IO Exam #2

What are the reasons that the behavioral approach came about?

- The trait approach was popular in 30's to 50's, but the behavioral approach took over for a variety of reasons: 1. the correlational relationships with various traits and leadership effectiveness were not super high (0.2, 0.3, which means much of the variance was not accounted for) 2. People didn't get the outcome they wanted: people wanted a recipe for leadership success and thought they had it with the trait approach, but the trait people were never able to do what they wanted them to do. That's because two people can be good leaders but have very different traits 3. What do you do with information on traits?- The information is informative but not very practical- You cant use this information to improve the organization in ways we really want to- you can't change who people are, but you CAN change what they do - Ex: What do you do with this information?: people who are taller tend to make better leaders- how could we use that information to improve organizational effectiveness and employee well-being - Most people now take the behavioral approach to leadership effectiveness

What are the 7 different methods a leader can choose to get the most effective approach in Vroom and Yetton's normative theory of leadership?

1. Autocratic 1 (A1): Decisions that are made alone by the leader with the information he or she currently has - ex: A warehouse manager needs to make a decision on how many fans to order for the warehouse in the summertime. She looks up a company policy for how many fans the warehouse needs in the summer and orders that many. 2. Autocratic 2 (A2): The leader goes somewhere else to obtain information and then makes the decision alone - ex: She does not have the information on how many fans she should order, so she asks bob, one of her employees, to go find out. Once he does and relays the information, she makes the decision alone 3. Consultative 1 (C1): The leader gathers thoughts, ideas, opinions, and suggestions from the subordinates one person at a time, then, after getting all the ideas, makes the decision alone - Here they don't just want information, they care about what they think - Ex: She approaches each of her employees separately to ask for their ideas on how many fans they think should be in the warehouse, then goes back to her office and makes a decision. 4. Consultative 2 (C2): The leader gathers thoughts, ideas, opinions, and suggestions from the subordinates as a group, then makes the decision - The group setting makes a difference susceptiblee to groupthink) - ex: She calls all her employees to her office and asks them for their input on how many fans they think the warehouse should have for the summer. Timmy, John, and William all want 6. Riva thinks 3 is enough but agrees with 6 so as to not feel left out or wrong. After the employees leave the office, she makes the decision alone. 5. Delegative 1 (D1): The leader delegates authority to someone else and has them make the decision. - ex: She has Riva decide how many fans the warehouse should have for the summer and goes with her decision. 6. Group decision 1 (G1): The leader meets with one other person and exchanges facts, information, ideas, and opinions, and then the two of them will decide together - Its a group decision that involves two people: The leader and the subordinate - The leader is more likely to break the tie here - ex: She calls Riva to her office. They talk about the company policy for fans in the warehouse and their ideas and opinions about how many fans they think the warehouse needs for the summer, then they vote and make the decision together. Riva thinks they need 3, but the manager says 2, and they go with that. 7. Group decision 2 (G2): The leader meets with two or more subordinates and exchanges facts, information, ideas, and opinions, and then they all make a decision together - Its a group decision that involves two or more subordinates: The leader and 2 or more subordinates - The leader is more likely to get outvoted- which makes this a much different scenario - ex: She calls all her employees to her office. They talk about the company policy for fans in the warehouse and their ideas and opinions about how many fans they think the warehouse needs for the summer. While the manager thinks two will suffice, they all agreed on 6, making the manager outvoted. She goes with their decision. - THE DECISION USED IS DEPENDANT ON THE SITUATION: uses a decision tree- you answer each question and see where you end up- tells you at the end what you should do- there are about 25 of them for many types of decisions - the approach works very well in the lab and the real world, the only side note is that it will tell you to do an A1 or A2 decision most of the time, but people always want to choose (reactance)- so even though an A1 or A2 decision is the most effective decision you can make, you will have people out there that say they wanted a say even though they may not have actually cared because people want the right to choose

What are the 3 powerful dimensions that have been identified in the behavioral approach line of research?

1. Autocratic vs. Democratic 2. Permissive vs. Directive 3. Person-oriented vs. Task-oriented leaders These dimensions deal with different ways that leaders act

What is the Autocratic vs. Democratic dimension?

1. Autocratic vs. Democratic: How much does the leader allow the subordinates to have a say in/give input on the decision-making process in an organization or work-group - Its a SPECTRUM: People likely fall somewhere in between these the - The far autocratic end: The leader makes all the decisions- or the - The far democratic end: Subordinates get to make the decisions (ex: a vote) - Both will have advantages and disadvantages, and whichever is better is dependent on the situation: ADVANTAGE to autocratic: - It tends to be faster when the leader makes all the decisions- This can be necessary or beneficial given the situation. Since it speeds things up, it usually increases productivity - ex: A huge mess spills out onto the production floor of a plastics factory, making the floor hazardous. Production is running many lines, so in order to get everyone back on time and efficiency back up, the floors need to be cleaned quickly, efficiently, and safely. The shift lead comes out and orders everyone around, being receptive to no input. DISADVANTAGE to autocratic: 1. If you only use this you will lose satisfaction- employees, on some level, would at least on occasion like to give their input 2. If you only use this approach you are not using all the resources you have available to you- sometimes people below you might have a smart thing to say ADVATAGE to democratic: - People like it more- all things being equal, people want to have the ability to chose (reactance) DISADVANTAGE to democratic: - It will were on the subordinates confidence in the leader: if you see that the leader is always asking for input, you wonder why they are the leader- they should have enough skill and boldness to do things on their own

What are the ways to maintain equity?

1. Change behaviorally- what they are doing 2. Change psychologically- what they are thinking

(Leadership 2: leadership process- bigger picture approach as opposed to L 1) What are the 4 different theories of the leadership process?

1. Contingency theory 2. Normative theory 3. attributional theory of leadership (implicit theory of leadership) 4. Chelladural's multidimensional theory

What are the 3 different relationships in the equity theory?

1. Equitable relationship - The relationship is (perceived to be) fair and just - Our ratios appear to match - We feel satisfied when things seem fair - Ex: Two production members of a factory that do the same job, Bob and John, have the same input amount- They show up to work on time, they work the same hours, and they work diligently at their job. On their lunch break, the boss comes in and praises both of them for their hard work. The relationship between the two of them seems fair because their inputs match their outputs. 2. overpayment inequity relationship - Their ratio compared to the other person seems better than it should be - because it is inequitable, they have to maintain equity - Emotionally reaction is guilt- Your emotional reaction is what drives you to maintain equity- you can get rid of the guilt relatively quickly- people will often reduce and reestablish equity by working harder (changing behavior) and thinking "I actually deserve this" psychologically (Change psychologically)- then you have reestablished equity and feel satisfied - Ex: On Bob and John's lunch break, the boss comes in and praises both of them for their hard work. The relationship between Bob and John seems fair, however John also knows Fred, who works has the same inputs as they do. To John, it does not seem fair that he is getting more praise and respect than Fred. He feels guilty. He quickly reestablishes equity by working harder on his next shift and thinking to himself "Well I am a better guy than Fred is". 3. Underpayment inequity relationship - The ratio compared to the other person seems lower than it should be - You have the same inputs but the other person is getting more outputs - This crushes equity and changes the level of motivation and effort - It doesn't seem fair that they are getting more benefits than you despite the both of you having the same ratio- you are doing the same thing so you should be getting the same thing- because it is inequitable, they have to maintain equity - Emotional reaction: Anger- People will often reestablish equity by working less or engage in other activities that make you feel like the situation is more fair (like stealing) (changing behaviorally) and thinking of ways to justify getting less (Change psychologically) - People are angrier in underpayment than they are guilty in overpayment because the negative things in our lives stand out more - Ex: After seeing John work so hard, the next day, on Bob and John's lunch break, the boss comes in and says "Hey John nice work out there." Bob is boiling with anger. He knows that he and John have the same inputs and it does not seem fair that John is getting more respect. His motivation is crushed. When break is over, Bob drags his feet when getting anything done, and in the middle of his shift, he goes to the bathroom and takes a two-hour long bathroom break, stealing the toilet paper while he's at it. "I'm the best employee out there and they don't show me any respect." he thinks to himself. To him, things are now fair. He reestablishes equity by changing behaviorally and psychologically.

