is chapter 1, DS 3841 Exam 1
An example of raw data from a national chain of automobile stores would be A) an average of 13 Toyotas are sold daily in Kentucky. B) 30 percent increase in Toyota RAV4 sales during September in Kentucky. C) 1 Toyota RAV4 sold March 3, 2008 in Louisville, Kentucky. D) all of the above.
C) 1 Toyota RAV4 sold March 3, 2008 in Louisville, Kentucky.
According to agency theory, the firm is viewed as a(n) A) unified, profit-maximizing entity. B) task force organization that must respond to rapidly changing environments. C) entrepreneurial endeavor. D) "nexus of contracts" among self-interested individuals.
D) "nexus of contracts" among self-interested individuals.
Which of the following choices may lead to competitive advantage: 1. new products, services, and business models; 2. charging less for superior products; 3. responding to customers in real time? A) 1 only B) 1 and 2 C) 2 and 3 D) 1, 2, and 3
D) 1, 2, and 3
t/f Knowledge workers assist with paperwork at all levels of the firm.
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A firm can be said to have competitive advantage when they have higher stock market valuations than their competitors.
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Business processes are collections of standard operating procedures.
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Mass customization is a form of mass production.
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t/f A business model describes how a company produces, delivers, and sells a product or service to create wealth.
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t/f Computers are only part of an information system.
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An example of a social complementary asset is A) technology and service firms in adjacent markets. B) training programs. C) distributed decision-making rights. D) all of the above.
A) technology and service firms in adjacent markets.
Which field of study focuses on both a behavioral and technical understanding of information systems? A) sociology B) operations research C) economics D) management information systems
D) management information systems
Which of the following industries has not been disrupted by the Internet? A) encyclopedias B) newspapers C) clothing D) air travel
C) clothing
An example of a business using information systems to attain operational excellence is A) Wal-Mart's RetailLink system. B) the Mandarin Oriental hotel's customer-preference tracking system. C) Verizon's Web-based digital dashboard. D) Apple Inc.'s iPod.
A) Wal-Mart's RetailLink system.
Which of the following objectives best describes the business strategy behind the technologies implemented in Disney's Operational Command Center, as discussed in the chapter case? A) operational excellence B) new products and services C) competitive advantage D) customer support
D) customer support
An information system can enhance core competencies by A) providing better reporting facilities. B) creating educational opportunities for management. C) allowing operational employees to interact with management. D) encouraging the sharing of knowledge across business units.
D) encouraging the sharing of knowledge across business units.
A transparent marketplace means that there is high product differentiation.
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t/f A fully digital firm produces only digital goods or services.
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t/f A firm that invests in efficient business processes is making an investment in organizational complementary assets.
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t/f A substantial part of management responsibility is creative work driven by new knowledge and information.
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t/f Government and private sector standards are examples of complementary social assets required to optimize returns from IT investments.
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All organizations have bedrock, unassailable assumptions that define their goals and products.
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In a demonstration of network economics, the more people that use Adobe software and related products, the greater the value of the software.
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In the strategy of product differentiation, information systems are used to enable new products and services.
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In the value chain model, primary activities are most directly related to the production and distribution of the firm's products and services that create value for the customer.
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Research has shown that only 25% of firms are able to align their information technology with their business goals.
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The competitive forces model can be used to analyze today's digital firm as well as traditional firms.
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The effect of the Internet has been to raise bargaining power over suppliers.
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The idea driving synergies is that when the output of some units can be used as inputs to other units, the relationship can lower cost and generate profits.
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t/f In order to understand how a specific business firm uses information systems, you need to know something about the hierarchy and culture of the company.
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t/f Investment in IT is over 50% of all invested capital.
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t/f The behavioral approach to information systems leaves aside technical solutions to instead analyze the psychological, social, and economic impacts of systems.
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t/f The dimensions of information systems are management, organizations, and information technology.
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An example of a divisionalized bureaucracy is a A) startup firm. B) university. C) Fortune 500 firm. D) midsize manufacturer.
C) Fortune 500 firm.
According to Leavitt's model of organizational resistance, the four components that must be changed in an organization in order to successfully implement a new information system are A) environment, organization, structure, and tasks. B) technology, people, culture, and structure. C) organization, culture, management, and environment. D) tasks, technology, people, and structure.
D) tasks, technology, people, and structure.
