sex hormones predominant in females, produced by ovaries
androgen; pubertal change/puberty (adolescent physical development)
class of sex hormones predominant in males, produced by testes
Visceral responses 内臓反応
classical conditioning i.e. visceral organs
infant attachment (socioemotional child development)
close emotional bond between infant and caregiver; this attachment is instictive and *the attachment provides foundation for later development*
Results
collecting data according to study design
preparedness 覚悟
concept that evolution has prepared us to learn some associations more easily than others evolution has prepared us and other animals to learn some associations more readily than others.
Prenatal development cycle (physical child development)
conception (sperm cell + egg) to zygote to fetus
All neurons are what?
connected -some neurons are connected to (afew, 100, 200, 1000) other neurons
Cell body
contains the nucleus of the cell
Pons and Medulla ポンと髄質
control the muscles of the head
sympathetic nervous system 交感神経系
controlled by a chain of cells lying just outside the spinal cord, increases heart rate, breathing rate, sweating, and other processes that are important for vigorous fight or flight activities
Stimulants 覚せい剤
drugs that increase energy, alertness, and activity
Narcotics 麻薬
drugs that produce drowsiness, insensitivity to pain, and decreased responsivness
Intimacy vs. Isolation (early adulthood socioemotional development)
individuals either form intimate relationships or become socially isolated; emerging adulthood pushes stage later
Sex-linked and sex-limited genes.
genes on the X or y chromosome are sex linked. an X-linked recessive gene will show its effects more frequently in males than in females. a sex-limited gene is present in both sexes, but it affects one more than the other.
Deadlines
deadlines motivate people to work harder. setting deadlines for parts of an assignment can spread out the task
epigenetics エピジェネティクス
deals with changes in gene expression as a result of environmental influences without modification of the DNA sequence experiences can modify the expression of genes.
Flynn effect
decade by decade, generation by generation, people's raw scores on IQ tests have gradually increased, and to keep up with this trend, test makers have had to make the tests harder. to keep the mean score at 100, authors of IQ tests have had to revise the tests periodically, always making them more difficult. That is, raw performance has been increasing steadily. The reasons for this trend are unknown.
habituate 慣れた
decline in esponse
delay of gratification
declining a pleasant activity now in order to get greater pleasure later
delay of gratification
declining a pleasant activity now in order to get greater pleasure later, youngsters that waited for a marshmellow had a more succesful life years later
Endorphins エンドルフィン
decrease pain and increase pleasure
Punishment
decreases the probability of a response
norms
descriptions of how frequently various scores occur.
Monozygotic twins 一卵性双生児
develop from a single fertilized egg(zygote) and therefore have identical genes
dizygotic twins 二卵性双子
develop from two eggs and share only half of their genes
School Psychology
devoted to counseling children in elementary and secondary schools who have academic or emotional problems
Radical behaviorists
do not deny that private events such as hunger or fear exists but they consider the terms unhelpful; deny that hunger, fear, or other internal, private events cause behavior; any internal state is caused by events in the environment
Showing classical conditioning with unexpected
drug tolerance
Depressants うつ病
drugs that decrease arousal, such as alcohol and anxiolytics
Hemispheres of the brain
each brain hemisphere controls the opposite side of the body. The left hemisphere of the human brain is specialized for language in most people. The right hemisphere is important for understanding spatial relation- ships and for interpreting emotional expressions.
Disequilibrium principle of reinforcement 強化の不均衡原理
each of us has a normal "equilibrium" state in which we divide our time among various activates. If you have had a limited opportunity to engage in one of your behaviors, you are in disequilibrium, and an opportunity to increase that behavior, getting back to equilibrium, will be reinforcing
adolescent brain (adolescent physical development)
early development of amygdala means there is high emotion early in development; later development of prefrontal cortex means there is slow development of reason/decision making *strong emotion but inability to control it => increased risk taking and uncontrolled impulses*
recessive 劣性
effects appear only if the dominant gene is absent
Opiates オピエート
either natural drugs derived from the opium poppy or synthetic drugs with a chemical structure resembling natural opiates opiate drugs bind to endorphin receptors in the nervous system. The immediate effect of opiates is pleasure and relief from pain.
single-blind study,
either the observer or the participants are unaware of which participants received which treatment 観察者または参加者のどちらも、どの参加者がどの治療を受けたかを知らない
empiricist approach
emphasizes role of experience as central force of cognitive and perceptual development
human-relations approach
employees like variety in their job, a sense of accomplishment, and a sense of responsibility.
authoritative parenting (socioemotional child development)
encourages child to be independent but still places limits and controls on behavior; results in socially competent, self-reliant, and socially responsible people; ideal parenting
Shaping シェーピング (Shaping of Responses)
establishing a new response by reinforcing successive approximations to it 個体の行動のうち正しい反応に近いものを強化することによって、次第にその反応を増加させる訓練手続き ___ is a technique for training subjects to per- form acts by reinforcing them for successive approximations to the desired behavior.
Edward L. Thorndike
founder of operant conditioning Learning Curve to graph changes in successive trails of cats learning to escape from a box a simple behaviorist explanation of learning by cat ->revolutionized the study of animal learning, Cat learned to make what- ever response opened the box, especially if the box opened quickly. They learned by trial and error. And it inconsistently improved its speed of escape.
interest in animal learning
from both scientific and philosophical roots
Marijuana マリファナ
excites netative feedback receptors of both excitatory and inhibitory transmitters marijuana's active compound, thc, acts on abun- dant receptors. marijuana acts on receptors on the presyn- aptic neuron, putting the brakes on release of both excitatory and inhibitory transmitters. (
Brain plasticity
experiences alter brain connections. prolonged unusual experiences—such as in musicians who practice many hours a day—change the brain in profound ways.
