Iran

Elections

Iranians directly elect the members of 3 national level institutions: the president, the Majlis, and the Assembly of Experts (democratic institutions). Voters have no say in who occupies the positions of Supreme Leader, Guardian Council, and Expediency Council (theocratic institutions).

Assembly of Experts Elections

Members of the Assembly of Experts are directly elected by voters every 8 years (This term was extended to 9 years so that the Majlis and Assembly elections occur in the same year).The Guardian Council administers a written test and interview to each prospective candidate to guarantee their academic qualifications. To this point, only clerics have been allowed to run for office.

Expediency Council Members

Members of the Expediency Council are chosen by the Supreme Leader every 5 years, but automatically include the president, the speaker of the Majlis, the Chief Judge, and any government ministers and Majlis committee members responsible for the topic being debated.

Tehran Spring

Mohammad Khatami's presidency became known as this due to his reform programs. He voiced support for independently organized civil society and rule of law. He gave permission to newspapers to criticize the government freely, even the Supreme Leader. He initiated new elections for city councils and committed himself to adhere to constitutional law and insisted that changes to it must go through the proper legal channels.

Geographic Influences on Political Culture

Most of Iran is situated on the massive Persian Plateau, thousands of feet higher than its neighbors. Very little of their land is arable, prompting early Persians to conquer neighboring territories. In the major eras of European colonization, Iran's sovereignty was never brought under the formal control of a foreign power as a colony or satellite state, while its Middle Eastern and Asian neighbors were either colonized or controlled indirectly by either Britain or France

Post-Khomeini Iran

Much of Iranian politics since 1989 has been defined by the battle between conservative hard-liners and reformists who want to liberalize Iranian society. Conflict between these two sides often play out in the presidential and Majlis elections.

2017 Tehran Attacks

On 7 June 2017, two terrorist attacks were simultaneously carried out by five terrorists belonging to ISIS against the Iranian Parliament building and the Mausoleum of Ruhollah Khomeini, both in Tehran, leaving 17 civilians dead and 43 wounded.

Qajar Debt

The Qajar Dynasty was generally dominated by foreign powers and gradually became dependent on them. They were the first to rent drilling rights for oil to a British company in the southwest, and their lavish lifestyle was funded by borrowing heavily from European banks. Persian business interests (who had also loaned money to the government as an investment) became increasingly worried that the government's debt was unsustainable and that the government would choose to pay the Europeans and ignore them when they couldn't pay the full debt.

Shah

The Safavid ruler was known as this, but he did not rule absolutely. There were early systems of "checks and balances" built in to prevent the abuse of power, beginning the tradition of authoritarian rule without totalitarianism.

Iranian Bureaucracy

The bureaucracy has long had a reputation for bloated inefficiency and corruption. President Khatami tried to tackle this reputation, but with limited success. The bureaucracy is often used as an easy way to quell public dissatisfaction with the economy through job creation. There is a clear patronage network present in the bureaucracy, as most high-paying bureaucrats are clerics and their family members.

Religious Unity

The government does not recognize "non-religious" or "atheist" as a designation of religious belief in its surveys, so the extent to which Iranians are nearly all Muslim may be less clear. Clerics have recently complained that they believe up to 70% of Iranians do not pray regularly. Fear of persecution and poor data may be painting a more unified version of Iran's religious culture than the reality.

Just Guardianship

The new constitution of the Islamic Republic centered power in this concept, the idea that the chief interpreters of Islam, the high-ranking clerics such as Khomeini, needed to be responsible for all aspects of Iranian society.

Women in Iran

The place of women in the society is a tense debate. The Shah's westernizing policies with regard to women were of particular concern tot he clergy.

Ethnicity

Persians make up 61% of Iranian society, Azeris (Azerbaijanis) are the largest minority with 16% of the population, Kurds with 10%, and Arabs with 2%. The Rouhani government has committed itself to include these ethnic minorities into government and even his cabinet, as well as giving language protections to those who do not speak Farsi, the official Iranian language.

Union of Politics and Religion

Political Culture: In the Achaemenid Empire, Zoroastrianism was established as the official religion. When Rashidun Muslims invaded the Sasanids in Persia in 633, they brought Islam with them, and replaced Zoroastrianism with Islam was the new official religion. It has remained tied to the state for most of Iran's history ever since and is certainly one of the strongest bonds holding the people together as a unified society.

Authoritarianism

Political Culture: Iran's history has long-running themes of this type of political leadership, but not totalitarian. Iran has never been governed at its highest levels by officials who were elected in free, fair, and open elections; yet the sole instance of totalitarian behavior by a leader (Reza Shah Pahlavi) prompted a revolution.