Which of the following is one of the support activities in a firm's value chain? A) inbound logistics B) operations C) sales and marketing D) technology
D) technology
Output A) is feedback that has been processed to create meaningful information. B) is information that is returned to appropriate members of the organization to help them evaluate the input stage. C) transfers data to the people who will use it or to the activities for which it will be used. D) transfers processed information to the people who will use it or to the activities for which it will be used.
D) transfers processed information to the people who will use it or to the activities for which it will be used.
t/f Internet advertising is growing at approximately 10 percent a year.
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An example of a keystone firm within a business ecosystem is A) Apple and software application writers in the mobile platform ecosystem. B) GUESS and the fashion ecosystem. C) Citibank and the ATM ecosystem. D) American Airlines and the computerized reservation ecosystem.
A) Apple and software application writers in the mobile platform ecosystem.
Which of the following statements is not true about information technology's impacts on business firms? A) It helps firms expand in size. B) It helps firms lower the cost of market participation. C) It helps reduce internal management costs. D) It helps reduce transaction costs.
A) It helps firms expand in size.
_______ is the ability to offer individually tailored products or services using the same production resources as bulk production. A) Mass customization B) Size customization C) Magnitude customization D) Dimension customization
A) Mass customization
Which of the following activities would you perform to measure and compare your business processes to similar processes of other companies within your industry? A) benchmarking B) best practices C) value chain analysis D) strategic systems analysis
A) benchmarking
Thomas Friedman's declaration that the world was now "flat" meant that A) the Internet has reduced the economic advantages of developed countries. B) globalization is starting to offer less advantage to large corporations. C) the global economy is increasingly commanded by fewer and larger corporations. D) global capitalism is homogenizing culture and business practices throughout the world.
A) the Internet has reduced the economic advantages of developed countries.
From a business perspective, raw data is transformed systematically during various stages, transforming it into valuable information, in a process called A) the information value chain. B) the IT value chain. C) information processing. D) feedback.
A) the information value chain.
Which of the following constitutes an organizational element in the UPS tracking system described in the chapter? A) the specification of procedures for identifying packages with sender and recipient information B) monitoring service levels C) promoting the company strategy of low-cost, superior service D) the use of handheld computers and networks for managing package delivery
A) the specification of procedures for identifying packages with sender and recipient information
As described in the chapter case, the competitive force of ________ resulted in Starbuck's downturn in 2008, and it employed information systems in a strategy of ________ to combat this force. A) traditional competitors; product differentiation B) new market entrants; product specialization C) substitute products; market niche D) customers; customer intimacy
A) traditional competitors; product differentiation
69) The emergence, for Amazon.com, of new competitors in the sphere of online shopping illustrates what disadvantage posed by the use of information systems to achieve competitive advantage? A) E-commerce is affected by the law of diminishing returns. B) Internet technologies are universal, and therefore usable by all companies. C) Internet shopping produces cost transparency. D) The Internet enables the production or sales of substitute products or services.
B) Internet technologies are universal, and therefore usable by all companies.
An example of synergy in business is A) Amazon's use of the Internet to sell books. B) JP Morgan Chase's mergers with other banks that provided JP Morgan with a network of retail branches in new regions. C) Blockbuster combining traditional video rental with online video rental. D) Walmart's order entry and inventory management system to coordinate with suppliers.
B) JP Morgan Chase's mergers with other banks that provided JP Morgan with a network of retail branches in new regions.
Which of the following best describes the primary reason for implementing a new information system, from a business perspective? A) The system enables the firm to create new products and services. B) The system will create new value for the firm, beyond its costs. C) The system will automate key business processes. D) The system is in use by our primary competitors.
B) The system will create new value for the firm, beyond its costs.
Apple Computer dominates the online legal music sales industry primarily because of a failure of recording label companies to A) invest in technology. B) adopt a new business model. C) invest in complementary assets. D) modernize their information value chain.
B) adopt a new business model.
the ________ model is used to describe the interaction of external forces that affect an organization's strategy and ability to compete. A) network economics B) competitive forces C) competitive advantage D) demand control
B) competitive forces
The four major types of competitive strategy are A) low-cost leadership; substitute products and services; customers; and suppliers. B) low-cost leadership; product differentiation; focus on market niche; and customer and supplier intimacy. C) new market entrants; substitute products and services; customers; and suppliers. D) low-cost leadership; new market entrants; product differentiation; and focus on market niche.