Neurons do what?
fire to each other -sending signals or messages -some fire more often than others -changes moment to moment
Birds of a feather
flock together
Information Processing Theory
focuses on specific cognitive processes like how individuals encode, manipulate, monitor, and handle information; deals with process of executive functioning; executive functioning might be fostered in part by experience i.e. reading imaginative book may lead to more imaginative problem solving ex: children w/ better working memory and those who develop executive functioning earlier are more advanced in reading comprehension/math/problem solving
Operational definitions. 運用定義
for many purposes, psychologists use operational definitions, which state how to measure a phenomenon or how to produce it. a definition that specifies the operations (or procedures) used to produce or measure something, ordinarily a way to give it a numerical value. y
mirror neurons ミラーニューロン
found in several brain areas but especially in the frontal cortex, are active when you make a movement and also when you watch someone else make a similar movement
Newborn reflexes (physical child development)
genetically wired/innate reflexes that are crucial to survival; suck/swallow, holding breath when dropped in water, coughing/blinking/yawning (permanent), and automatic grasping (disappears)
Zygote to fetus cycle; prenatal development (physical child development)
germinal period (weeks 1 & 2) where zygote amasses and attaches to uterine wall embryonic period (weeks 3-8) where cells differentiate and organs/features develop fetal period (months 2-9) where fetus grows from size of bean to baby size
Endocrine system 内分泌系
glands that produce hormones and release them into the blood
evolution 進化
gradual change in the frequency of various genes from one generation to the next genes that increase the probability of survival and reproduction become more common in the next generation.
cross-cultural sample,
groups of people from at least two cultures. 世界中の人間について話したい心理学者は、異文化間のサンプル、少なくとも2つの文化からの人々のグループを必要とします。異文化間サンプリングは、費用、言葉の壁、そして文化によっては見慣れない作業に参加したがらないという理由で困難
Short range self regulation benefits
have a more succesful life because of this type of regulation
Down syndrome
have a variety of physical and medical impairments as a result of having an extra copy of chromosome
Anxiolytic drugs ( tranquilizers )
help people relax.
James Marcia's Theory on Identity Status (socioemotional adolescent development)
identity status describes a person's position in the development of an identity - exploration, dimension 1: investigating various options for career & personal values - commitment, dimension 2: making a decision about which identity path to follow *identity is actively constructed*
Avoidance learning (negative reinforcement)
if it prevents the outcome altogether
Discrimination 差別
if reinforcement occurs for responding to one stimulus and not another, thus yielding a response to one stimulus and not another animals (including people) learn to respond differently to stimuli that predict different outcomes. きのこ狩りは食用の種類を選び、有毒な種類を残すことを学ぶ
Escape learning (negative reinforcement)
if the response stops an outcome
"Bobo" doll experiments
implication was that the children were imitating the aggressive behavior they had witnessed in the film
primary motor cortex 一次運動皮質
important for controlling fine movements (moving a finger or wiggling a toe)
Burden of proof 立証責任
in any dispute, the side that should be capable of presenting clear evidence has the obligation to do so. When A wants B to believe some face, B cannot believe it, but B cannot say that the face is wrong until B proves it is wrong. 科学と同様に、証明の責任は、それが真実であるならば、証明可能であるべきであると主張する 「いくつかの物が落ちる」という主張のために、立証責任は主張を支持する人すべてにある。 「すべての物が落ちる」という主張については、もちろん誰もがそれを証明することはできないので、証明の重荷はその主張を疑う人にある
Case history
in depth report about the details of a specific case
What is the difference between operant and classical conditioning?
in operant conditioning, the subject's behavior produces an outcome that affects future behavior. In classical conditioning, the subject's behavior has no effect on the outcome (the presentation of either the CS or UCS) オペラントコンディショニングでは、被験者の行動は将来の行動に影響を与える結果を生み出します。古典的条件付けでは、被験者の行動は結果（CSまたはUCSのいずれかの提示）に影響を及ぼしません 典的条件付けは主に唾液分泌および消化などの内臓反応（すなわち内臓の反応）に適用され、一方、オペラント条件付けは主に骨格反応（すなわち脚の筋肉、腕の筋肉などの動き）に適用
Development of genitals
in the early stages of development, the human fetus possesses anatomical structures that may develop into either male genitals (if testosterone levels are high enough) or female genitals (if testosterone levels are lower).
ethnic identity (socioemotional adolescent development)
individuals in minority ethnic groups struggle to develop identity because of majority culture's views on their minority culture; strong ethnic identity buffers adolescents from discrimination; biculturalism is identifying partly with minority culture and partly with majority culture
Birdsong learning
infant birds of some species must hear their songs during a sensitive period early in life if they are to develop a fully normal song the following spring. during the early learning, the bird makes no response and receives no reinforcement. For most species, song is limited to males during the mating season. ->the male learns most readily during a sensitive period early in his first year of life (marler, 1997). similarly, human children learn language most easily when they are young. Learning song ≠classical and operant conditioning
avoidant attachment (socioemotional child development)
infant does not realize mother has left
anxious/ambivalent attachment (socioemotional child development)
infant is distressed when mother leaves and angry when she returns
secure attachment (socioemotional child development)
infant uses caregiver (typically mother) as a secure base from which to explore environment; in strange situation, securely attached infant is upset when mother leaves, and confidently curious but attached when mother is present
Communication between the cerebral cortex and the rest of the body
information from the cerebral cortex passes to the medulla and then into the spinal cord. The medulla and spinal cord receive sensory input from the periphery and send out- put to the muscles and glands.
the action potential
information is conveyed along an axon by an action potential, which is regenerated without loss of strength at each point along the axon.