How do you focus on the desired goal?

1. Focus on the desired goal: Changing what people are trying to accomplish - Facilitating improvement in motivation by having the proper types of goals - Anywhere where performance is important, goal setting is also important What you have to do: 1. Set specific goals - Cannot just tell people to do their best- rarely do people actually do all they can- most of the time you have a little more in you- Need to set goals that are specific so that 2. Difficult but obtainable goals - Specific goals by themselves do not work: The goals you set need to be specific but also difficult but obtainable goals - Energization theory 3. Goal feedback - If you don't know how you are doing, you don't know how you are doing - Its not enough to give specific and obtainable goals, you also have to let people know if they are actually achieving what they set out to do in the first place- if you do not know if you are making process, joy and motivation are at risk (why college professors should give feedback quicker- you lose motivation everyday you don't find out) - You have to know how you are doing, because even the little tiny successes motivate you 4. Time-based goals: - It isn't enough to set specific but obtainable goals and give feedback, you have to let them know when they should have goals done - people like this: They want structure- - If you don't do this, people will achieve a goal when they want to achieve a goal don't 5. Goal commitment: - You need people to buy into the goal- if they do not, they will not have the motivation 6. Employee achievement - People can get committed to a goal even if they did not create a goal

How do groups form?

1. Forming: The initial stage of the group- Group is getting together and forming and the groups begin to develop their norms and their roles - Groups start to form norms and roles right away - What are the rules we are going to go by? What roles do we have? - Where performance starts - Ex: 2. Storming: People push against the established boundaries of the group - Sometimes people don't like the role they got stuck with - With some groups, they do not make it past storming- the storming is too much and the group disperses - With other groups, the storming never ends but the group keeps going - Other groups solve the problem- come to an agreement - If they get through it, they get to the norming stage - Ex: 3. Norming: The group has settled on the norms - This is NOT where the norms start- thats forming- it just gets AGREED upon here by at least most of the people - Ex: 4. Performing: Performing at peak efficiency - NOT when they begin to perform- thats forming- its when they perform at peak efficiency - You have the system of the group down, so you can now perform better - Ex: 5. Adjourning: Sometimes organizations adjourn because they finished what they set out to do - This is not quitting because of storming- you have got through the finished product and may not disperse - Some groups never adjourn - Ex:

(Lecture 10: Leadership 1) What are the two ways to look at leadership in IO psychology?

1. Microlevel- figuring out what traits and characteristics matter in terms of leadership- the traits someone has that makes them a leader or not- what we focus on in leadership 1 2. The bigger picture- The process of leadership- rather than "is that person like this?", it's "how does leadership occur- how does the process go down?"- this is on the second leadership lecture

What is Reward and coercive (punishment) - contingency - response?

1. Reward and coercive (punishment) - contingency - response: - Somebody doesn't do something because of a reward- somebody does something because they think that reward is contingent on that behavior - Contingency is the driving mechanism- You do what the leader wants and think what they think because you think the reward or avoiding the punishment is contingent on that act - Wann ex: You don't study hard for an A, you study hard because you think that reward (A) is contingent on the behavior of you studying hard. If you got an A regardless, you would not study hard because the reward would not be contingent on that behavior - YOU END UP WITH COMPLIANCE: complying for a reward or to avoid a punishment, but not buying into the process- they are merely COMPLYING- This is why reinforcement and punishment is not the ideal method because, while it can be used, if you take the reward away the compliance goes away, you get extinction - You can still use these but they are not ideal

What are the core job dimensions that lead to meaningfulness?

1. Skill/task variety: Giving the person something different to do- just doing something different increases motivation Ex: Warehouse is given a variety of tasks: loading trucks, cleaning, re-organizing, and other jobs. This increases their motivation vs. if they were just loading trucks 2. Task identity: Being able to feel as though they were a part of the task after it is completed- is there an outcome they can identify with? - Many ways you could facilitate this to employees Ex: They are able to see their finished products- they can see the clean warehouse- loaded trucks, and a neat warehouse nearly everyday- this gives them the opportunity to identify with the results of their tasks 3. Task significance: Dose anyone care?- does the task impact the organization or matter- its hard to be motivated to do something that you know makes no difference - Many ways you could facilitate this to employees Ex: Its important that they are reminded of the importance of their job. The company shows the value and importance of the jobs that the warehouse members do- they value neatness and cleanliness at a world-class level, and they report truck outbound successes in the morning meetings. - THESE LEAD TO MEANINGFULNESS: they will think that what they do is meaningful: I do different things, what I do I see to the end, and what I do matters in this organization matters and it is therefore meaningful

What are the three explanations for why people socially loaf?

1. Social impact theory: Diffusion of responsibility - The more people there (the larger the social setting) are the less we feel responsible for getting the group to its goals. - Since we feel less responsible in larger groups, we do not work as hard 2. Lack of evaluation potential: - If no one is evaluating your input you may work less hard - Here, you KNOW you are responsible, but you know you are not getting evaluated for your contribution, so you do not work as hard 3. Collective Effort Model (CEM): Uses the VIE to understand the causes of social loafing. The CEM says that the critical links in the VIE theory (Valence, instrumentality, expectancy) are unclear in group settings

How do you focus on job design?

2. Job design: Changing how they are trying to accomplish the goal 2 ways to do this: 1. Job enlargement (horizontal job loading) - enlarge their job- giving them more things to do: Increase job tasks that people do at a horizontal level of importance- tasks are all the same level - Increasing the number of jobs an employee does improves motivation for a while because it gives them something new to do, but is not as long-lasting - Good but not great Ex: car assembly lines have employees switch jobs every few months- its still putting together a car, but just the fact that it is something different encourages motivation 2. Job enrichment (vertical job loading) - WANT TO DO THIS ONE: very supported in the applied world - Adding new tasks on different levels of importance - Some are on the same level, some are higher in importance, and some are lower - The job characteristics model

What is the Permissive vs. Directive dimension?

2. Permissive vs. Directive: How much does the leader direct the behaviors of the subordinates - Its a SPECTRUM- a continuum- the far end Directive leaders- tell subordinates what to do, then make sure you are doing it- micromanaging- and far end Permissive leaders: tell subordinates what to do then let them do it - Both will have advantages and disadvantages based on the situation, and whichever is better is dependent on the situation: ADVANTAGE to permissive: - Gives subordinates a sense of responsibility, accountability, and accomplishment because they are being trusted to do the task and they are the ones doing it DISADVANTAGE to permissive: - If you are always permissive and do not check in own people, people will think you do not care- eventually they won't get work done ADVANTAGE to directive: - Usually gets things done faster (if leaders have a skill set or knowledge base) DISADVANTAGE to directive: - People might start to think you don't have any confidence in them- autonomy

What is Referent - attractiveness - Identification?

2. Referent - attractiveness - Identification: Referent power is put into place by the mechanism of attractiveness- there is something about the person that is attractive to you- this leads to the response identification- you identify with that person and therefore feel a psychological connection with them, and would like to see them do well- Because you identify with them, if they succeed then you feel that you succeed - if you are going along with a procedure based on only referent power (because you find them attractive and identify with them), if that person goes away or makes you mad, the referent power is gone and you get extinction- This is also not ideal (can be used)

What are the 3 COMMON ROLES YOU SEE WITHIN GROUPS IN ORGANIZATIONAL SETTINGS?

3 COMMON ROLES YOU SEE WITHIN GROUPS IN ORGANIZATIONAL SETTINGS: 1. Task-oriented role: This person's job is to keep people on task - They are all about productivity and efficiency - Ex: 2. Relationships-oriented role: This person's job is to play the role of the mediator - make sure people are getting along and enjoying themselves- diffuse tensions- cracks jokes - Ex: 3. Self-oriented role: This person sees group success as valid to the extent that it brings them success - If they can figure out a way to get what they want from you and not give you credit they will - All about promoting their own welfare - Ex: PEOPLE TEND TO SLIDE ONE WAY OR THE OTHER, THEY CAN OCCASIONALLY ENGAGE IN OTHER OF THE THEREE ROLES

What is the collective effort model (CEM)?