B) low-cost leadership; product differentiation; focus on market niche; and customer and supplier intimacy.
In a hierarchical organization, the upper levels consist of A) managerial and professional employees. B) managerial, professional, and technical employees. C) professional and operational employees. D) managerial, professional, and operational employees.
B) managerial, professional, and technical employees.
When a firm provides a specialized product or service for a narrow target market better than competitors, they are using a ________ strategy. A) product differentiation B) market niche C) mass customization D) process efficiency
B) market niche
Disciplines that contribute to the technical approach to information systems are A) computer science, engineering, and networking. B) operations research, management science, and computer science. C) engineering, utilization management, and computer science. D) management science, computer science, and engineering.
B) operations research, management science, and computer science
Converting raw data into a more meaningful form is called A) capturing. B) processing. C) organizing. D) feedback.
B) processing.
Walmart's continuous replenishment system allows it to A) provide mass customization. B) provide an efficient customer response system. C) strengthen customer intimacy. D) achieve economy of scale.
B) provide an efficient customer response system.
Networking and telecommunications technologies, along with computer hardware, software, data management technology, and the people required to run and manage them, constitute an organization's A) data management environment. B) networked environment. C) IT infrastructure. D) information system.
C) IT infrastructure.
How does the technical view of organizations fall short of understanding the full impacts of information systems in a firm? A) It sees information systems as a way to rearrange the inputs and outputs of the organization. B) It sees capital and labor as primary production factors. C) It sees the inputs and outputs, labor and capital, as being infinitely malleable. D) It sees the organization as a social structure similar to a machine.
C) It sees the inputs and outputs, labor and capital, as being infinitely malleable.
You are consulting for a beverage distributor who is interested in determining the benefits it could achieve from implementing new information systems. What will you advise as the first step? A) Identify the business ecosystem the distributor is in. B) Implement a strategic transition to the new system. C) Perform a strategic systems analysis. D) Benchmark existing systems
C) Perform a strategic systems analysis.
All of the following are advantages, for a firm, of cloud computing except A) ability to support mobile computing. B) ability to support remote work C) ability to improve communication. D) ability to rely on markets to build value.
C) ability to improve communication.
Which of the following would not be a complementary asset for a solar panel manufacturer? A) international solar equipment certification standards B) government funding for green technology C) centralized hierarchical decision making D) innovation-driven management team
C) centralized hierarchical decision making
Dell Computer's use of information systems to improve efficiency and implement "mass customization" techniques to maintain consistent profitability and an industry lead illustrates which business objective? A) improved flexibility B) improved business practices C) competitive advantage D) survival
C) competitive advantage
As discussed in the chapter opening case, which of the four generic strategies did Sears employ to combat the competition offered by Target, Walmart, and Macy's? A) low-cost leadership B) focus on market niche C) customer and supplier intimacy D) product differentiation
C) customer and supplier intimacy
The Internet raises the bargaining power of customers by A) creating new opportunities for building loyal customer bases. B) making more products available. C) making information available to everyone. D) lowering transaction costs.
C) making information available to everyone.
The field that deals with behavioral issues as well as technical issues surrounding the development, use, and impact of information systems used by managers and employees in the firm is called A) information systems literacy. B) information systems architecture. C) management information systems. D) information technology infrastructure
C) management information systems.
The average number of tickets sold daily online is an example of A) input. B) raw data. C) meaningful information. D) feedback.
C) meaningful information.
The discipline that focuses on mathematical techniques for optimizing parameters of organizations, such as transportation and inventory control, is A) management science. B) MIS. C) operations research. D) utilization management.
C) operations research.
Which of the following roles in a firm would be least affected by using mobile devices to access firm information systems? A) senior executives B) sales executives C) production workers D) operational managers
C) production workers
Mintzberg's classification of organizational structure categorizes the knowledge-based organization where goods and services depend on the expertise and knowledge of professionals as a(n)
C) professional bureaucracy.
Which of the following industries has a low barrier to entry? A) automotive B) computer chip C) restaurant D) airline
C) restaurant
Business processes are collections of A) informal practices and behaviors. B) formalized and documented practices. C) routines. D) rights and privileges.
C) routines.