Powers of the Guardian Council

Powers of the Guardian Council include the power to: Reject any law passed by the Majlis if it is contradictory to the constitution or principles of Islam, Reject candidates for the presidency or the Majlis based on their interpretations of the qualifications in the constitution, and Administer a test and interview candidates for the Assembly of Religious Experts, and determine the threshold that will be applied for allowing candidates on the ballot.

Civil Society

President Khatami encouraged formation of civil society through his liberalizing reforms, but he faced tremendous oppositions from the clerics, and his reforms were mostly reversed by Ahmadinejad. Iran's constitution guarantees freedom of association, assembly, and expression with the caveat that it may not "violate the criteria of Islam, or the basis of the Islamic Republic." Laws allow for government supervision of NGOs, and suppression of civil society is found in nearly all sectors.

Early Islamic Revolution

Protests against the Shah and loyal to Khomeini broke out in Qom city in 1978. They clashed with police and many were killed, but new demonstrations were organized against the Shah as the movement spread.

The Safavid Dynasty

(1501-1736) This was one of the most significant ruling dynasties of Iran, often considered the beginning of modern Iranian history. They ruled one of the greatest Iranian empires after the 7th-century Muslim conquest of Iran, and established the Twelver school of Shia Islam as the official religion of the empire, marking one of the most important turning points in Muslim history.

Qajar Dynasty

(1794-1925) A number of dynastic families competed for power of Persia after the collapse of the Safavids in 1736, and these people took control of Persia in 1794. As Turks, they had no connection to Muhammad, and could not claim the right to rule based on heredity, as the Safavids could. Secularism began to emerge, as Shi'a descendants of Muhammad claimed the authority to interpret Islam.

Constitutional Revolution of Iran

(1905-1911) As their resentment for the shah increased, business leaders and merchants began to demonstrate against him. They were influenced by British presence in the area and demanded a constitutional monarchy with an elected parliament. The shah agreed to their demands and a new constitution was created.

Colonel Reza Shah Pahlavi

(1925-1941) Born Reza Khan, this leader of the Persian Cossack Brigade led a coup d'état overthrowing the Qajars in 1921, and by 1925, the Majlis placed him on the throne on the throne as the new shah. He was an absolute monarch, reducing the role of the Majlis until it no longer acted as a check on power. He increasingly attached his foreign policy to Germany in the 1930s to prevent further British and Russian encroachment, but this plan backfired when the UK and Russia jointly declared war on Germany and invaded Iran in 1941. He was forced to abdicate that same year, and he was succeeded by his son.

Mohammad Reza Shah

(1941-1979) This man succeeded his father Reza Khan as Shah of Iran after Khan was deposed in 1941. This man had to contend with more internal opposition than his father. His strongest opposition came from the Tudeh Party and the National Front, who wanted to nationalize Iran's resources to use in domestic investment and build a welfare state.

Cultural Revolution

(1980-1983) The earliest days of the Islamic Republic were defined by efforts to consolidate power within the new regime and crush opposition. When women protested against the regime's restrictions against divorce and attire, Khomeini launched this to purify the country of secular and western values. The new government removed liberal intellectuals from universities, suppressed civil society, and executed known dissidents.

Iran-Contra Affair

(1985-1987) This was a political scandal in the US in which senior Reagan administration officials secretly facilitated the sale of arms to Iran, which was the subject of an arms embargo. They hoped, thereby, to fund the Contras in Nicaragua while at the same time negotiating the release of several U.S. hostages held by Hezbollah in Lebanon, who were supported by Iran.

Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani

(1989-1997) He was one of the founding fathers of the Islamic Republic who was also the fourth President of Iran. He was the head of the Assembly of Experts from 2007 until 2011 and he was also the chairman of the Expediency Discernment Council. A "pragmatic conservative," he supported a free market position domestically, favoring privatization and a moderate position internationally, seeking to avoid conflict with the United States and the West.

Mohammad Khatami

(1997-2005) This man was elected as the 5th President of Iran in 1997 and ran on a platform of liberalization and reform. Despite his reforms, he was not able to fundamentally alter the theocratic regime. Bills he introduced to the Majlis to reduce the power of the Guardian Council were rejected by the Guardian Council and never got a vote in the Majlis. Most of his reformist allies in the Majlis were defeated in the 2004 election, highlighted by the Guardian Council's rejection of more than 2,500 reformist candidates.