3. Collective Effort Model (CEM): Uses the VIE to understand the causes of social loafing. The CEM says that the critical links in the VIE theory (Valence, instrumentality, expectancy) are unclear in group settings - Most comprehensive explanation for why social loafing occurs The links that are unclear in group settings 1. Expectancy: Your belief that effort will lead to performance is not just about your effort but others effort - You may think your effort will lead to performance, but you cant control the groups effort 2. Instrumentality: The belief that your performance will be rewarded is also a product of if you think the groups performance will lead to a reward - You may think that YOUR performance would be rewarded but may believe the groups performance wont be - Wann ex: you believe Wann will reward you for your performance, but you aren't so sure about the groups performance because Josh is slacking - Ex: I believe my effort will lead to performance, but I don't think my performance because the boss does not like me. The boss does like jack however, and he is in my group, 3. Valence: your value of the reward can shrink in a group setting because you have to divide it up

What is Legitimate and expert - credibility - Internalization?

3. Legitimate and expert - credibility - Internalization: - Legitimate and expert is put into motion by the driving force/mechanism of credibility- there is some credibility behind what they say and you can buy into it- this leads to internalization- you internalize the change in behavior and/or attitude - STAR THIS ONE- This one is the most ideal- this creates a much more permanent change than the other ones- it is not susceptible to running out of something like the other ones are - its a function of how they think its the right thing to do: It does not matter if rewards and punishments are there, or if there is something about the person that is attractive to you, you will think its the right thing to do- you will internalize that change

What is the Person-oriented vs. Task-oriented leaders?

3. Person-oriented vs. Task-oriented leaders: - While the other 2 dimensions are on a spectrum, here they are separate dimensions- you can be high on both, high or low on one or the other, or low on both - Person-oriented leaders are concerned for subordinates' well-being- they show consideration toward their subordinates- also called the consideration dimension - Task-oriented leaders are concerned with getting the task done and getting it done efficiently- they like structure and rules and they like everyone knowing their role- also called the innating structure dimension - Research shows that the most effective leaders will be high in both person and task - Personal and task-oriented graph

What core job dimensions lead to responsibility?

4. Autonomy: Do they get full control of the task- they get to make the decisions, decide how things go down, set their own schedule- if they do, they get a sense of responsibility - Sometimes people give a task and tell you exactly how to do it and you could care less if it works out or not because it was not your idea in the first place - Ex: The warehouse supervisor gives each employee their own reorganization project. Each one is simply given an organizational problem in the warehouse and given free reign on the project

What are the forms of interpersonal power?

5 forms of interpersonal power that you will see in organizational settings: - These are powers you could potentially have on your employees 1. Reward power: People do what you say and/or think what you think because you possess access to and control the distribution of desired commodities - DESIRED rewards- just because you possess access to things does not mean you have reward power- has to be something they like - Ex: An HR has the power to recommend a promotion- The HR person has no reward power over the employees that are not interested in a promotion 2. Coercive power: People will do what you say and/or think or feel what you want because you possess access to and control the distribution of punishments (punishment power) - People will do what you say and/or think or feel what you want because they want to avoid the punishments - Ex: The HR manager has the power to terminate an employee 3. Referent power: People do what you say and/or think what you think because they like you- loyal to you- share your vision/goals - Ex: HR has power because people like him and believe he has the employee's best interest in mind- they find him trustworthy 4. Legitimate power: Power based on recognized authority - Their position within the org allows them to the legitimate right to make requests (ex: seniority, job title, hierarchy) - This is situationally specific- only applies to the organization (can't tell you what to do outside of work) - Ex: People listen to the HR manager because he has that title and has the legitimate right to make requests to them in the organization, not outside of the organizational context 5. Expert power: People do what you say and/or think what you think because the leader should know better - They have the knowledge, expertise, and background in a particular area - You trust that they know what is right, so you do what they tell you to do - Ex: The HR manager has a bachelors degree in HR management, so when it comes to certain issues in the organization, people can assume he knows better- not with everything

What core job dimensions lead to knowledge?

5. Feedback: Letting them know how they are doing. You are giving them knowledge about how they are doing. - The feedback knowledge lets them know that if they are doing well and that the job matters??? Ex: The warehouse manager does not check in on his employee's projects. The warehouse members have no idea how they are doing. This crushes their motivation, because - it must not be important if the boss does not check

Why are audiences arousing?

A critical point because, as you see in Zajonc's theory of social facilitation, arousal drives the process 3 different reasons that account for why it is we get aroused when we do things in front of others: 1. Evaluation apprehension: People are worried about how they are being evaluated- how the audience is judging them - Has great support from research for its role in arousal in audiences - If you remove the ability of the audience to evaluate the performer you lower their evaluation apprehension, which in turn lowers their arousal, and in turn reduce the social facilitation effect - you cant remove it but you can reduce it. Because there is still some, there has to be something else going on that effects arousal from audiences - wann ex: if you present in front of the class you will have evaluation apprehension. If everyone in the room is blindfolded and has earphones on to not hear, your evaluation apprehension will be lowered, which in turn lowers their arousal, and in turn reduce the social facilitation effect 2. Mere presence: The fact that we are going to be aroused simply because people are there - Have support for this even outside of humans- species have this arousal effect not because they are worried about evaluation but just the fact that others are around 3. Psychological presence: How much a performer cognitively focused (thinking, being aware of the audience) on the audience - Sometimes audience members are central in our thoughts- highly psychologically present- and other times they are not - The more a performer is cognitively focused on the audience the more that audience will lead to arousal and will inhibit or enhance the dominant response

What is the attributional theory of leadership (implicit theory of leadership)?

A leader's judgments of a subordinate are based on two things: what they did and the leader's attributions about the causes of that action - part of being a leader is judging and evaluating. when they do that, its a function of those two things - the WHY will effect what the leader does in response Diagrams of leadership attribution (not on test, just an example) consists of: - 1. observation of poor quality- leads to- 2. information cues (consistency, distinctiveness, consensus)- leads to- 3. causal attribution of poor quality (internal or external causes of poor quality)- leads to- 4. the perceived source of responsibility (is the attribution in the environment or the person)-leads to- 5. Leader behavior in response to attributions - ex: A warehouse manager finds that his employee, William, had busted a bag with his fork truck and had not cleaned his mess. William consistently leaves his messes in the warehouse on his shifts, he also seems messy everywhere else the boss sees him (lunch, his car, his house), and no one else leaves their mess on their shift. The manager concludes an internal causal attribution, attributing the cause intrinsically to William, thinking he did it because William is intrinsically lazy. This manager, instead of perceiving the source of responsibility to be something in the environment, perceives the source of responsibility to be William. Because of the manager's perception of the source of responsibility, he decides to reprimand William.

What is the definition of leadership?

A process in which one person influences other people in a way that helps the group obtain a group goal - a PROCESS: Leadership is NOT a person, its a thing- a process- not all people with an official title that claims they're a leader engage in the process in which they influence other people in a way that helps the group obtain a group goal- People without a title can lead- It's not just about who is the leader, but who is leading - Because leadership is a process and not a person, you can end up with unsought leadership: A situation where someone is slated/selected/assumed to be the leader and they don't want to be- some people are better followers than leaders because its the way they are (made up), and if those people end up in leadership roles it will cause a lot of problems- they will not perform very well and may have a high level of anxiety - Wann ex: When students figure out that one of the students in class is a grad student, they immediately let them call all the shots, but that person may not want to take all that on

(Lecture 8) What is the definition of motivation?