Network economics A) applies the law of diminishing returns to communities of users. B) applies traditional economics to networked users. C) sees the cost of adding new members as inconsequential. D) balances the high cost of adding new members to a community against the lower cost of using network infrastructure.
C) sees the cost of adding new members as inconsequential.
Which of the following best illustrates the use of information systems to focus on market niche? A) A car manufacturer's Web site that lets you customize the features on the car you are purchasing. B) A restaurant chain analyzing local sales figures to determine which menu items to serve. C) A bookseller selling an e-book reader that reads only the bookseller's books. D) A department store creating specialized products for small groups of customers.
D) A department store creating specialized products for small groups of customers.
An example of a business using information systems to create new products and services is A) Wal-Mart's RetailLink system. B) the Mandarin Oriental hotel's customer-preference tracking system. C) Verizon's Web-based digital dashboard. D) Apple Inc.'s iPod.
D) Apple Inc.'s iPod.
Organizational culture is best described by which of the following statements? A) It encompasses the sum of beliefs and assumptions by all members. B) It enables the organization to transcend the different levels and specialties of its employees. C) It reflects the senior management's perspective on the organization and goals. D) It is a set of assumptions and values accepted by most members.
D) It is a set of assumptions and values accepted by most members.
All of the following are major features of organizations that impact the use of information systems except for A) business processes. B) environments. C) goals. D) agency costs.
D) agency costs.
The most successful solutions or methods for achieving a business objective are called A) value activities. B) best processes. C) core competencies. D) best practices.
D) best practices.
An organization is a A) stable, formal social structure that takes resources from the environment and processes them to produce outputs. B) formal, legal entity with internal rules and procedures that must abide by laws. C) collection of social elements. D) B and C E) A, B, and C
E) A, B, and C
An adhocracy is a knowledge-based organization where goods and services depend on the expertise and knowledge of professionals.
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In an efficient customer response system, digital answering systems are used to monitor and respond to customer inquiries.
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Strong linkages to customers and suppliers decrease switching costs.
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The term business ecosystem describes the interplay between the various organizational forces within a firm.
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The use of Internet technologies allows companies to more easily sustain competitive advantage.
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t/f Business processes are logically related tasks for accomplishing tasks that have been formally encoded by an organization.
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Customers are one of the competitive forces that affect an organization's ability to compete.
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How are information systems used at the industry level to achieve strategic advantage? A) by building industry-wide, IT-supported consortia and symposia B) by raising the bargaining power of suppliers C) by encouraging the entry of new competitors D) by enforcing standards that reduce the differences between competitors
A) by building industry-wide, IT-supported consortia and symposia
The fundamental set of assumptions, values, and ways of doing things that has been accepted by most of a company's members is called its A) culture. B) environment. C) atmosphere. D) values.
A) culture.
Which of the following would not be used as an input for an information system? A) digital dashboard B) handheld computer C) barcode scanner D) cell phone
A) digital dashboard
Sociologists study information systems with an eye to understanding A) how systems affect individuals, groups, and organizations. B) how human decision makers perceive and use formal information. C) how new information systems change the control and cost structures within the firm. D) the production of digital goods.
A) how systems affect individuals, groups, and organizations.
The primary activities of a firm include A) inbound logistics, operations, outbound logistics, sales and marketing, and service. B) inbound logistics, operations, outbound logistics, technology, and service. C) procurement, inbound logistics, operations, technology, and outbound logistics. D) procurement, operations, technology, sales and marketing, and services.
A) inbound logistics, operations, outbound logistics, sales and marketing, and service.
Which of the following would not be considered a disruptive technology? A) instant messaging B) e-mail C) Internet telephony D) PCs
A) instant messaging
Which of the following are key corporate assets? A) intellectual property, core competencies, and financial and human assets B) production technologies and business processes for sales, marketing, and finance C) knowledge and the firm's tangible assets, such as goods or services D) time and knowledge
A) intellectual property, core competencies, and financial and human assets
Amazon's use of the Internet as a platform to sell books more efficiently than traditional bookstores illustrates a use of information services for A) low-cost leadership. B) marketing effectiveness. C) focusing on market niche. D) strengthening supplier intimacy.
A) low-cost leadership.
