JSIS 498 - Advanced Readings : Diplomacy, Intelligence, & Espionage

What inconveniences are avoided by packaging an agreement informally? Make a brief summary of the key three concepts. (pp. 71-73)

1. the complexities of formal treaty drafting and its attendant procedures, such as the production of documents certifying that the plenipotentiaries have full powers, are avoided. 2. avoid the ratification of the agreement. Can be a hassle, delay implementation and can result in abandoning the agreement. 3. avoided stirring up political opponents at home, or presenting intelligence gifts (unwanted publicity)

How many International Human Rights Treaties has the USA signed and ratified so far? Compare this number with some other states. (check the info on the UN Human Rights Office website)

5/18 - very bad.

What does the term "plenipotentiary" mean?

A person, especially a diplomat, invested with the full power of independent action on behalf of their government, typically in a foreign country.

Essay Question: Why might diplomatic momentum falter? Why is it serious? And what might be done to prevent it? (pp. 54- 59)

At the beginning of chapter four, one reason outlined as to why such lulls occur is the attention being taken away from another item on the international agenda, especially if the issue had already been drawn out (54). This was one reason why the Uruguay Round spanned from September 1986 to April 1994, as the Gulf War in early 1991 required urgent, top-level attention (54). Fates like these also stem from instances such as "the need for frequent reference home... the illness of key personnel, the outbreak of disputes within delegations, the re-igniting of bad feeling caused by a serious incident, and a hope that patience will see the replacement" of key figureheads and thus improve prospects for settlement (54). Two other important notes are that "the greater danger is that it will drag on and become permanent," or worse, that the parties conclude that "the status quo is not so bad after all" (54). Deadlines! The first kind of deadline discussed is self-imposed ones, which are deadlines that have been agreed upon by the negotiating parties themselves. These timelines are chosen through a "best estimate" of the time needed or by selecting a random day as the 'due date' (56). Examples of these are both the Chinese deadline on Hong Kong, which carried heavy penalties for being missing, as well as the Joint Action Plan on Iran's nuclear program, which they continued to extend without any harsh reprimand (56). External deadlines are the next larger category and go by the name of both 'natural' and 'practical' deadlines (57). This means that deadlines lie outside the negotiating parties' control and are claimed to be the "most valuable for sustaining diplomatic momentum" (57). Examples of this form are the US electoral cycle for American diplomacy, but even "the prospect of a presidential election in the United States can also act as a spur on America's negotiating partners" (57). The other two honorable mentions are symbolic deadlines, which include a significant meaning through an anniversary or even religious event, and overlapping deadlines, which is a combination of those noted above (ex: The Good Friday Agreement) (58-60).

What is "clandestine diplomacy?"

Communicating with high threat advesaries Terrorists, kidnappers Intelligence officers can be a good mediator between diplomats nd such threats Hidden operation Often for safety purposes

What are the advantages and disadvantages of being an accommodating vs. tough negotiator?

Each has advantages and disadvantages, and, since the instances of different negotiations vary so enormously, generalizing this area is a hazardous business. extremes of flexibility and rigidity are both inconsistent with logic of negotiation. A tough attitude in negotiations is most appropriate to parties confident that they can walk away without major loss, which helps explain the attitude of the Begin government during the Camp negotiations. It is equally appropriate to regimes based on religious fanaticism or police terror, because the governments of such states are relatively indifferent to the costs imposed by diplomatic failure on their own people.

What does the phrase "consular corps" denote? Give some examples.

It is more organized Relatively non-political Lots of honorary consuls

What is the role of a service attaché, particularly of a military attaché within an embassy? (pp. 151-153)

Military attache Representative of military Promotes weapons sales Can collect intel on military Ofdten Has to be approved by receiving state Service attache Obtain military intelligence Usuall,y friendly with military personnel

Discuss the main points of the Vienna Convention on Consular Relations.