An assumed process within an organism that arouses it and directs and sustains actions (KNOW THIS DEF) - An ASSUMED process: We don't have a direct way to measure motivation- we have to measure it indirectly. We don't usually like to assume in science, but you have to here. We usually look at performance as a measure of motivation, its the best we can do but it isn't perfect- we can't be SURE that someone is motivated - Wann ex: Sydney gets a really good score on her test. Is that because she's motivated? Maybe. Maybe even probably, but we cannot be certain. - WITHIN THE INDIVIDUAL: You cannot motivate someone- motivation is an assumed process WITHIN the individual- you can only facilitate the likelihood that someone will be more likely to motivate THEMSELVES- you can only be a self-starter - AUROSES it: Motivation is the "energy" or "engine" that drives action - DIRECTS AND SUSTAINS actions: Motivation drives/directs your actions but it also sustains your actions. When you are motivated toward something, it directs what you do, but it is also an ongoing process ("It doesn't just give the map and so good luck"). Its not a steady process- motivation fluctuates- but there is always some of it. - Wann ex: You are motivated to go to grad school- you are driven and directed to read books, go to class, study, things like that. You are driven to do these things, but in order to actually do it your motivation has to stay with you. Even though your motivation fluctuates, you are still continuously motivated to go to grad school.

How do the 3 overall components work in the contingency theory?

COMBINE ALL POSSIBILITIES TO DETERMINE WHERE A LEADER WOULD BE BEST - 8 situations (combinations): Good or poor group atmosphere combined with high or low task structure combined with strong or weak leader power position that leads to - high, moderate (some control), or low situational control situations and that tells us that we need a - task- oriented (low or high LPC) or relationship-oriented leaders (High LPC) for that situation. This leads to some type of favorable situation for the leader (Most to least) - Task-oriented leaders should be in situations with high-situational (1-3) and low-situational control (8) and would be best in situations one and 8 because that's when the theory works best- This is because the theory works best in the real world in black or white situations, not situations in between - Peron-oriented leaders should be placed in moderate control situations (4-7) and would be best in situation number 4 a. HIGH SITUATIONAL CONTROL SITUATIONS THAT NEEDS, LPC SCORE WISE, A TASK-ORIENTED LEADER (low LPC) - Things are going well with situations 1 through 3, so they don't need to care about relationships, they just want things to get done 1. GOOD group atmosphere, HIGH task structure, and STRONG leader power position constituteS a high situational control situation and tells us we should have a task-oriented leader for this type of situation 2. GOOD group atmosphere, HIGH task structure, and WEAK leader power position constitutes a high situational control situation and tells us we should have a task-oriented leader for this type of situation 3. GOOD group atmosphere, LOW task structure, and STRONG leader power position constitutes a high situational control situation and tells us we should have a task-oriented leader for this type of situation b. MODERATE SITUATIONAL CONTROL SITUATIONS THAT NEEDS, LPC SCORE WISE, A RELATIONSHIP-ORIENTED LEADER (High LPC) - There is SOME control - Showing that you care about their well-being may be enough to get them to feel productive 4. GOOD group atmosphere, LOW task structure, and WEAK leader position power constitute a moderate situational control situation and tells us we should have a relationship-oriented leader for this type of situation 5. POOR group atmosphere, HIGH task structure, and STRONG leader position power constitute a moderate situational control situation and tells us we should have a relationship-oriented leader for this type of situation 6. POOR group atmosphere, HIGH task structure, and WEAK leader position power constitute a moderate situational control situation and tells us we should have a relationship-oriented leader for this type of situation 7. POOR group atmosphere, LOW task structure, and STRONG leader position power constitute a moderate situational control situation and tells us we should have a relationship-oriented leader for this type of situation c. LOW SITUATIONAL CONTROL SITUATIONS THAT NEED, LPC SCORE WISE, A TASK-ORIENTED LEADER FOR (Low LPC) 8. POOR group atmosphere, LOW task structure, and WEAK leader position power constitute a low situational control situation and tells us we should have a task-oriented leader for this type of situation - The employees hate it there, they do not know what they are doing, and the leader can't do much- the only thing you can hope for is a task-oriented leader going in and possibly doing something to get some productivity to occur

What is the "Strength of Employees Growth Needs" component of the Job Characteristics model?

Can the employee actually grow as an employee or are they an unmotivated individual - You can set up an environment that facilitates motivation, but not for everybody - With some people, it does not matter what you do- they are not motivated - Ex: No matter what you do for William, he is unmotivated. You tried giving him a variety of tasks, facilitating the environment to give him some task identity, showing him the tasks are significant, giving him control of the tasks, and giving him feedback. No matter what you do, he sits on his fork truck at the charging station until someone tells him what to do, and he grudgingly does the task. He just has a low growth need- he lacks motivation. We fire him. If you can't fire him, that's deadweight for your organization.

How can you reduce social loafing?

Cant get rid of it- will always have people who are freeloaders, but you can reduce it 1. Make each person's contributions identifiable - Ex: Have each warehouse worker keep track of their different task throughout the day to show to the boss at the end of the week 2. Increase commitment to successful task performance - Bump up the value of the successful task performance - Ex: Recognize the accomplishments of the warehouse each week to make them seem more valuable to the warehouse clerks. This may facilitate each of their motivation to work hard at the task if they know they may get recognized for it 3. Have each person's contributions be unique - This can be hard to do, but if you let everyone do the same thing it is easy to hide behind what someone else did - Ex: On Timmy and Johns's project to reorganize a product in the warehouse John is in charge of keeping track of what the products are and where they go, and Tim is in charge of putting them there. This makes it harder for one to work less hard than the other 4. Increase group cohesion: increase the unity that the group members feel - Make being a member of the group more important to the person - If you feel bonded or connected to the people in the group you will be less likely to throw them under the bus- if it matters to you you will work harder - Ex: After observing that William is slacking at his job, he sits next to him during lunch and invites his employees to sit together. The more William gets to know his fellow crew members, the more bonded he with them he feels. Being a member of the group becomes more important.

What is the component of cohesiveness in norms?

Cohesiveness: How much unity the group feels. - How bonded are the group members? Things that can facilitate or can lead to cohesiveness in a group: 1. Time spent together: The longer amount of time a group spends together, the greater the level of cohesion - Ex: For every week a group works together, their cohesiveness increases. 2. Severe initiation: The harder you make people work to get into a group the more they will feel bonded to that group - This is cognitive dissonance: effort justification - wann ex: why hazing works. They get tighter bonds - Ex: A factory has a competitive level of job applications. The employees go through an extensive hiring process. The people that get in like the group and feel more bonded to the group due to the amount of effort they put into getting in the group. Now that they have put in all the effort, they don't want to feel wrong for doing so. 3. Some type of external threat that might threaten the group staying a group: a threat that might shut down a group - Once threatened, the organization will bond together to try and save their group/organization - After a branches numbers come back as lower than all the other branches, the company threaens that the branch could be shut down. That branch bonds together to try and get their numbers back up so as to not be shut down.

What is Chelladural's multidimensional theory?

Consists of 7 pieces under the categories of 3 components: antecedents, leaders behavior, and consequences a. 3 ANTECEDENTS: Things that dictate the leader behaviors 1. situational characteristics: aspects of the setting/environment that dictate what you are supposed to do and what the subordinates would want you to do - Wann ex: the weather effects what the lifeguard is required to do and what people want them to do. If it rains and lightning, they are required to get people out of the pool but some would prefer they let them stay - wann ex: the time a class is offered is a situational characteristic. If its a night class he is supposed to give them a 15-minute break but the students want him to keep going so they can get out of there - Ex: The night shift is a situational factor that dictates what the shift leads should do and what the employees would want them to do. If the night shift made a hazardous mess, the shift lead is required to order people to clean it up, but some of the employees may think "screw that, its not my mess" and would prefer the leader leave it for the next shift. 2. Leader characteristics: Who the leader is dictates their actual behavior - you are who you are. You cant not bring who you are with you into a work environment. - ex: The shift lead is high in neuroticism. He cant not bring that into the workplace. When people "rub him the wrong way" he cant help but break down 3. Member characteristics: The subordinates training, skillset, level of motivation, dictates what the leader is required to do and what the subordinates want them to do - wann ex: standard for honors vs. regular student classes. travel team vs rec team - ex: the training level of the employees will dictate what the shift lead is required to do and what the employees would prefer they do. He is required to spend more time assisting those that have had less training and those people that have had more training would prefer he get off their back a bit. b. 3 LEADERS' BEHAVIOR: Actions the leader can do 4. Required behavior: behaviors that are required of the leader. These are determined by situational and member characteristics - Ex: Shift leads are required to assist employees. This is because of the nature of the job and because members will need help based on training level. 5. Actual behavior: The behaviors the leader actually does. this is determined by leader characteristics (who they actually are), required behavior (which they may not listen to), and preferred behavior (which they may not listen to) - Just because the behavior is required or preferred does not guarantee they will engage in it. It increases the odds but does not guarantee it - Ex: Just because shift leads are required to assist employees does not mean they will, and just because some may prefer he does not assist them does not mean he wont. His neuroticism may prevent him from being a helpful leader 6. Preferred behavior: The behaviors that are preferred by the subordinates. This is determined by situational and member characteristics - not always a uniform preference - ex: Most of the subordinates would prefer that the shift lead assist them when they need assistance. Some hope he keeps sacking so he'll get fired and they can get promoted. Their characteristics affect what they prefer, and so does the situational factors c. CONSEQUENCES: Performance of the group and how much they are satisfied with the group 7.: performance and satisfaction - according to the model, there are higher levels of performance and higher levels of satisfaction when the three leader behaviors are more congruent.- The group will suceed the most and be the most satisfied when the leaders actual behavior matches up with what they are supposed to do and what the subordinates want them to do - Ex: the shift lead engages in a behavior that is congruent with what is required but people dont want him to engage in that behavior, so performance and satisfaction is low