A large bureaucracy existing in a slowly changing environment that produces standard products and is dominated by centralized management making is classified by Mintzberg as a ________ bureaucracy. A) machine B) professional C) divisionalized D) multidivisional
A) machine
According to the ________ definition of organizations, an organization is seen as a means by which primary production factors are transformed into outputs consumed by the environment. A) microeconomic B) macroeconomic C) sociotechnical D) behavioral
A) microeconomic
A firm can exercise greater control over its suppliers by having A) more suppliers. B) fewer suppliers. C) global suppliers. D) local suppliers.
A) more suppliers.
Order data for baseball tickets and bar code data are examples of A) raw input. B) raw output. C) customer and product data. D) sales information.
A) raw input.
Which of the following is not one of the primary environmental actors that interacts with an organization and its information systems? A) sales force B) regulatory agencies C) customers D) suppliers
A) sales force
A substitute product of most concern for a cable TV distributor is A) satellite TV. B) broadcast TV. C) satellite radio. D) the Internet.
A) satellite TV.
Barnes & Noble's apps for its e-reader, the Nook, is an example of a firm using information systems to A) strengthen ties to its customers. B) remove publishers from the industry value chain. C) develop synergies with publishers. D) focus on market niche.
A) strengthen ties to its customers.
The use of information systems because of necessity describes the business objective of A) survival. B) improved business practices. C) competitive advantage. D) improved flexibility.
A) survival.
A virtual company A) uses the capabilities of other companies without being physically tied to those companies. B) uses Internet technology to maintain a virtual storefront. C) uses Internet technology to maintain a networked community of users. D) provides entirely Internet-driven services, or virtual products.
A) uses the capabilities of other companies without being physically tied to those companies.
An example of an organizational complementary asset is A) using the appropriate business model. B) a collaborative work environment. C) laws and regulations. D) all of the above
A) using the appropriate business model.
The interaction between information systems and organizations is influenced A) primarily by the decision making of middle and senior managers. B) by many factors, including structure, politics, culture, and environment. C) by two main microeconomic forces: capital and labor. D) primarily by the organization's business processes and culture.
B) by many factors, including structure, politics, culture, and environment.
Maintaining the organization's financial records is a central purpose of which main business function? A) manufacturing and accounting B) finance and accounting C) sales and manufacturing D) finance and sales
B) finance and accounting
Psychologists study information systems with an eye to understanding A) how systems affect individuals, groups, and organizations. B) how human decision makers perceive and use formal information. C) how new information systems change the control and cost structures within the firm. D) the production of digital goods
B) how human decision makers perceive and use formal information.
Which main business function is responsible for maintaining employee records? A) sales and marketing B) human resources C) finance and accounting D) manufacturing and production
B) human resources
The six important business objectives of information technology are new products, services, and business models; customer and supplier intimacy; survival; competitive advantage; operational excellence; and A) improved flexibility. B) improved decision making. C) improved business practices. D) improved efficiency.
B) improved decision making.
Verizon's implementation of a Web-based digital dashboard to provide managers with real-time information such as customer complaints is an example of A) improved flexibility. B) improved decision making. C) improved efficiency. D) customer and supplier intimacy
B) improved decision making.
The three principle levels within a business organization hierarchy are A) senior management, operational management, and service workers. B) senior management, middle management, and operational management. C) senior management, operational management, and information systems. D) senior management, middle management, and service workers.
B) senior management, middle management, and operational management.
The temp agency that you own is having serious difficulties placing temps because few of them are familiar with Internet research. Investing in training software to enhance your workers' skills is an example of using technology to achieve which business objective? A) customer and supplier intimacy B) survival C) competitive advantage D) improved decision making
B) survival
An example of a business using information systems for customer and supplier intimacy is A) Wal-Mart's RetailLink system. B) the Mandarin Oriental hotel's customer-preference tracking system. C) Verizon's Web-based digital dashboard. D) Apple Inc.'s iPod.
B) the Mandarin Oriental hotel's customer-preference tracking system.
The more any given resource is applied to production, the lower the marginal gain in output, until a point is reached where the additional inputs produce no additional output. This is referred to as A) the point of no return. B) the law of diminishing returns. C) supply and demand. D) network inelasticity.
B) the law of diminishing returns.
The costs incurred when a firm buys on the marketplace what it cannot make itself are referred to as A) switching costs. B) transaction costs. C) procurement. D) agency costs.
B) transaction costs.