Mind and Brain are?
inseparable, "mess with one mess with both"
Myelin
insulating sheath that speeds up the transmission of impulses along an axon.
psychometric approach
intelligence, based on the measurement of individual differences in performance
Raymond Cattell
intelligence: fluid & crystal intelligence; personality testing
Charles Spearman
intelligence; found that specific mental talents were highly correlated, concluded that all cognitive abilities showed a common core which he labeled 'g' (general ability), developed intelligence tests
Brain cells are?
interconnected in networks
Extrinsic motivation
is based on the rewards the act might bing or the punishments it might avoid
Job satisfaction
is strongly correlated with an individual's interest in the job, and moderately correlated with good performance on the job. people with a happy disposition are more likely than others to be satisfied with their jobs, as are older workers in general. Job satisfaction also requires a perception that the pay scale is fair.
Operant conditioning (instrumental conditioning) オペラント条件づけ
is the process of changing behavior by providing a reinforcement after a response operant conditioning is the process of controlling the rate of a behavior through its consequences. 私たちの行動は、ネズミやハトのそれと同じように、その結果に依存 http://psycholang.com/rainforcement http://psycholang.com/reinforcementschedule
parietal lobe 頭頂葉
just anterior (forward) form the occiptial lobe, is specialized for the body senses including touch, pain, temperature, and awareness of the location of body parts in space
What is the developer's role in development?
key aspect of development is seeking optimal experiences in life, which means developing beyond genetic inheritance and environment
early adulthood cognition (cognitive adult development)
key aspects of cognitive development are deciding on particular worldview, recognizing worldviews are subjective, and understanding diverse worldview should be acknowledged
Glia
kind of cell that supports the neurons in many ways such as by insulating them, synchronizing activity among neighboring neurons, and removing waste products.
Negative reinforcement
kind of reinforcement (not punishment), and therefore, it increases the frequency of a behavior. It is "negative" because the reinforcement is the absence of something
Intelligence doesn't mean what?
knowledge
neglectful parenting (socioemotional child development)
lack of parental involvement in child's life; results in children who are less socially competent, bad at independence, and bad at self-control
hemispheres 半球
left and right
estradiol
levels of the hormone increases more in females
hypothalamus 視床下部
located just below the thalamus, is important for hunger, thirst, temperature regulation, sex, and other motivational behaviors
temporal lobe 側頭葉
located toward the left and right sides of the head, is the main area for hearing and certain aspects of vision
Pre-commitment
locking into a strategy will help in the long term
Job Burn Out
long-lasting sense of mental and physical exhaustion and discouragement
job burnout
long-lasting sense of mental and physical exhaustion and discouragement some people have a long-lasting discouragement that alienates them from their job and their coworkers.
middle adulthood cognition (cognitive adult development)
longitudinal studies give evidence that middle adulthood is when many people reach peak level for intellectual skills
Allostasis
maintaining levels of biological conditions that vary according to an individual's needs and circumstances
Generativity vs. Stagnation (middle adulthood socioemtional development)
making contribution to next generation (includes but not limited to parenthood)
testosterone
male fetuses secrete higher levels of the hormone
Test anxiety and stereotype threat
many Black students perform worse on tests after any reminder of the stereotype of Black students scoring poorly on such tests. awareness of stereotypes also impairs performance of other groups. however, some simple procedures can weaken this threat.
Evolution of behavior
many examples of animal behavior can be explained as evolutionary adaptations to a particular environment or way of life.
the structuralists
mental events by asking people to describe their sensations, experiences, and so forth other psychologists wanted to get as far away from that approach as possible, because statements about mental states explained nothing:
Chief components of social learning
modeling and imitation
How does IQ do with reliability and validity on the future?
moderate predictors -correct status -income -teen pregnancy -arrest / conviction / prison -health and wellbeing
Learning about brain functions
modern technology enables researchers to develop images showing the structure and activity of various brain areas in living, waking people. such methods are powerful, but the results should be interpreted with caution.