What is social loafing?

Effort and input is socially lowered in the presence of others - While social facilitating is about how good the individual does when others are around, social loafing is about how an individual does as a part of a group- how much effort they put toward in a group - Critical from an organizational perspective because we often work in groups

What is extrinsic motivation?

Engaging in a task because there is an external reward to gain or external punishment to avoid

What was Zajonc's theory of social facilitation (and social interference (wann part))?

He had a new and improved theory of social facilitation - he reformulates the theory so it accounts the fact that people get better but also the situations where people get worse - His version of social facilitation is more complex than Triplett's 3 steps: 1. Groups and audiences lead to arousal - Audiences are arousing- when you do something in front of others your heart rate can go up, your blood pressure can go up, etc 2. Arousal leads to your dominant response - dominant response: how you normally perform on a task - Dominant response success: For this activity they get it right more than they get it wrong- they are usually successful when they try it out - Dominant response failure: They fail more than they get it right- they are usually unsuccessful when they try it out 3. Whether or not the audience makes you better or worse is a function of how good or bad you are at the task Social facilitation- If you have dominant response success, when you do the task in front of others you will get better Social interference: If you have dominant response failure, when you do the task in front of others you will get worse - A GOLD STANDARD theory: supported by much research: educational psych, sports psych, social psych, IO - For test advice: Focus on the numbers: don't focus on if the person is good or bad at the task, but how often they do the task successfully vs. unsuccessfully- will tell you what kind of dominant response they have - Ex: In a plastic factory, Bob puts together boxes. Everyone has trouble putting these boxes together. At one point, Jim gets a glimpse of him putting together a box extremely fast. He calls everyone over so Bob can teach them how to put together these complicated, poorly made boxes. He attempts to demonstrate, and completely fails. Even though Jim saw him get it right once, he is still unsuccessful more times than he is successful and performed worse in the presence of his fellow employees.

(Impact of groups and individuals) What was Triplett's study (1898) and social facilitation?

He used 2 machines (fish and reel) and put a kid in a room by himself or 2 kids in a room and told them to wind the reel as fast as they can. They were not told to be faster than the other person if there were two. He found. He found that the kids would wind it up faster if they were in the room with another kid - His idea for social facilitation: Groups and audiences enhance performance - If there are other people around, however you do the task by yourself, you will do it better - Some studies supported the idea that groups enhance performance but others did not- some found that they don't change, or get worse - This is where Robert Zajonc (1960's) comes along

How do norms (implicit (mostly) and explicit) develop? (Feldman)

How do people figure out implicit norms? They are very powerful and we often do not know why we engage in them 4 common ways norms develop: 1. A precedent over time: Engaging in a norm because its always been that way - Wann ex; no one sits in the middle front row seat. If someone does not sit there normally, over time no one sits there - Ex: William always loads trucks left to right. Since he started the job, everyone has loaded trucks that way, so William also loads them that way 2. Explicit statement from someone: Someone explicitly says what to do or what not to do - wann ex: Wann tells people to stay away from the front role - Ex: The boss explicitly tells William to load the trucks left to right 3. carryover: Knowing the norm from one situation and bringing it to another - wann ex: In the spring wan told you not to sit in the front row. If you have his class now, that norm may carryover - Ex: In Jim's old job, you could take lunch 30 minutes passed your time without anyone getting upset with you, so when he starts his new job that norm carries over and he feels like it'd be no big deal if he went over his lunchtime. 4. Critical event: A critical event that changes the norms for a situation - Ex: A factory had a construction crew in the warehouse. Whilst putting a beam, it fell and killed one of the warehouse workers. Now no one goes near a construction crew when they are putting something up

What is the background to the equity theory (Walster, Berscheid, and Walster (1960's)) (backgorund work- what the words and definition mean)?

Humans are motivated to maintain perceived equitable relationships between themselves and others Definition highlights: - MAINTAIN the equitable relationships- when you find out there is a perceived lack of equity, you have to do something - PERCEIVED relationships- perception is reality in psychology- All about what the individual thinks is an equitable relationship- Even if someone is telling them a relationship is equitable or not, if THEY think it is, it is. If THEY think it's not, its not (We follow psychological processes, not logical processes) - Equity: fair, or just- not equal. Its not equality, its fair or just - Applies to all relationships in an org setting

What are the identified traits of leadership emergence?

Identified traits that are consistently found in people who seek out leadership opportunities- Once a group has been put in place, at some point, someone has to lead: the following traits are traits that people who tend to emerge as a leader have: 1. Tend to be higher in intelligence than those who tend to follow 2. Tend to be extraverted: if you are introverted and do not want to stand out or talk to people you will probably not want to seek out leadership opportunities 3. Tend to be open to new ideas (inquisitiveness) 4. Tend to be high in agreeableness: If you aren't and you keep trying to be a leader, people will tell you that you are a prick and that will decrease the likelihood that you will seek out a role as a leader 5. Tend to be emotionally stable: Neurotic people are less likely to emerge as a leader - The correlations in this line of research are low- not accounting for a ton of the variance, just enough that we talk about it- the reality is that there are people out there that emerge as a leader and do not have these traits- In psychology there are no guarantees - based on twin studies, 20% of leadership emergence is inherited- if your parents tended to emerge as leaders you are more likely to-they have identified the specific gene responsible for the desire to want to be a leader

How does the contingency theory hold up in the real-world?

In the lab, the approach has a ton of support, but in the field, it does not do quite so well. In authentic business settings, the only time predictions from this theory hold up are combinations 1 (everything is good) and 8 (everything is bad) have support 2 reasons why this theory does not hold up as well in the real world: 1. LPC score is not considered a super important trait- not included in the traits that could be important, and even they are eh 2. In the real-world we dont just have good or poor, high or low, or strong or weak, we have normal distributions- most things in the real-world are moderate, but this theory is all-or-none- black and white - in the lab you can make the situations black and white, but in the real-world things are somewhere in the middle most of the time. Can be black or white, and only in those occasions does the theory work (situations 1 and 8 (good or bad)) - contingency theory gets a D+

What is the cognitive resources theory?

Intelligence has the strongest correlation with leadership performance, but just because you are smart does not guarantee that you will be a good leader. This theory helps us understand when intelligence will matter with respect to leadership effectiveness- when will smarter people be better leaders? - People with higher intelligence will be more effective leaders if you have these two necessary factors present in the organizational setting: 1. Directive leadership: They direct the behaviors of subordinates (tell them what to do) - If you are smart but never use that intelligence to instruct people in a better way of doing things, it does not really matter how smart you are- use intellect to show people a better way 2. Low-stress and low-distraction environment: We have a limited cognitive capacity (we cannot think about everything at once), and if you are stressed and nervous and you do not have a way to calm yourself down you will not think as clearly

What are the two types of motivation?

Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic - An individual is NOT one or the other- its a mix

What is intrinsic motivation?

Intrinsic: The individual is engaging in the task because there is something about the task that is intrinsically pleasing to the individual (the individual likes it- something about the task the individual likes), and that is why you are they are doing the task itself. - If the motivation is completely intrinsic, you JUST like the task- there is no other reason you are doing the task other than it being pleasing to you - It is the reason you do the task itself- not anything around the task. - Ex: If someone is motivated to do a task because they are reinforced by the appraisal they get for doing it, that's not intrinsic. - Wann Ex: Finding it reinforcing in some way: it's fun, it's challenging, it's fulfilling- something about it is reinforcing to YOU in an intrinsic way and that is the ONLY reason you are doing the task. - Ex: I enjoy eating pizza because I find it pleasing to eat.

Why does someone's compliance to norms as a function of either normative or informational influence matter (Sheriff study)?

It is the reason they are complying. From an organizational perspective, you would want to know this. You want to know if they are doing something because they think it is the right thing to do or are they doing it because the feel some type of pressure to do so - If its normative, they change their behavior based on who is around (boss, shift lead, HR, etc). They are not actually internalizing the behavior or attitude, they are just doing it to avoid a negative consequence, so when the people that add that pressure are gone they might not engage in that norm. - Ex: John is wondering if he can trust Bob to handle the pellet machine safely and efficiently when he will be gone for 4 hours. He remembers that Bob follows all safety procedures and works efficiently when he is there. John remembers, however, a time when he wasn't there and OE efficiency dropped when Bob worked the pellet machine. He also recalls that Bob cut his finger during that time and had to get stitches. He now concurs that Bob only works the machine safely and efficiently when he is around as to avoid getting reprimanded and is not buying into those procedures (Informative influence) Sherif study (30's): - based on the auto-connect effect- uses it to examine conformity - On 1 one people reported how much the light moved alone. People have different levels of susceptibility to optical illusions so the answers were all over the place - On day 2 they were brought into the lab in groups of three and were asked how far the light moved. They were not told to come up with a consensus, just how far the light moved. Their answers began to merge - On day 3 they had the SAME groups come in and answered the same question: how far did the light move? Again, did not imply a consensus was needed. The answers merged even more - On day 4 the same thing occurred and the answers merged even more. - You are having the development of a group norm- rule about how far the group thinks the light moved. Now the question is, was it informational or normative influence. - One day 5 Sheriff brings them back individually and alone. - If the person answered around the same thing they have been answering it was due to informative influence. They conformed to the group's norm because they that it was right. Even though the group was not there they gave the same answer - If it was different than the responses they gave when the group was present, it was normative influence. They only conformed to the groups norm because of the pressure the group gave. They were not buying into the groups answer

What is the relationship between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation

Its rarely one or the other - It can be Wann Ex: taking Wann's class because they HAVE to Wann Ex: Taking Wann's class because it is enjoyable to THEM even if there is no extrinsic reward to obtain or punishment to avoid. Rarely has this happened, only three times have people taken his class for no grade (auditing) from the beginning- only in it for something intrinsically rewarding to them - Most of the time it is BOTH: There is something intrinsically motivating and extrinsically motivating about a task - Ex: Bob waters the bosses plants because he likes appraisal from the boss, but he also finds it intrinsically pleasing because doing the task makes him feel like a nice person, which fulfills him in some way

What is the behavioral approach to leadership?

Looks at behaviors that make a difference in leadership - While the trait approach looks at who good leaders are, the behavioral approach looks at what good leaders DO - It deals with how people act. They may act this and act in ways that make them better leaders way BECAUSE they have certain personality traits and characteristics- but someone can be taught HOW to engage in certain behaviors that make them a better leader - Wann ex: Extraverted people will engage in a series of different behaviors form someone who is introverted, but even someone who is introverted can be tauht how to be more sociable- it might not be who they are and may revert back to that when they get back home, but at least for a couple hours at work they can pretend

What is the contingency theory?

Looks at leadership from a person-situation angle - Matching the best type of leader (person side) with the right situation (situation side) to get the best possible performance from the group (group performance) - if we will figure out how to obtain the best performance from this work team, we have to consider something about the leader and the situation they are involved in - Best possible performance from the group should be a goal of the leader 3 overall components of the theory: subject variables, situational-control variables, and group performance

(Lec 11) What is the trait approach to leadership?

Looks at the traits/characteristics that make a difference in leadership - The correlations in these lines of research are low- not accounting for a ton of the variance, just enough that we talk about it- the reality is there are people out there that emerge as a leader and perform well who do not have these traits - 2 lines of research on this: 1. Leadership emergence: Some people naturally want to be in charge when put into a situation- may assume- just walk in and take control - This is important from an organizational perspective because we need to have leaders- people who can take charge - Even more important is leadership effectiveness because if all we care about is emergence we will end up with bad leaders, so we have to also care about how they do: 2. Leadership performance: Once people are in the leadership role, whether they emerged or not (don't have to emerge as a leader to be one, can just be selected) how do they do?

Can you motivate someone?

No. There is no such thing - WITHIN THE INDIVIDUAL: You cannot motivate someone- motivation is an assumed process WITHIN the individual- you can only facilitate the likelihood that someone will be more likely to motivate THEMSELVES- you can only be a self-starter

Conforming to norms (implicit): Why do we feel so much pressure to go along with implicit norms?

Now that we know how norms develop, there are two explanations for why we feel so much pressure to go along with implicit norms: Informational and normative influence 1. Informational influence: Private acceptance - Privately accepting a norm they are engaging in (they have changed what they are doing, conforming to a new norm) because they think it's the right thing to do. - They have internalized this change in behavior or attitude because they think it is the right thing to do - They are persuaded that it's the right thing to do by the information they've been given - ex: 2. normative influence: Public compliance - They aren't buying into it: internally they have not changed their mind- they are merely publicly complying- they are just going along with it to avoid a negative consequence: standing out or feeling strange - They engage in the norm because they feel some type of pressure - ex:

What do meaningfulness, responsibility, and knowledge get you?

Personal and work outcomes - meaningfulness x responsibility x knowledge = Personal and work outcomes: they are multiplicative because you will not have any positive personal and work outcomes if any of them are 0 Meaningfulness x responsibility x knowledge = - High internal motivation - High-quality performance - High job satisfaction - Low absenteeism turnover Each core job dimension and psychological state is crucial and, together, lead to these outcomes Ex: The warehouse members have a variety of tasks, they are able to identify with the outcomes of these tasks, they can see the tasks have significance in the organization, and they get full control of each task, but because they don't have the knowledge and feedback of HOW they are doing, they don't have the positive personal and work outcomes

What is leadership power?

Power: the ability to influence someone else's attitude or behavior - You possess power to the extent that you can change what someone is doing and/or what they are thinking 2 ways to find power in organizational setting 1. design of the organization: titles 2. Interpersonal power- will focus on this one

What are roles and role differentiation?

Roles: Social positions Role differentiation: Groups have different people doing different things - Have to have it to get things done- if everyone did the same thing the task could not be done efficiently - ex: If a warehouse crew came in and all decided to go clean the warehouse while 5 trucks were sitting in the docks, that would not be a very efficient way of getting the tasks of a warehouse done there are 3 COMMON ROLES YOU SEE WITHIN GROUPS IN ORGANIZATIONAL SETTINGS:

What are the components of the VIE (valence instrumentality expectancy) theory?

Says that three components, valence, instrumentality, and expectancy, will ultimately decide motivation - While the equity theory is a general motivation theory that can be applied to organizational settings, the VIE theory is designed for IO psychology 1. Expectancy: The belief that effort will lead to performance - If someone works hard for something there will be something to show for it- it will lead to some tangible performance - Ex: Tommy believes that if he works diligently throughout his entire night shift it will lead to a tangible, good performance 2. Instrumentality: The belief that the performance will be rewarded - You have a tangible performance, and because of that you will think you will get something for it - Think operant conditioning- something that is instrumental to leading to the reward (the rat pressing the bar was instrumental to leading to the reward) - Ex: Tommy believes that his adequate performance on his shift will lead to him getting praised in front of everyone in the morning. 3. Valence: The value of the reward - Does the reward have value to you, do you care about it? - Ex: In the morning, they discuss the night shift's performance. They say "night shift performed well last night." Tommy places little value on this reward because he did not get the appraisal he wanted.