Which of the following is not one of the current changes taking place in information systems technology? A) growing business use of "big data" B) growth in cloud computing C) development of videopresence software D) emerging mobile platform
C) development of videopresence software
Which of the following is not one of the competitive forces? A) suppliers B) other competitors C) external environment D) customers
C) external environment
In environmental scanning, a firm may use information systems to A) utilize sensors that track products through the value chain. B) analyze external Internet traffic to its Web sites. C) identify external events that may affect it. D) understand its carbon footprint and energy impacts on the environment.
C) identify external events that may affect it.
The three activities in an information system that produce the information organizations use to control operations are A) information retrieval, research, and analysis. B) input, output, and feedback. C) input, processing, and output. D) data analysis, processing, and feedback.
C) input, processing, and output.
Engineers, scientists, or architects, who design new products or services for a firm, belong to which level of a business hierarchy? A) middle management B) production workers C) knowledge workers D) data workers
C) knowledge workers
A corporation that funds a political action committee, which in turn promotes and funds a political candidate who agrees with the values of that corporation, could be seen as investing in which main category of complementary assets? A) managerial B) governmental C) social D) organizational
C) social
Data management technology consists of the A) physical hardware and media used by an organization for storing data. B) detailed, preprogrammed instructions that control and coordinate the computer hardware components in an information system. C) software governing the organization of data on physical storage media. D) hardware and software used to transfer data.
C) software governing the organization of data on physical storage media.
What significant competitive force is challenging the publishing industry? A) positioning and rivalry among competitors B) low cost of entry C) substitute products or services D) customer's bargaining powe
C) substitute products or services
A firm that must invest in new information systems capabilities in order to comply with federal legislation can be said to be investing to achieve which business objective? A) customer intimacy B) operational excellence C) survival D) improved reporting
C) survival
The move of retail banking to use ATMs after Citibank unveiled its first ATMs illustrates the use of information systems to achieve which business objective? A) improved efficiency B) customer and supplier intimacy C) survival D) competitive advantage
C) survival
If two organizations pool markets and expertise that result in lower costs and generate profits it is often referred to as creating A) a value web. B) a value chain. C) synergies. D) core competencies.
C) synergies.
A managerial element in the UPS tracking system described in the chapter is A) taking inventory. B) providing package status reports to customers. C) the decision to use automation. D) in-house package tracking software.
C) the decision to use automation.
A collection of independent firms that use information technology to coordinate their value chains to produce a product or service for a market collectively is called a(n) A) industry value chain. B) business ecosystem. C) value web. D) consortia.
C) value web.
The value chain model A) categorizes five related advantages for adding value to a firm's products or services. B) sees the supply chain as the primary activity for adding value. C) categorizes four basic strategies a firm can use to enhance its value chain. D) helps a firm identify points at which information technology can most effectively enhance its competitive position.
D) helps a firm identify points at which information technology can most effectively enhance its competitive position.
An information system can enable a company to focus on a market niche through A) complex trend forecasting. B) tailoring products to the client. C) intensive product trend analysis. D) intensive customer data analysis.
D) intensive customer data analysis.
A manufacturer of deep-sea oil rigs may be least concerned about this marketplace force. A) product differentiation B) traditional competitors C) low number of suppliers D) new market entrants
D) new market entrants
In a business hierarchy, the level that is responsible for monitoring the daily activities of the business is A) middle management. B) service workers. C) production management. D) operational management
D) operational management.
t/f Developing a new product, fulfilling an order, and hiring a new employee are examples of business processes.
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t/f Information systems literacy describes the behavioral approach to information systems, whereas computer literacy describes the technical approach.
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t/f Information technology (IT) consists of all the hardware that a firm needs to use in order to achieve its business objectives, whereas information systems consist of all the software and business processes needed.
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t/f Intranets allow firms to work easily with third-party suppliers and vendors.
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t/f Studies have consistently shown that firms that invest greater amounts in information technology receive greater benefits than firms that invest less.
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t/f There are four major business functions: sales and marketing; manufacturing and production; finance and accounting; and information technology.
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From the point of view of economics, information systems technology can be viewed as a factor of production that can be substituted for traditional capital and labor.
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t/f UPS's use of Web-based tools that allow customers to embed UPS functions such as tracking and cost calculations into their own Web sites was an information systems solution used to achieve customer intimacy.
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the value chain model classifies all company activities as either primary or support.
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