Mahmoud Ahmadinejad

(2005-2013) This man was a conservative mayor Tehran known for reversing liberal reforms in the city, and he carried that record into his presidency. During his "second cultural revolution," university professors were forced into early retirement, independent media was stifled, and there was a crackdown on women's rights.

Green Revolution

(2009-2010) These were a series of worldwide protests regarding the results of the 2009 presidential election, with protesters claiming that the election had been rigged in Ahmadinejad's favor. Protests in Iran were met with violent crackdowns that resulted in at least 36 deaths and mass arrests. It was also called the "Twitter Revolution" due to its popularity on social media.

Hassan Rouhani

(2013-) This reformist serves as the current president of Iran. He encourages personal freedom and free access to information, has improved women's rights, and has been described as a centrist who has improved Iran's diplomatic relations with other countries.

Operation Eagle Claw

(April 24th, 1980) This was a US military operation ordered by Jimmy Carter to attempt to end the Iran hostage crisis by rescuing 52 diplomats held captive at the US embassy in Tehran. It was one of Delta Force's first missions but was disastrous after several hardware malfunctions resulted in a helicopter crash that killed 8 soldiers. Its failure, and the humiliating public debacle that ensued, damaged U.S. prestige worldwide.

Crime and Punishment

Shari'ah dictates severe punishments for all manner of crimes, and Iran's system has employed many of these. Death sentences can be handed down for many offenses, including adultery, drug trafficking, kidnapping, and homosexuality. Hanging and firing squad are the most common methods of execution, though beheading, stoning, and being thrown from a height are legal.

West v. East

Since the early Greco-Persian rivalry, Iran has long been positioned as a middle-eastern power resistant to western influence. Thanks to its geographic position, Iran was never colonized by a western power like almost all of its neighbors. The Revolution of 1979 was largely rooted in resistance to westernization imposed by the Shah who was too close to the Americans and the British.

Causes of the Islamic Revolution

1. Alienation of the Shi'a clerics and the religious community through forced westernization 2. Alienation of Iranian liberals opposed to the increasingly autocratic regime 3. Overly ambitious, unfulfilled White Revolution promises 4. Rising nationalism and opposition to the US and UK 5. A sharp and sudden economic downturn in 1977-1978 which caused protests and strikes 6. Charismatic leadership of Ruhollah Khomeini

Social Class

Social class tends to coincide as a cleavage with urban-rural regional divides. City-dwellers are much more likely to be middle-class and westernized and have much better education levels. They also tend to support reformist candidates. Iranians in the countryside and lower-middle class have benefitted more from redistribution of wealth in the new regime and are more likely to support conservative candidates.

The Iranian Judiciary

The Iranian judiciary is divided into 2 types of law: Shari'ah and Qanun (civil law). It also has a hierarchy of review of appeals but is rarely used, as Khomeini expressed his belief that the spirit of Shari'ah was for local judges to decide cases most often. Courts are divided by function, with different courts for many types of cases, including different levels of criminal and civil law.

Majlis Elections

The Majlis are elected every 4 years, the year before the presidential election. Iran is divided into 2090 SMDs, each of which elects a member in a first-past-the-post majority plurality system, with the caveat that a candidate must get at least 25% of the vote to win. 14 seats are reserved for candidates from minority religion areas, but candidates must be Shia in order to run. The Guardian Council also has significant control on who can run in the Majlis, often rejecting reformists.

Powers of the Majlis

The Majlis has the power to introduce and pass legislation (although most is proposed by the president), approve the 6 members of the Guardian Council nominated by the Chief Judge, approve/remove the president's Cabinet choices investigate corruption and misconduct within the bureaucracy and judiciary, and approve the budget devised by the president.

Powers of the Supreme Leader

According to the Iranian constitution of 1979, the Supreme Leader has the power to dismiss the president of members of the Guardian Council for any reason, command all branches of the Iranian military, declare war and peace, appoint administrators and judges at all levels, choose 6 of the 12 Guardian Council members, and appoint heads of all state-owned enterprises, including the media. He is technically Iran's symbolic head of state, but he is vested with powers far greater than the president, the official head of government.

Mir-Hossein Moussavi

After Ahmadinejad's first term in office, youth who boycotted the 2005 election turned out as active supporters in much larger numbers for this reformist candidate in the election of 2009. When election results were finalized in 2009, there was a great deal of evidence indicating that the results were rigged in favor of Ahmadinejad.

Marja

After Khomeini's death in 1989, Iran's constitution declared that one of these people, leading Shia scholars who are to be emulated, must become the new Supreme Leader. However, Khomeini was not pleased with any of these people just before his death, so the constitution was changed to make it possible for his chief lieutenant to become his successor, even though he wasn't as academically credentialed as Khomeini.