What is the person and task oriented graph?

Shows - High P, High T: BEST ONE: If you are high person and high task, you will get, from subordinates, higher performance (will work harder because of the task side of things and because they will like where they are working due to the person side of things), low turnover (they don't leave because they like where they are working), low grievance rate (don't complain so much because of their satisfaction) - High T, Low P: If you are high task and low person, you will get, from subordinates, high performance (will work hard due to the task), high turnover (leave because they are not satisfied due to the lack of person), high grievance rate (complain because they are not satisfied due to the lack of person) - Low T, Low P: If you are low task and low person, you will get, from subordinates, low performance (due to the lack of person and task), high turnover (Employees leave because they are not satisfied due to lack of Person), high grievance rate (complaining more due to the lack of Person)- not the worst because at least they are kind of scared of you and might quit - Low T, High P: WORST ONE, depending on the job: If you are low task and high person, you will get, from subordinates, low performance (will work less hard due to the lack of task), low turnover (People are satisfied with working less hard due to the person side), low grievance rate (People wont complain as much due to their satisfaction) - The best leader tends to be shared between task and person

What are norms?

Social rules for behavior that we are expected to follow 2 types of norms: Explicit and implicit norms - Explicit norms: Norms that are written rules Ex: laws, syllabus, some work educate rules can be written down, like "don't shout at other employees" - Implicit norm: An implied rule of behavior - It is not written down but you are still expected to follow it - Implicit norms can be very powerful - Implicit norms can be hard to figure- figuring out what the norm is for something can be hard Ex: You give people space when they are moving to get something where or close to where you are There can be grey area between implicit and explicit norms - Ex: There may not be a rule that says you cant come into work unclothed, but that rule is VERY implicit- strong rule you are likely to follow

The 3 overall components of contingency theory:

THE PERSON SIDE: 1. Subject variables: Leader's LPC (Least preferred co-worker) score - 2 types of leaders based on LPC score: High LPC score and low LPC score - If a leader is a high LPC leader, they like the person they like the least- they just don't like them as much as everyone else- tend to be a person-oriented leader-tend to have moderate situational control- they tend to like people more and be more relationship-oriented - If a leader is a low LPC leader, they do not like the person they like the least- Leader tends to be a task-oriented leader- tend to have high OR low situational control- Leaders are not interested in dealing with relationships but take the mindset of productivity as the bottom line - You are just looking at the least preferred person and looking at their score- if it's low, the leader is low LPC, if its high, the leader is high LPC THE SITUATION SIDE: 2. Situational-control variables: the leader has control variables- Situational control- how much control does the leader have over a situation - 3 variables dictate situational control: A. Group atmosphere: Do the subordinates like the leader and enjoy their time at the workplace- if you do, the leader will be able to get you to do more and will have more control B. Task structure: Do people know what they are doing?- How routine or non-routine is the task the group does- routine characterized by: few steps, clear-right answer, same every time, Non-routine characterized by: Lots of steps, may not be a right answer, may be completely new every time - If task structure is high, they do it a lot and know what they are doing (routine). If task structure is low, people do not know what's going on- may be new everytime (nonroutine) C. Position power: does the leader have any power to have subordinates do what they want them to do (do they have one or more of the 5 interpersonal forms of power?) - these dictate how much control a leader has over a situation - you combine a leaders LPC score with different levels of situational control, and those combinations lead to: 3. Group performance: High, medium, and low group performance

What two theories of motivation will we focus on?

The Equity Theory and the VIE (Valence Instrumental Expectancy) Theory

What are the identified traits of leadership performance?

The identified traits of being a more effective leader: 1. Taller people tend to be better leaders: They tend to command more respect 2. Tend to be people high in need for power: Part of leading is having power- if you do not want that, you probably won't be a very effective leader 3. Tend to be people who are extraverted: People who are not very sociable don't make great leaders because part of leading is being around other people 4. Tend to be people who are agreeable: People who get along with others- its hard to be a leader and not get along with people 5. Tend to have a high level of conscientiousness- they are trustworthy and reliable- its hard to be a good leader of you do not follow up on what you say you are going to do 6. Tend to be emotionally stable 7. Tend to be higher in intelligence: The trait MOST associated with being an effective leader- smarter usually people make better leaders- cognitive resources theory - Most of these also have a low correlation, but intelligence has a correlation of about .4.5-0.5 compared to .2 or .3, which is fairly strong

What is the point of the job characteristics model?

The point of the model is to describe to people how they can appropriately enrich jobs to facilitate motivation - Works in any organizational setting where people are trying to perform on some task - Approach argues that there are core job dimensions that ultimately lead to some critical psychological states, and those states will lead to personal and work outcomes - Critical job dimensions, critical psychological states, and personal and work outcomes

What is the model of interpersonal power?

The process where the forms of interpersonal power lead to a change in behavior or attitude Components: - Powerbase: the 5 different forms of interpersonal power - Mechanism: How it works- The construct that puts the form(s) into motion- that makes the forms important - Response (outcome): What does the mechanism lead to? What is the outcome? How the model works: 1. Reward and coercive (punishment) - contingency - compliance: 2. Referent - attractiveness - Identification 3. Legitimate and expert - credibility - Internalization

What is Vroom and Yetton's normative theory?

The theory is designed to give leaders information to make the most effective decisions they can - an effective decision is a component of two things: if it was the right answer, and how fast it took to get to the right answer- not just about getting the right decision but also a timely decision - Ex: You can the right answer on the first question of the test, but if it takes you 35 out of 40 minutes to do it, it's not effective because you have the rest of the test to do in 5 minutes - According to this approach, there are 7 different methods a leader can choose to get the most effective approach

When it comes to the forms of interpersonal power, what is the relationship between the subordinates and the leader in terms of who has power

Theoretically, the leader has all 5 forms of interpersonal power over the subordinates and theoretically, the subordinates have all 5 forms of interpersonal power over the leader - Subordinates have the potential to hold all 5 of them over the leader - When we think of power, we instinctually think top-down, but it goes in every possible direction- employees to management- management to employees, management to management, employees to employees, and so on - Ex: They possess a desired reward of, for example, being spoken highly of to management- the HR guy likes this - Ex: They possess punishments, like talking negatively about the HR manager or giving him a poor performance review - Ex: For an employee the HR manager likes, they may do more things for them and think what they think because they like them - Ex: Employees have the legitimate right to request that the HR manager deals with employee issues in the organization- do his job - Ex: Employees are probably better than the HR manager for a lot of things- The HR manager isnt good at anything and everything- for instance, the employees may be better at doing factory work than the HR manager is

What is Pat William's 7 sides of successful leadership?