Kohlberg's Theory on Moral Development in Childhood
moral development consists of three general levels 1. preconventional level, with moral reasoning based on consequences of behavior such as punishments/rewards from external world (personal jail time if bread is stolen to feed starving family) 2. conventional level, where individual abides by standards learned from society (stealing bread to feed starving family is a violation of societal law & order) 3. postconventional level, where individual recognizes alternative moral courses, explores options, then develops personal moral code (starving family is more important than societal law & order, so bread must be stolen anyway) - moral development advances because of the maturation of thought & discussion of morals with someone at higher stage
high self esteem
more apt to handle failure better, emphasize the positive and to take more risks
B. F. Skinner
most influential radical behaviorist Tested punishment in a famous laboratory study. often used operant conditioning He also demonstrate sharping and chaining by rat 最初に食料を奪われたラットに食料を得るためにバーを押すように訓練し、そして彼は彼らのプレスを強要することを止めた。最初の10分間、何人かのラットはB. skinner（1938）が有名な実験室での罰をテストしなかっただけではありませんでした。罰を受けたネズミは一時的にふくれを抑制しましたが、長期的には罰を受けていないネズミと同じくらい多くの回数押されましたが、棒を押す度に毎回平手打ちを受けました。スキナーの食糧奪われたネズミは、他に探し求める方法がない＝keep pushing ex) you will keep breathing even thought you get spanking. Now, spanking is illegal in europe. In china, they still use spanking. -> using spanking = family which has stress condition, much parental conflict, or other factors with other factors that might lead to misbehaviors. Children learn spanking is usual, so they have bad behavior when they are drunk
Intelligence is generally...
multi-purposeful thinking skill like -reasoning -ability to solve novel problem (never been taught) -rapid learning -verbal abilities -applying knowledge to accomplish task -and more
Goals
must be specific, difficult, and realistic in order to be effective, if it is too difficult, anxiety takes over, people sometimes make risky, and dangerous decisions to achieve too difficult ones Common Error: People underestimate the time it will take for the task to be completed
assimilation; Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development (cognitive child development)
occurs when individuals incorporate new information into existing knowledge i.e. *applying old information to new scenarios*
What are nature and nurture and how do influence development?
nature: someone's biological inheritance nurture: someone's environmental and social experiences
White males preform worse on math test if asked to indicated whether they are asian or white
negative stereotype examples
Women preform worse on math test if asked to indicate whether they are male or female
negative stereotype examples
Prejudice
negative thoughts and feelings toward members of some groups
peripheral nervous system 末梢神経系
nerves connecting the spinal cord with the rest of the body
Dizygotic Twins
non-identical twins
Intelligence and IQ are what?
not synonyms -IQ can be directly seen -Intelligence cant be directly observed
sex-limited gene 性制限遺伝子
occurs equally in both sexes but exerts its effects mainly or entirely in one or the other
Extinction 絶滅
occurs if responses stop producing reinforcements to extinguish a classically conditioned response, repeatedly present the conditioned stimulus (CS) without the unconditioned stimulus (UCS). That is, the acquisition of a response occurs when the CS predicts the UCS; extinction occurs when the CS no longer predicts the UCS A conditioned response can be extinguished by repeatedly presenting the conditioned stimulus by itself in operant conditioning, a response is extinguished if it is no longer followed by reinforcement. 反応が強化を生み出さなくなると絶滅が起こる ＝＞以前は特定のビデオゲームを楽しんでいましたが、最後の数回は退屈に思えたので、ゲームをやめます。 古典的な条件では、絶滅は消滅を意味しません。絶滅は反応を抑制します 滅は忘れることと同じではありません。どちらも学習した反応を弱めるが、それらは異なる方法で発生する。あなたは、思い出させたり練習したりせずに長期間忘れます。絶滅は、無条件刺激なしで条件刺激を知覚するという特定の経験のために起こります。獲得が応答をすることを学んでいるならば、絶滅はそれを抑制
accommodation; Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development (cognitive child development)
occurs when individuals adjust their schemas to new information i.e. *new experience promotes a new way of doing/understanding something*
Law of effect
of several responses made to the same situation, those which are accompanied or closely followed by satisfaction to the animal will, other things being equal, be more firmly connected with the situation, so that when it recurs, they will be more likely to recur. Hence, the animal becomes more likely to repeat the responses that led to favorable consequences even if it doesn't know why
Self reinforcement and self punishment
once people have decided to try to imitate a certain behavior, they set goals for themselves and may even provide their own reinforcement
Self-reinforcement and self-punishment.
once people have decided to try to imitate a certain behavior, they set goals for themselves and sometimes provide their own reinforcements.
random sample,
one in which every individual in the population has an equal chance of being selected. 無作為標本が理論的には最善ですが、達成するのは困難
Jacques Loeb
one of the earliest, most extreme advocates of behaviorism. "motions caused by light or other agencies appear to the layman as expressions of will and purpose on the part of the animal, whereas in reality the animal is forced to go where carried by its legs" example of stimulus-response psychology,
John B. Watson
one of the founders of behaviorism he most extreme statement of environmental determinism came from him Watson never had a chance to demonstrate his point. no one gave him a child and his own specified world.
representative sample,
one that resembles the population 代表的なサンプルであり、男性と女性、さまざまな民族グループ、老いも若きも、都市居住者と農民の比率、または結果に影響を与える可能性があるその他の特性に似てい
Skeletal responses 骨格反応
operant conditioning i.e. skeletal movement
fluid intelligence
our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood
crystallized intelligence
our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age
biased
overstates or understates the true performance of one or more groups.
Development
pattern of continuity and change in human capabilities that occurs through life, involving both growth and decline; occurs on three separate levels (physical, cognitive, and socioemotional)
free-radical theory, biological themes of aging (physical adult development)
people age because unstable oxygen molecules in cells damage DNA & structures
Overcoming procrastination
people get started toward their goals if they set specific plans about what they will do, when, and where. estimating your probability of doing something increases your chance of doing it. Making any kind of decision helps end procrastination.
Applications
people have applied operant conditioning to animal training, persuasion and applied behavior analysis
Making goals realistic
people tend to underestimate how much time and effort they will need to achieve their goals. it is best to plan for more time and resources than seem necessary and to start as quickly as possible.