Rentier State

After Operation Ajax, Iran increasingly took the shape of this type of state because the state's revenue came almost exclusively from renting drilling rights for oil to foreign corporations, rather than collecting taxes. It had disastrous effects because the government was dependent on foreign companies and US arms assistance to keep itself in power, rather than the consent of the governed.

Iran Hostage Crisis

After the Shah was overthrown and exiled, he gained admittance into the US for cancer treatment. Iranian revolutionaries demanded he be returned to stand trial, but the US refused. On November 4th, 1979, students stormed the US embassy in Tehran and took 52 diplomats as hostages. The crisis lasted for 444 days and deepened the already massive rift between Iran and the West.

Constitution of 1906

After the shah conceded to the demands of the people, a constitution was drafted in 1906 which established the Majlis and the Guardian Council. The new government's efforts to bring Iran independence was a failure, though, as the UK and Russia signed an entente with each other to divide Iran, giving the southwest to Britain, the north to Russia, and what was left to the weak Iranian government. After WWI, the UK and Russia were distracted by domestic and economic concerns that a fractured Iran was poised for strong leaders to bring about independence.

2017-18 Iranian Protests

Beginning in late December 2017, ongoing protests and riots among young Iranians frustrated with corruption, economic hardship, and theocratic rule. They aim to have Khameini removed from office. As of today, 23 protesters have been killed by police crackdowns, and the internet has been blocked by the government.

Interest Groups

Civil Society is generally weak and suppressed in Iran, but the government has not developed a corporatist model to control and coerce interest groups. Iran is not especially pluralist or corporatist due to the general lack of organized groups. The most common types of groups are labor unions and professional trades, but the government is in control of the large majority of the economy due to nationalization in the 1980s, so private business interests are a very small portion of the economy.

Statists

Contrasting with free marketers, these people believe that the government should take in active role in the economy, redistributing land and wealth, doing welfare programs, and eliminating unemployment.

Free Marketers

Contrasting with statists, these people want to remove price controls, lower business taxes, encourage private enterprise, and balance the budget.

Women in the Workforce

Demographically, about 1/3 of the labor force are women, and that number is likely to grow due to the fact that more than 60% of university students are women. Iran's conservatives are alarmed by this, and a policy was enacted in 2012 to ensure university enrollment is 50/50 men and women. Many of Iran's most prestigious schools were converted to male single-gender institutions, including the Oil Management School.

Bonyads

During Khomeini's rule, the state seized control of companies all over the country, nationalizing enterprises to keep the revolution's supporters employed amidst the chaos. The property of the old noble class tied to the former regime was seized under the control of these "foundations," where their money and property would be used to do charity or regime-building activities. Today, there are about 100 of these groups that constitute about 1/5 of their GDP and are considered a major weakness of the Iranian economy.

Hijab

During the Shah's westernization effort, he forbade the hijab, and police would force women to remove it. After the revolution, the hijab was required attire. Over time, women began testing the boundaries of the rule, using colorful veils and pushing the garment back on their heads. In 2007, Khamenei ordered the police to begin a large crackdown, giving punishments of up to 70 lashes or 60 days in jail to women who failed to comply with the law.

Operation Ajax

Fearful of growing communist influence in Iran, the CIA and MI6 organized this covert plot to discredit Mohammed Mossadegh, the National Front, and the Tudeh Party as anti-Islamic. The intelligence organizations assisted the Iranian military in overthrowing the Majlis, and Mossadegh was arrested for treason. In return, the US received a share of Iran's oil wealth and made weapons deals with the shah to keep him in power. The Shah returned to governing autocratically as his father did.

Baha'i Faith

Followers of this faith are officially persecuted in Iran, and they make up less than 0.4% of the population. All their property was confiscated by the state in 1979 and has not been returned. They are not allowed to bury their dead in cemeteries, are routinely denied admission to public universities and jobs based on their faith alone, and are not eligible for compensation in court.