There are 7 things that go into successful leadership: 1. Vision: Successful leaders look to the future - They aren't grounded in the past, they are looking to the future- they get that the past is the past and have an end in mind - They may not know how to get to the end, but successful leaders don't start on a path without knowing where they are going- they keep their eyes on the prize - Ex: Jim has just been hired on as a warehouse manager at a plastics factory. When het gets hired in, he immediately looks to the future. He has an end goal in mind even though he does not have the ins and outs of the path to get there totally figured out yet. He wants to create a more efficient space to put all the material. 2. Communication: Great communication skills and great listeners - Having a vision is great, but without the ability to communicate that vision to people and get them to understand and buy into what you want, it does not matter - They don't just talk, they listen, and they communicate in a way that inspires/energizes people- if the leader does not sound excited about a goal, why would you be? - Ex: Not only is he able to look to the future, but he is able to communicate his ideas to his employees and management in a way that helps them understand and get excited about the potential of the organizational idea. He listens to concerns, questions, and add-ons with intent, able to interpret them and take them into account 3. People skills: Dealing with people - Won't be great at leading if they aren't very good at dealing with people - Visible AND available- they are not only around (visible) but they are available to the group (available) - Delegating: they dont think they have to do it all, they can trust in others to share in tasks - Ex: Jim finds good ways to talk and work with his employees. He sticks around from the beginning to the end of the shift and tries to be as available as possible by giving his employees his number when he is not around. He allows himself to trust others to get tasks done- he does not feel like he has to do it all 4. Character counts: Honesty, humility (humble spirit), integrity (Doing the right thing when no one is looking) - They may have a vision, communicate that vision, and deal with people well, but their actual character matters too- needs to have good character - Ex: Jim is honest, has a humble spirit, and always tries to do the right thing even when no one is around. This makes him easy to work with and likable, which helps him influence others to obtain a goal 5. Competence: Having some kind of skill set - Hard to lead if you aren't good at anything- you have to be good at something to lead on that something - What you are good can be many things (Ex; teaching selling, playing music) - Ex: Jim has 20 years of warehouse experience in a setting similar to this and 15 years of warehouse management experience- he is quite knowledgeable about the ins and outs of warehouse duties 6. Boldness: Being the one that can make a decision - Eventually, it's on the leader to make a decision and if they can't "pull the trigger" they will struggle as a leader - Have to be bold enough to do the wrong thing- negativity bias- all people think about is making the wrong decision- have to be ok with potentially making the wrong decision - Ex: Jim struggles with this. He is a people pleaser and struggles to always be the guy to make a bold decision that is potentially risky. They sometimes find themselves struggling to get out of difficult situations because Jim struggles to make that next step 7. Servants heart: - Successful leaders understand that the subordinate is not there for the leader, the leader is there for the subordinates- they aren't in charge of people but they are there to help people - You lead by letting people know you have their back - Ex: Jim understands that he needs to be there for his employees if he is to influence the success of the warehouse- Employees know they can count on him to, at the least, try and help and know that he has their back.

What is the Energization Theory (Jack Brehm)?

There are two critical factors that are related to the difficulty level of a goal - Types of goal difficulties: Easy goals, Moderately difficult goals, Damn difficult goals, and Impossible goals Jack says that there are two things that are influenced by the difficulty level of the goal: - Goal attraction: How meaningful it would be to obtain the goal - Energy (motivation): Motivation can be defined in an energy-like terminology: process/energy within the organism that arouses it- how much energy someone will put out toward something (not perfect but pretty good way of assessing motivation) - For an easy goal, there are very low levels of energy and goal attraction- you didn't put much energy or effort toward the goal- you won't feel very satisfied or accomplished once you have achieved the goal - For a moderately difficult, there is some level of energy and goal attraction- you put in some energy or effort given the task- you feel some levels of accomplishment/achievement/happiness once the goal is accomplished - For a damn difficult goal, the more difficult a task is the more we find the goal attractive and the more energy we put into it- you feel more accomplished once the goal is accomplished - Once a goal is seen as impossible, motivation/energy and goal attraction goes straight down (the cliff)- you will hardly try, if at all- you have to have a belief that you can actually accomplish the goal, this is why a goal has to be specific AND obtainable

What happens if someone is intrinsically motivated and you add on extrinsic motivators?

They are already doing it because they like the activity, but now you are going to reward them with extrinsic motivation - You would think that if they already liked it and you then reward them for it they will be super motivated, but that's not what happens- you get a decrease in motivation. - If you add in extrinsic motivators to people who are already intrinsically motivated, you will likely LOWER their overall motivation because when you add these, you fundamentally change, in their minds, why they are doing what they are doing. - Have to walk the fine line to avoid extinction: If people only do something for a reward their behavior will be more susceptible to extinction. You have to reward and reinforce, but while you are doing that you HAVE to constantly remind people that they are doing the task because they like it. - Wann ex: They tell a little girl to go pick the toy she likes. She picks the red truck. She picked because she liked it. Then, they give her $5, extra recess, and line leader because she picked the red truck. The next day they do the same thing, but tell her she doesn't get anything this time. She is less likely to get the red truck now because you have changed, in her mind, why she gets the fire truck. Before she liked it because it was intrinsically pleasing to her, now she likes it because she gets a reward for it. Ex:

(Lecture 9) What are the 2 ways to enhance the likelihood of motivation?

Trying to set an environment up to facilitate ways for people to care more/put forward more effort/be more motivated 1. Focus on the desired goal: What it is they are trying to accomplish 2. Focus on job design: How it is they are going to accomplish it

How does the VIE theory work?

VxIxE Valence times Instrumentality times Expectancy - It's multiplicative: If one is zero, they are all zero- there is no motivation if one of the components is a zero - There has to be at least some of each for there to be motivation: You have to have at least some belief that effort will lead to performance, some belief that the performance will be rewarded, and some value in the reward - Want employees to believe there is a chance for each of these components: they do not all have to be 10s but there has to be something. If there is, there is motivation. - Wann Ex: You value good grades for Wann's class at a 10, you think Wann is conscientious and will give you a good reward for your effort in the class at an 8, the task is ridiculously difficult, and you believe your effort will not lead to a good performance- it's at a 0. Your motivation is at 0 to do that task - Ex: Tommy values his reward of the boss mentioning a good shift performance rather than praising him in front of everyone at a 2. Tommy only mildly believes that his performance has a chance of being rewarded- 4. Tommy believes that if he works diligently throughout his entire night shift it will lead to a good performance at an 8. There will be some level of motivation. - Ex: A bank offers its employees $5 per 25 credit cards. While that reward might not be nothing for everyone, it will likely be at least low. They may believe they will be rewarded and that their effort will lead to performance, but they will have no motivation based on the terrible reward. The company decides to increase the incentive to $25 per 10 credit cards, and motivation increases.

How does the equity theory work?

We look at our output to input ratio, then someone else's output to input ratio, and determine if the relationship is equitable - We ask ourselves what we are getting out of a situation (outputs) and what are we putting into the situation (inputs) - It's our OUTPUTS/(over)INPUTS - Outputs: What we get out of a situation Ex: Money, praise, status, title, power - Inputs: What we put into a situation Ex: Time, effort, commitment, loyalty, - We look at our ratio, then the ratio of the other person in the relationship and compare them to see if they are equitable (fair or just). If they are, you feel satisfaction. If they are not, you will do something to maintain the equity - There are three different relationships in the theory

What are some consequences of cohesiveness/what happens when groups are cohesive?

What happens when groups are cohesive Point number 1: Performance is positively associated with cohesion: Cohesion is positively correlated with better performance (correlated, cant talk definitively about causation)- Cohesive groups perform better, but performing it better might also enhance your cohesion and make you feel more unified- why we want cohesion in an organizational setting- it can enhance performance- so performance is both a cause and a consequence of cohesion Point number 2: Cohesiveness and performance are positively correlated with one another, but that's an oversimplification: This happens 80-85% of the time - If you really want to understand how cohesion is related to performance you have to look at the two constructs of cohesion and performance and also a third: Does the leader have the support of the subordinates - If subordinates are in support of the leader cohesion is a good thing for performance: If they share the leaders goals, want to see them succeed, and they bond together, that cohesion will facilitate performance. - If subordinates are not in support of the leader, cohesion predicts lower levels of performance: If they do not share the leader's goal and do not want to see them succeed, cohesion is not what that leader wants because they will bond together and try and get the leader fired- one of the things cohesive groups can do to get their leader canned is to not work very well - SO, COHESIEVENESS IS GENERALLY A GOOD THING AS LONG AS YOU HAVE SUPPORT OF THE LEADER

What is group structure?

internal relationships among the group member - How the group is put together- guidelines for behavior and the structure you have 3 critical components of group structure: - Roles and role differentiation - Norms - Cohesiveness

(Group dynamics (mesolevel)) What is a group?

two or more interacting people who influence each other in some meaningful way - only takes 2 - They have to interact and influence each other- once they are doing something together they are a group, otherwise they are not

What are subject variables?

variables that characterize pre-existing differences among study participants - Why we change "causal variables" in contingency theory to subject variable- there is just one variable, and it does cause but you cannot randomly assign this LPC variable to the leader- out of the causal variables, its a subject variable - Its just something about the person