Delayed gratification
people vary in whether they choose a larger reward later over a smaller one now. children who can delay gratification show long-term advantages when they reach adolescence. it is often easier to choose the delayed reward if you make the choice far in advance.
Evidence for "g"
people who tend to perform well on one measure of intelligence also perform well on others, all tasks require one certain underlying ability, Like a runner doing long jump and high jump
intersexes
people with an anatomy that appears intermediate between male and female
stereotype threat
people's perceived risk of per- forming poorly and thereby supporting an unfavorable stereotype about their group.
pubertal change/puberty (adolescent physical development)
period of rapid skeletal and sexual maturation that occurs mainly in early adolescence where androgen; physical changes intertwine with socioemotional development (boys who develop early have positive socioemotional development while girls who mature early have negative socioemotional development)
permissive parenting (socioemotional child development)
places few limits on a child's behavior; results in lack of social competence, lack of respect, the expectation to get what they want, and difficulty controlling behavior
Categories of reinforcement
positive, negative, punishment, and extinction. Positive Reinforcement. The examples above describe what is referred to as positive reinforcement. Think of it as adding something in order to increase a response. For example, adding a treat will increase the response of sitting; adding praise will increase the chances of your child cleaning his or her room. The most common types of positive reinforcement or praise and rewards, and most of us have experienced this as both the giver and receiver. Negative Reinforcement. Think of negative reinforcement as taking something negative away in order to increase a response. Imagine a teenager who is nagged by his mother to take out the garbage week after week. After complaining to his friends about the nagging, he finally one day performs the task and to his amazement, the nagging stops. The elimination of this negative stimulus is reinforcing and will likely increase the chances that he will take out the garbage next week. Punishment. Punishment refers to adding something aversive in order to decrease a behavior. The most common example of this is disciplining (e.g. spanking) a child for misbehaving. The reason we do this is because the child begins to associate being punished with the negative behavior. The punishment is not liked and therefore to avoid it, he or she will stop behaving in that manner. Extinction. When you remove something in order to decrease a behavior, this is called extinction. You are taking something away so that a response is decreased.
IQ test predictions
predict school preformance, also predict future career status, income, risk of teen pregnancy, arrest, etc.
Intelligence quotient (IQ) tests
predict someone's performance in school and similar settings.
Positive reinforcement 積極的な強化
presentation of an event that strengthens or increases the likelihood of a behavior
Surveys
prevalence of behavior, feelings, beliefs based on people's responses to questions
reflex 反射
rapid, automatic response to a stimulus
experimental group
receives the treatment that an experiment is designed to test. for example, the experimental group might receive some special experience that we think will influence later behavior.
Magnetoencephalograph (MEG) 脳磁図（MEG）
records magnetic changes
Positron-emission tomography (PET)
records radioactivity of various brain areas emitted from injected chemicals (phelps & mazziotta, 1985).
Positronemission tomography 陽電子放出断層撮影
records raidoactivity of various brain areas emitted from injected chemicals
Intermittent reinforcement 断続的な補強
reinforcement for some response and not for others
Fixed interval schedule 固定間隔スケジュール
reinforcement for the first response after a specific time interval
Variable interval schedule 可変間隔スケジュール
reinforcement is available after a variable amount of time
Variable-ratio schedule 変率強化スケジュール
reinforcement occurs after a variable number of correct responses 何かを得られるためには、５回行動したら何かを得るかもしれないし、７回行動して初めて何かを得るかもしれない お金を入れる → 勝つかもしれないし負けるかもしれない状況 逆に、 「次は当たるかもしれない」という状況が常にある状態なので、 ・あと１回やれば当たるかもしれない ・ここまでお金を使ったから勝つまで帰れない と中毒になりやすいパターン
Reinforcement and punishment
reinforcement occurs by presenting favorable events or omitting unfavorable events. punishment occurs by presenting unfavorable events or omit- ting favorable events.
Primary reinforcers (unconditioned reinforcers) 一次補強剤
reinforcing because of their own properties i.e. food and water (biological necessities) 生体の個体保存、種保存に直接関係する場合
Chaining Behavior 連鎖動作
reinforcing behaviors with the opportunity to engage in the next one
Correlational studies
relationship between two variables, not caused-and-effect
Preferential looking; newborn/infant motor & perceptual skills (physical child development)
research technique that involves giving an infant a choice of what to look at to measure infant perception
authoritarian parenting (socioemotional child development)
restrictive, punitive style in which parents force children to obey strict rules; results in lack of social skills, poor initiative, and comparing oneself to others; some cultures lack negative outcomes of this type of parenting
Integrity vs. Despair (late adulthood socioemotional development)
review and reminiscence of life to get sense of meaning or succumb to despair; coming to terms with death
Schedule of reinforcement
rules for the delivery of reinforcement: fixed ratio, fixed interval, variable ratio, and variable interval The frequency and timing of a response depend on the schedule of reinforcement. in a ratio schedule of reinforcement, an individual is given reinforcement after a fixed or variable number of responses. in an interval schedule of reinforcement, an individual is given reinforcement after a fixed or variable period of time. 連続強化に加えて、断続的強化の提供のための4つの他のスケジュールは固定比率、固定間隔、可変比率、および可変間隔です
Psychological Science 心理科学
science derives from a latin word meaning "knowledge." psychologists insist that their field is a science, and they are often defensive about it, when faced with skepticism. サイエンスという言葉はラテン語で「知識」を意味しています。心理学者は自分の分野は科学であると主張し、懐疑論に直面すると彼らはしばしばそれについて防御的になります。公正であるために、心理学は多くの点で他の科学分野とは異なります
genes 遺伝子
sections along each chromosome that control the chemical reactions that direct development genes control heredity. a recessive gene exerts its effects only in someone with two copies of the gene per cell. a dominant gene exerts its effects even if one has only a single copy per cell.