The Islamic Republic of Iran

Geographical Distribution of Power: Unitary State Relationship Between Legislature and Executive: Presidential Executives: Supreme Leader, appointed indefinitely by the Assembly of Experts. President, directly elected every 4 years, limited to 2 terms Executive Election System: Supreme Leader is unelected, two-ballot majority for president Legislature: Unicameral: Majlis, though laws may be blocked by the Guardian Council Legislative Election System: SMD Party System: Multiparty system, with most parties fitting into a "conservative" or "reformist" category Judiciary: Courts are highly decentralized, with a chief judge overseeing their administration of cases

Mohammad Mossadegh

In 1951, this man was appointed by the Shah as PM after he was nominated by the Majlis. His administration introduced a range of progressive social and political reforms such as social security and land reforms. His most notable policy was the nationalization of the Iranian oil industry, which had been under British control since 1913 through the Anglo-Persian Oil Company and BP. He was removed from power by a coup in August 1953 organized by the CIA and MI6.

The Resurgence Party

In 1975, the Shah abandoned Iran's competitive party system for Majlis elections and declared Iran a one-party state under this party. It required membership and dues from all Iranians. He replaced the Islamic calendar with a new calendar beginning at Cyrus the Great's reign. He also gave himself the title "Guide to the New Great Civilization." All of these events demonstrated how Iran was becoming increasingly authoritarian.

The Iranian Revolution

In January 1979, the massive wave of protests and democratization of the military forced the Shah to flee Iran "on vacation," though he never returned. 2 weeks later, the exiled Khomeini returned to Iran to the elation of the Iranian people. He appointed his own government to compete with existing authorities, declaring it "God's government," and many in the military defected to his side.

US Stance on the Iran Deal

In October 2017, President Trump declared he would not require re-certification of the deal, claiming it is a "bad deal" and that Iran has violated it. Hassan Rouhani stated leaving the deal would "carry a high coast" for the US. The rest of the deal's signatories continue to support it.

Islamic Republic Referendum

In late March 1979, Khomeini staged a referendum of the Iranian people posing the question, "Should the monarchy be abolished in favor of an Islamic government?'' More than 98% voted in favor of it.

Contraception

In the early 1990s, the Health Ministry introduced contraceptives and sex education to reduce family size. But in 2012, Khamenei described Iran's contraceptive services as "wrong," and the government appears to be gutting these family planning services.

Population

In the early days of the Islamic Republic, large families were encouraged. But worry that the massive population would be unsustainable caused the state to encourage only 2 children.

Iranian Nuclear Program

Iran began its pursuit of nuclear energy in the 1950s with the support of the West. After the Revolution, the West cut off support for their nuclear program, and Iran proceeded on its own. In 2003, the IAEA reported Iran was pursuing weaponization after they witheld information about its capabilities. Iran has always insisted that its program was entirely driven by energy concerns, and recent US intelligence seems to corroborate this claim.

Revolution of Rising Expectations

Iran fit this political theory in 1979 because the Islamic revolution was caused in part to the sharp economic downturn of the late 1970s due to falling oil prices, which the Iranian economy depended on to keep high.

The Media

Iran heavily censors private media, with the government being allowed to revoke licenses for publishing materials considered anti-religious, slanderous, or detrimental to national interest. There is diverse media ownership, but over 80% of Iranians get their news primarily from state-owned sources. It is thought that Iran has more jailed journalists than any other Middle Eastern country. Globalization is slowly reversing this, though, with more than 30% of Iranians watching satellite TV despite a national ban.

Consumer Goods

Iran heavily manages prices of these goods by subsidizing them to make them incredibly inexpensive, especially necessities like food, fuel, and electricity. In 2010, Iran announced an end to the subsidies due to economic sanctions and a drop in oil prices. The state avoided public outrage by making direct cash payments to poor families so that only the richest Iranians would need to adjust their consuming habits. This plan appears to have worked.

Oil and Natural Gas

Iran's economy is heavily dependent on these substances, which are responsible for over 60% of government revenue, and almost 20% of GDP. This arrangement has disincentivized Iran from diversifying its economy into other industries, and it has dampened overall development. The state remains firmly in control of most economic assets, including most large companies. Their economy suffers major recessions when there are decreases in the price of oil or economic sanctions.

Early Economy of the Islamic Republic

Iran's economy was devastated by the revolution and the Iran-Iraq War. Khomeini showed no concern for the economic crisis, saying "economics is for donkeys."

Political Party System

Iran's political party system is highly fluid, and there are no stable enduring political parties. Instead, parties generally align with either a reformist of conservative perspective on theocracy, and political conflict occurs between these 2 factions. Results of elections for the legislature are often reported based on which of those broad alliances has won the majority.

Presidential Elections

Iran's president is directly elected in a 2-ballot majority system every 4 years, and they are limited to 2 terms. If no candidate can win a majority, a runoff is held between the top 2 candidates. Iran's elections are considered to be open and competitive compared to its neighbors, but are nothing like the West's democracies. The Guardian Council has the power to reject any candidates they do not approve of. Despite these limits, Iranians are generally accustomed to their democracy and there is not a tradition of vote-rigging in Iranian elections.