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
self-actualization: achieving one's full potential esteem: feeling of accomplishment love/belonging: social interactions safety: security physiological: food, drink, oxygen, constant temperature
Pseudoscience
set of statements and assertions that appear scientific, but are not based on empirical evidence of the scientific method
Goal setting
setting a goal motivates strong effort if the goal is high but realistic. other important factors include making a serious commitment to the goal, receiving feedback on progress, and believing that the goal will bring a fair reward.
Gender identity
sex that someone regards himself or herself as being.
sexual arousal
sexual arousal proceeds through four stages: excitement plateau orgasm resolution.
mere measurement effect
simply estimating your probability of doing some desirable activity increases your probability of that action
Axon
single, long, thin, straight fiber with branches near its tip
Robert Rosenthal
social psychology; focus on nonverbal communication, self-fulfilling prophecies; Studies: Pygmalion Effect-effect of teacher's expectations on students
Motivation as drive reduction
some aspects of motivation can be described as drive reduction, but people strive for new experiences that do not reduce any apparent drive.
late adulthood cognition (cognitive adult development)
some dimensions of intellect increase while some decrease; wisdom improves
extrasensory perception 超感覚的知覚 (ESP)
some people sometimes acquire information without receiving any energy through any sense organ. some people have telepathy (テレパシー), clairvoyance (千里眼), precognition (予知), psychokinesis ( サイコキネシス) これらの主張のいずれかを受け入れるには、心理学の主要概念を見直すだけでなく、最も基本的な物理学の原則を捨てることも必要になります。 eSpにはどんな証拠がありますか？
blind observer
someone who records data without knowing the researcher's predictions. 研究者の予測を知らずにデータを記録する人を使用するのが最善です。理想的には、実験者は参加者からも手順を隠します。
sexual orientation
someone's tendency to respond sexually to male or female partners or both or neither
Intervening variable
something that we cannot directly observe but that links a variety of procedures to a variety of possible responses
Observational Research Designs
starts with description
falsifiable 偽造可能な
stated in such clear, precise terms that we can see what evidence would count against it—
Stimulants
stimulant drugs such as amphetamines and cocaine increase activity levels and pleasure by increasing the release, and decreasing reuptake, of dopamine and certain other neurotransmitters. compared to other forms of cocaine, crack enters the brain faster and therefore produces more intense effects.
Incentives
stimuli that pull us toward an action
Discriminative stimulus 識別刺激
stimulus tat indicates which response is appropriate or inappropriate behavior depends on it
chromosomes 染色体
strands of hereditary material
Robert Provine (2000)
studied laughter by visiting shopping malls and recording who laughed and when.
Hereditary influences
studies of twins and adopted children suggest hereditary influences on individual differences in IQ performance, although no one gene has a major effect.
Ariely and Wertenbroch Study
study if deadlines have value, which proved setting a deadline does in fact increase productivity
Methodological behaviorist
study only the events that they can measure and observe; in other words, the environment and the individuals actions; but sometimes they use those observations to infer internal events
Automiticity
sub consciousness things that we do automatically
Vicarious reinforcement or vicarious punishment
substituting someone else's experience for your own
general factor 一般因子
symbol g people's scores on almost any test of intelligent abilities correlate positively with scores on other tests. The overlap among tests is referred to as g, meaning the general factor in intelligence. many psychologists believe the g factor corresponds to an ability that underlies all kinds of intelligence, such as mental speed or working memory. another possibility is that different abilities correlate with one another because the same growth factors that promote any one of them also support the others.
specific factor それでは説明できない因子
symbol s
Method
systematic approach to the study the way of testing hypothesis
Hypothesis
testable question a clear predictive statement, possible explanation for a set of observations or possible answer to a scientific question start with observations, than form hypothesis
Reliability and validity
tests are evaluated in terms of reliability and validity. reliability is a measure of the repeatability of a test's scores. Validity is a determination of how well a test measures what it claims to measure.
Stimulus control 刺激制御
the ability of a stimulus to encourage some response and discourage others
blindsight 失明
the ability to point to or otherwise indicate the direction to a visual stimulus, without conscious perception of seeing anything at all
Industrial Psychology
the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces
Stimulus response psychology
the attempt to explain behavior in terms of how each stimulus triggers a response
Autonomic nervous system and endocrine system
the autonomic nervous system controls the body's organs, preparing them for emergency activities or for relaxed activities. The endocrine system consists of organs that release hormones into the blood.
Mental age
the average age of children who perform as well as this child.
Incremental theory
the belief that intelligence can be shaped by experiences, practice, and effort, malleable
Mind has no control of?
the brain
central nervous system 中枢神経系
the brain and spinal cord
Glutamate グルタミン酸
the brain's main excitatory transmitter, present at most synapses. Essential for almost all brain activities, including learning
test-retest reliability
the correlation between scores on a first test and a retest.