Tudeh Party

This "party of the masses" is an Iranian communist party. It had considerable influence in its early years and played an important role during Mohammad Mosaddegh's campaign to nationalize the Anglo-Persian Oil Company and his term as prime minister. The party still exists but is much weaker as a result of the banning of the party and mass arrests by the Islamic Republic in 1982.

The Expediency Council

This 39-man body was created in 1988 as a mechanism to settle disputes between the Majlis and Guardian Council. When the Guardian Council rejects a Majlis law, the Majlis has the opportunity to "correct" it. If they can't work out an agreement, it is referred to the Expediency Council to resolve the dispute.

Fazlollah Zahedi

This Iranian general succeeded Mohammad Mossadegh as PM of Iran after Mossadegh was overthrown during Operation Ajax. Financed by the CIA and MI6, this man planted newspaper articles and paid agents to incite riots against the Majlis. Eventually, he succeeded in overthrowing Mossadegh, had him arrested, and declared himself the new PM. His friendly relationship with the shah allowed Pahlavi to return to autocratic rule.

Quds Force

This a special forces unit of Iran's Revolutionary Guards responsible for their extraterritorial operations. They report directly to the Supreme Leader.Its commander is Major General Qasem Soleimani. While "little is reliably known" about the force, as of 2007, its size was estimated at 15,000 troops.The United States has designated it a supporter of terrorism since 2007 for its support of Hezbollah and alleged support for the Taliban.

First Oil Shock

This began in October 1973 when the members of the OPEC proclaimed an oil embargo. The embargo was targeted at nations perceived as supporting Israel during the Yom Kippur War, mainly Canada, Japan, the Netherlands, the UK and the US. By the end of the embargo in March 1974, the price of oil had risen from $3 per barrel to nearly $12 globally; US prices were significantly higher. The embargo caused an oil crisis, with many effects on global politics and the global economy.

The Guardian Council

This body is comprised of 12 men, 6 of whom are clerics chosen by the Supreme Leader, and 6 of whom are lawyers nominated by the Chief Judge (who is himself appointed by the Supreme Leader), and confirmed by the Majlis. Each member has a 6-year term, with the Supreme Leader and Chief Judge each picking 3 names about every 3 years so that membership is staggered.

Powers of the Assembly of Experts

This body is comprised of 88 members elected by voters after the candidates prove their academic/religious qualifications. They are required to meet by law at least twice every 6 months, but the purpose of this regular gathering is unclear as they have no legislative authority except to remove or appoint a new Supreme Leader.

Ministry of Culture and Islamic Guidance

This bureaucratic agency exists to restrict access to any commercial, artistic, or political media deemed problematic by its officials. It also controls the exportation and importation of such media.

2,500 Year Celebration of the Persian Empire

This celebration consisted of an elaborate set of festivities that took place in 1971 on the occasion of the 2,500th anniversary of continuous Persian monarchy. The intent of the celebration was to demonstrate Iran's old civilization and history to showcase its contemporary advancements under the Shah. However, the extravagance of the celebrations, combined with the fact that native Iranians were not even allowed to the celebrations, led later historians to believe that the celebrations were the start of the chain of events that ended with the Iranian Revolution.

Death to America

This chant became a common feature of Friday prayers. Khameini drew quite a bit of attention when he joined in the chant in 2015 amid negotiations with the West to lift sanctions in exchange for additional nuclear inspections. Oddly enough, a 2009 poll found that 51% of Iranians view Americans favorably, compared to 5% of Americans viewing Iran favorably.

Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps

This is a branch of Iran's Armed Forces founded after 1979 Revolution. They state that their role in protecting the Islamic system is preventing foreign interference as well as "deviant movements." Since its origin as an ideologically driven militia, it has taken a greater role in nearly every aspect of society. Its expanded social, political, military and economic role under President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad's administration—especially during the 2009 presidential election and post-election suppression of protest.

Shi'a Islam

This is a branch of Islam which holds that the Muhammad designated Ali-ibn-Abi-Talib as his successor (Imam). It primarily contrasts with Sunni Islam, whose adherents believe that Muhammad did not appoint a successor and consider Abu Bakr (who was appointed Caliph through a Shura, i.e. community consensus) to be the correct Caliph.