Reliability
the degree to which an instrument or test measures something rather than nothing; repeatable
validity
the degree to which evidence and theory support the interpretations of test scores for the intended purposes (Joint committee on standards, 1999).
obesity
the excessive accumulation of body fat Some people are predisposed to obesity for genetic reasons. Obese people tend to be inactive and remain so even after losing weight.
self-regulation
the exercise of voluntary control over the self to bring the self into line with preferred standards
nature-nurture issue
the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today's science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of nature and nurture
Stimulus generalization 刺激般化 順化
the extension of a conditioned response from the training to similar stimuli i.e. after a bee stings you might fear the sound of buzzing bees, but not when you hear the same sound as part of a nature documentary on TV a conditioned response to a stimulus will extend to other stimuli to the extent that they resemble the trained stimulus. training stimulus to similar stimuli. 新しい刺激が元の強化された刺激に似ているほど、同じ反応が起こりやすくなります。この現象は刺激一般化 有毒ヘビを避けることを学ぶ捕食性の鳥はおそらく無害な類似のヘビも避ける
test reliability
the extent to which a test yields a consistent, reproducible measure of performance
All-or-none law
the fact that an axon cannot vary the strength or velocity of its action potentials
Determinism
the idea that everything that happens has a cause, or determinant, that someone could observe or measure
monism 一元論
the idea that mental activity and brain activity are inseparable
multiple intelligences
the idea that there are different types of intelligence that are independent of one another, include musical, math, logical, etc.
Passive avoidance learning (punishment) Passive avoidance learning
the individual learns to avoid an outcome by being passive
nature
the influence of our inherited characteristics on our personality, social interactions, etc.
Homeostasis
the maintenance of an optimum level of biological conditions within an organism.
Operant stimulus generalization
the more similar a new stimulus is to the original reinforced stimulus, the more likely is the same response i.e. you might for the turn signal of a rented car in the same place as your own
glucose
the most abundant sugar in the blood, is an important energy source for the body and by far the main energy source for the brain
self-actualization
the need for creative activities to fulfill your potential
postsynaptic neuron シナプス後ニューロン
the neuron on the receiving end of the sunapse
Omission training (negative punishment)
the omission of the response leads to restoration of the usual privileges
Cerebral cortex 大脳皮質
the outer covering of the forebrain
brain structure
the physical form and organization of the brain, connections of neurons, can changed through repetition, makes up your whole personality
Behaviorism
the position that psychology should concern itself only with what people and other animals do, and the circumstances in which they do it, without reference to thoughts, ideas, emotions, or any other internal state. Behaviorists insist that psychologists should study behaviors and not internal states such as intentions or expectations. previous events led to the internal states, and therefore those events are the real causes of behavior.
Fluid intelligence
the power of reasoning and using information.
Blocking effect 阻害効果
the previously established association to one stimulus blocks the formation of an association to the added stimulus
Classical conditioning (Pavlovian conditioning)
the process by which an organism learns a new association between two stimuli, a neural stimulus and one that already evokes a reflexive response Ivan pavlov discovered classical conditioning, the process by which an association forms between a neutral stimulus (the conditioned stimulus) and one that initially evokes a reflexive response (the unconditioned stimulus). The result is a new response (the conditioned response) to the conditioned stimulus.
Modern neuroscience & psychology equate what?
the with brain activity
nativist approach/perspective (cognitive child development)
theory that suggests infants possess primitive expectancies about events and objects in the world around them; these expectations are less dependent on experience than Piaget thought; theory contrasts with empiricist approach ex: Renee Baillargeon has documented that infants as young as three months of age can exercise object permanence in his Minnie puppet experiment, which recorded infants looking for a puppet that disappeared behind a castle to reappear on the other side. *This suggests that the puppet exists in infant minds even when it isn't visible AND that infants had expectations about what would happen next.*
Current pattern of neuron firing is?
thought, activity, experiences -Non Conscious task
Measuring validity
to evaluate a test's validity for a given purpose, researchers examine its content, the response processes people use while taking the test, the internal structure of the test, the scores' relationship to other variables, and the consequences of using the test.
emerging adulthood
transitional period from adolescence to adulthood, spanning approximately 18-25 years of age; characterized by experimentation & exploration five main features: - identity exploration - instability - self focus/autonomy - feeling 'in-between' - age of possibilities/opportunities for transformation
transactional leader
tries to make the organization more efficient at doing what it is already doing by providing rewards for effective work
Do early experiences provide foundation for later development?
two schools of thought A: unless child receives warm/nurturing caregiving, they will not develop to their full potential B: the power of later experiences is strong enough to shape an individual beyond their childhood
Your alarm clock makes a faint clicking sound a couple of seconds before the alarm goes off. at first, the click by itself does not awaken you, but the alarm does. after a week or so, you awaken when you hear the click.