Basij

This is a loosely-organized volunteer paramilitary militia and it falls under the Islamic Revolutionary Guard. It was founded in 1980 by Khomeini to encourage civilians to fight in the Iran-Iraq War. Today, it serves as an auxiliary force engaged in activities such as internal security, policing morals, and suppression of protests.

Qom

This is a major seminary city located about 80 miles southwest of Tehran, and most prominent Shi'a clerics teach and preach from this city. There is broad agreement about many issues among these clerics, but there is a growing debate regarding the regime itself. Most Iranian clerics want the political system to impose Islamism, but many liberal clerics do not believe there should be a theocracy until the Twelfth Imam is revealed.

Qanun

This is an Arabic term for civil law and it has no basis in Shari'ah or sacred texts. It covers all aspects of modern life regarding business, labor, the environment, and anything else not perceived as needing religious interpretation. The Majlis are the main body enacting this type of law, provided it does not contradict Shari'ah.

Sharia Law

This is an Islamic legal system based on the religious principles of Islam, especially those expressed in the Quran. It contains principles governing politics, economics, justice, regulation of personal behavior, and prayer. Interpretations of it have shaped Iranian legal and political principles, and since 1979, the clerical interpretation of it has functioned as the supreme law of Iran.

The Iran Nuclear Deal

This is an international agreement on the nuclear program of Iran reached in Vienna in 2015 between Iran, the P5+1 (the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council, plus Germany) and the European Union. Under the agreement, Iran agreed to limit its uranium enrichment and be subject to regular IAEA inspections. In return, the West relieved Iran of many sanctions.

National Front

This is an opposition political organization in Iran, founded by Mohammad Mosaddegh in 1949. It is the oldest and arguably the largest pro-democracy group operating inside Iran, despite having never been able to recover the prominence it had in the early 1950s. In 1951, the Front formed a government which was deposed by Operation Ajax and subsequently repressed.

Workers House

This is the Iranian de facto national trade union center affiliated with the World Federation of Trade Unions (WFTU) and a registered reformist worker's political organization/labor union. It oversees and coordinates activities of the Islamic Labour Councils.

Sunni Islam

This is the largest denomination of Islam and was formed in 632 after the death of Muhammad. According to their traditions, Muhammad did not clearly designate a successor and the Muslim community acted according to his sunnah in electing his father-in-law Abu Bakr as the first caliph. These Muslims were the large majority in Persia before the Safavids came to power in 1501.

Ayatollah Khomeini

This man had been exiled by the Shah in 1964 for his criticism of the White Revolution. He was the leader of the 1979 Iranian Revolution that saw the overthrow of the Shah. Following the revolution, he became the country's Supreme Leader, a position created in the constitution of the Islamic Republic as the highest-ranking political and religious authority of the nation, which he held until his death in 1989.

Ismail I

This man was the founder of the Safavid dynasty and ruled as the Shahanshah of Iran from 1501 to 1524. He forced the Sunni majority to convert to Shiism. More than 90% of the population was converted to Shi'ism, and Iran remains over 90% Shi'a today.

White Revolution

This movement was launched by the Shah in 1963 to reduce the influence of leftists. The government forced the sale of unused land from absentee landlords and sold it to peasant farmers at cheap prices, creating a new class of over 4 million small landowners. He expanded education programs, gave women the right to vote and work outside the home, and built a modern judicial system. Islamist clerics saw these changes as an abandonment of Shi'a values, and they became critical of the Shah.

Second Oil Shock

This occurred in the world due to decreased oil output in the wake of the Iranian Revolution. Widespread panic resulted, driving the price far higher. The price of crude oil more than doubled over the next 12 months. In 1980, following the outbreak of the Iran-Iraq War, oil production in Iran nearly stopped, and Iraq's oil production was severely cut as well. Economic recessions were triggered in the US and other countries. Oil prices did not subside to pre-crisis levels until the mid-1980s.

The Axis of Evil

This term was first used by George W. Bush in his 2002 SOTU and often repeated throughout his presidency to describe governments that his administration accused of sponsoring terrorism and seeking weapons of mass destruction (Iran, Iraq, and North Korea).

Shari'ah Law

This type of law acts as the supreme law of the Iranian judiciary, as interpreted by the Supreme Leader and the Guardian Council. No laws at any level may contradict a principle of this.

Assembly of Experts for Constitution

This was a constituent assembly in Iran, elected in the summer of 1979 to write a new constitution for the Islamic Republic Government. It convened in August to consider the draft constitution written earlier in the 1970s by Khomeini, completed its deliberations rewriting the constitution in November, and saw the constitution approved by referendum in December 1979, by over 98 percent of the vote.

Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran

This was adopted by referendum in December 1979 (99.5% approval) and went into force replacing the Constitution of 1906. It has been called a "hybrid" of "theocratic and democratic elements". While articles One and Two vest sovereignty in God, article six "mandates popular elections for the presidency and the Majlis, or parliament." However, all democratic procedures and rights are subordinate to the Guardian Council and the Supreme Leader.

1989 Constitutional Referendum

This was held in Iran in 1989 alongside presidential elections. Approved by 97.6% of voters, it was the only the Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran has been amended. It eliminated the need for the Supreme Leader to be chosen by popular acclaim, it eliminated the post of prime minister, and it created a Supreme National Security Council.

Anglo-Soviet Invasion of Iran

This was the invasion of the Empire of Iran during WWII in 1941 by Soviet and British armed forces. Its purpose was to secure Iranian oil fields and ensure Allied supply lines for the USSR, fighting against Axis forces on the Eastern Front. Though Iran was neutral, the Allies considered Reza Shah to be friendly to the Axis powers, and they deposed him during the subsequent occupation and replaced him with his young son Mohammad Reza Pahlavi.

Religious Minorities

Today, about 99% of Iranians are Muslim, with 90% of those being Shi'a and 9% Sunni. Christians, Jews, and Zoroastrians are constitutionally recognized as religious minorities which should be accorded rights and respect, though there are reports of harassment and discrimination by the authorities to all religious minorities, including Sunnis.

Iranian Youth

Today, more than 50% of Iranians are under 35 and are very politically active. Older Iranians who lived under the Shah are more likely to support the current regime, while young Iranians concerned about their unemployment crisis and restrictions on personal freedom are likely to support reformists. Their tremendous support for Mohhamad Khatami in 1997 and 1991 helped him win the presidency as well as a reformist majority in the Majlis. When the Guardian Council rejected nearly all reformist candidates in 2004, the youth boycotted the elections, allowing conservatives like Ahmadinejad to take power. The return of the youth vote in 2013 and 2017 has reshaped the Iranian political landscape.

Bureaucracy under Ahmadinejad

Under this president, the bureaucracy expanded massively, especially those in state-owned media. He was able to boast significant increases in jobs due to his reforms and won the support of government workers for his 2009 re-election bid. However, paying the salaries of such a large amount of employees created a large burden for the state to manage in future years.

Brain Drain

Up to 25% of Iranians with a college education have left the country to live in the developed world since the 1990s, costing Iran approximately $50 billion in loss of human capital.

Twelver Shi'ism

When the Safavids conquered Persia in 1501, they imposed this type of Shi'a Islam which teaches that there are 12 Imams, and the last one, known as the "Mahdi" has mysteriously disappeared and will one day return to judge the world and rid it of evil. Today, more than 85% of Shi'ites are in this branch of Shi'a Islam.

Powers of the President

The president is technically the head of government, possessing many administrative powers, but his actions are under the shadow of the Supreme Leader. The president has the power to devise a budget for approval of the Majlis, propose legislation to the Majlis, nominate cabinet members for the Majlis approval, chair meetings of the Cabinet, NSC, and Supreme Council of the Cultural Revolution, send and receive ambassadors, issue executive orders and issue pardons for crimes.

Supreme Leader

The system of jurist guardianship was built around this position, chosen by the Assembly of Religious Experts, to exert control over the political system on the basis of his interpretations of Shari'ah law. Ayatollah Khomeini was the first man to hold this position, and after his death in 1989, Ali Khamenei took this post and holds it to this day. He is the head of state and highest ranking political and religious authority in the Islamic Republic of Iran. The armed forces, judicial system, state television, and other key governmental organizations are under his control.

Islamic Revolutionary Courts

These courts try any crimes which are said to undermine the Islamic Republic including slander against Khomeini or the Supreme Leader, drug smuggling, and behaving "corruptly." They are suspected of involvement in the secret executions of thousands of leftist dissidents in the early days after the Revolution. Iran employs an "inquisitorial system" where there is no defense attorney.

Azeris

These people are the largest ethnic minority in Iran, constituting about 16% of the population. These people, who are predominantly Shi'a, play a larger role in Iranian high-level politics than other non-Persians. Ali Khameini is half this race, and Mir-Hossein Moussavi, a major candidate in the 2009 election and last PM of Iran, was this race.

Algiers Accords

These were a set of agreements between the United States and Iran to resolve the Iran hostage crisis, brokered by the Algerian government and signed on January 19, 1981. The hostages were released one day later, just minutes before Ronald Reagan was to be sworn in as POTUS.