unconditioned stimulus → alarm conditioned stimulus → click unconditioned stimulus → awakening response conditioned stimulus → awakening response
stem cells 幹細胞
undifferentiated cells, develop into new neurons in certain brain areas and not others
Discrimination
unfair treatment towards members of a group
multiple intelligences
unrelated forms of intelligence,
Drug tolerance 薬剤耐性
users of certain drugs experience progress weaker effects after taking the drugs repeatedly; Drug tolerance as an example of classical conditioning drug tolerance results in part from classical conditioning. The drug administration procedure comes to evoke defensive responses. 1つの刺激が自動応答を生成する2番目の刺激を予測するたびに、古典的な条件付けが発生する可能性があります。最初の刺激はcs、2番目の刺激はucs、そして反応はucrです
Electroencephalograph (EEG) 脳波計（EEG）
uses electrodes on the scalp to record rapid changes in brain electrical activity
Functional magnetic resonance imagine (fMRI) 機能的磁気共鳴イマジネーション（fMRI）
uses magnetic detectors outside the head to compare the amounts of hemoglobin with and without oxygen in different brain areas
Control
using your brain to think, has a limit -conscious -effortful -usually slower than automatic processes -deliberate actions generally only one task at a time
Independent variable
variable that is systematically manipulated by the experimenter the item that an experimenter changes or controls—for example, the type of training that people receive or the wording of the instructions before they start some task.
attachment (socioemotional child development)
warm social interaction that infants require to survive and develop; Harry Harlow's separation study demonstrates the importance of contact comfort in infant attachment to caregiver; attachment theory does not adequately account for cultural differences or termpermental differences
Social learning approach
we learn about many behaviors by observing the behaviors of others: imitating behaviors that are reinforced and avoiding behaviors that are punished Think of all the things you did not learn by trial and error. instead of not throwing on clothes at random and wait to see which clothes bring the best reinforcements, you copy the styles that other people are wearing. if you are cooking, you don't make up recipes at random. 他人の行動を観察することによって多くの行動について学ぶ 会的情報は、自分でゼロから何かを学ぶことよりも、通常は速くて効率的 http://www.2px.jp/psycho/l7.htm
Imitation 模倣
we learn much by observing other people's actions and their consequences
Determinism
we live in a universe of cause and effect, because our behaviors are part of the universe, it too must have a cause
Conditioned response (CR) 条件の応答 学んでいる
whatever response the conditioned stimulus begins to elicit as a result of the conditioning (training) procedure 条件刺激によって引き出された反応
Secondary reinforcers (conditioned reinforcers)二次補強剤
which became reinforcing because of previous experiences i.e. money because we can exchange it for other primary reinforcers 飼い犬が飼い主に向かって走って行けば、飼い主の口笛は条件性強化である。それによってビスケット（一次的強化）がもらえるから
meta-analysis
which combines the results of many studies as if they were all one huge study. バイアスや偶然の影響を最小限にするための解析方法 複数の研究の結果を統合し、より高い見地から分析すること、またはそのための手法や統計解析
Spinal cord
which controls the muscles from the neck down also controls many reflexes, such as the knee-jerk reflex.
leptin
which the body's fat cells release in amounts proportional to their mass
Dendrites
widely branching structures that receive input from other neurons
Discriminate 差別/弁別する
you respond differently between two stimuli because the two predict different outcomes i.e. response to alarm clock and fire alarm 赤ちゃんのガラガラとガラガラヘビの音への反応または対応の違い
Ethical Considerations in Research Ethical Concerns with Humans Ethical Concerns with Nonhumans
どの実験でも、心理学者は変数を操作して、それが行動に与える影響を判断します。 研究者がボランティアを頼むとき、彼らは何が起こるかについて説明します。知覚テスト、記憶テスト、注意テストなど、ほとんどの手順は無害です。しかし、時々、この手順には、嫌な写真を調べる、濃い砂糖水を飲む、または電気ショックを受けるなど、人々がやりたくないものが含まれることがあります。手順があまりにも不快であると感じた場合、参加者には終了する権利がある 人間以外の動物、特に感覚、空腹、学習などの基本的な過程に関する研究. 動物実験は、ほとんどの新薬の予備試験、外科的処置
parsimony 節約
事実に合っているように思われる説明の中から選択をするとき、我々はその仮定が他の確立された理論とより少ないか、より簡単であるか、またはより一貫しているものを好む。 これは、節約の原則 This is known as the principle of parsimony (literally "stinginess") or Occam's razor (after the philosopher William of occam).
Problems with a Before-and-After Study
前後だと原因と結果を結論付けることができない。これらの人々の多くが治療なしでは時間の経過とともに改善していた可能性があります。 と後の研究ではなく、2つのグループを比較することをお勧めします。研究者が一方のグループ（実験グループ）と他方のグループ（対照グループ）に治療を提供し、参加者を無作為に割り付けました。 2つのグループグループ間に差がある場合は、それが治療の効果を示しています
Partial Reinforcement vs Continuous reinforcement
変動強化の方が固定強化よりも「行動が消えにくい」という実験結果が出ています。 つまり変動強化の方が人の行動を習慣化
fixed-interval reinforcement 定期強化スケジュール
毎週何曜日、１ヶ月に１回に何かを得られることによって、行動が強化 1ヶ月間働くことによって、1ヶ月1度決まった日に給料がもらえる
Fixed-ratio schedule 定率強化スケジュール
決まった回数の反応の後、行動を強化するパターン スタンプを８個集めたらコーヒー一杯無料
Variable-interval reinforcement 不定期強化スケジュール
決まった時間の間隔ではなく、不定期に行動を強化するパターンです。 つまり、いつ何かを与えられるかは分からないという状況 いつ相手からメールの返信がくるか分からないため、定期的にメールを確認するという状況
factor analysis 因子分析
相関関係を説明する共通の「何か」を見つける分析法
Partial Reinforcement 変動強化
行動 (反応) がある時毎回ではなく、たまに強化するパターン