Mutual conset between states for consular relations Consent for diplomatic relations also implies consent for consulates (unless stated otherwise) However, cutting diplomatic relations does not automatically cut off consular relations A consular officer can perform diplomatic functions(but you don't get the perks/immunities) If: No embassy/diplomatic mission

. Are embassies ever asked by their governments to do some illegal function? If so, which one and give an example. If no, explain why not. (p. 124)

They can be asked to play illegal functions Providing cover for spies or intelligence missions Intervention in the politics of the recieving country Used a lot by major powers Prop uf friendly regime or target unfriendly regime Channeling supplies/aid/weapon

According to Berridge, what traits and attributes make "an ideal mediator?"

" He notes that the necessary qualities may fluctuate based on the conflict itself. An example would be the use of a smaller state to mediate between two larger powers, which could avoid dangerous confrontation. There are also issues tied to the stage of discussions that can affect what type of mediator is needed. However, overarching qualities needed to be a successful mediator include impartiality, influence, the desire to reach a settlement, and the availability to play a continuous role.

What are the differences between facilitation and mediation?

"Berridge frames mediation as a form of negotiation with the defining characteristic being a third party involved that is impartial. The third party is actively involved in coming up with possible solutions which distinguish them from a facilitator, and play a role in keeping talks going and serving as a translator (not for the language but rather for clarifying intent). They can reassure parties that there is a desire for agreement and can clarify intentions. "

Compare and contrast the so-called "Track One Diplomacy" with the so-called "Track Two Diplomacy." What is what?

"Track one mediators are states who can act alone, or in conjunction with other major powers, or through international organizations. Their involvement usually stems from a desire to maintain global security (which could be economic security as well). As well it can be a way to emphasize their status and authority. As well, they can be motivated to get involved when conflicts affect the stability of alliances and agreements they are a part of. States such as Austria and Switzerland with permanent neutrality have a special relationship with mediating. They have an advantage and a motive to participate as a way to justify their status as neutral. Track two as outlined in Berridge refers to mediation done through private citizens or NGOs. He outlines potential motivations for participation in this method of mediation. This could include financial or economic reasons, "political ambitions," a desire to assist or to increase their political and social standings (257). A good example of a religious NGO is the Quakers who are most widely known for their pacifism. However, religious groups are not the only type of organization that may be involved, secular and trade-related groups may also participate.

What caused the popular hostility and mob attacks on the US Embassy in Tehran in 1979? Describe the events preceding and surrounding the Iran Hostage Crisis that ensued after the attack. (p. 161, my lecture notes on Iran, your own research)

-Before/ context During the Iranian revolution Social+economic motives:monopolies Monarchy+nepotism Overall perception of the shah as illegitimate -Result of Iranian Revolution New model of government Theocracy The US had supported/ offered assistance to the recently exiled shah Muhammad Reza Shah Pahlevi of Iran by an Islamic revolutionary government was kicked out -What happened ((November 4, 1979 - January 20, 1981) Student led crowd siezed the embassy 52 people of 90 would be held hostage until the end Many initiatives led by carter to retrieve the hostages Also an oil embargo -Resolution Shah dies in egypt Iran invaded by iraq "On Jan. 20, 1981, the day of President Reagan's inauguration, the United States released almost $8 billion in Iranian assets and the hostages were freed after 444 days in Iranian detention; the agreement gave Iran immunity from lawsuits arising from the incident." (from slides) In a stressful and panicky incident, US soldiers shoot down a domestic Iranian plane and kill many Have to pay compensation

Why is the "inductive" approach to negotiations more often than not used in complex negotiations? Explain. (pp. 46-47)

-moving from specifics to general "it normally makes sense to begin the negotiations with an agenda limited in scope and restricted to relatively uncontroversial items" The step-by-step approach is suited to the negotiation of a dispute by great complexity and pathological mistrust. In it normally makes sense to begin the negotiations with This makes the negotiation more manageable, which is especially Additionally, it permits mistrust to be gradually broken down, builds Mi th in the efficacy of diplomacy by making early successes more likely, each other. The idea is that, as confidence builds, the more difficult can gradually be broached with a greater prospect of success. The initial negotiation is predicated on the hope that more recalcitrant vantage of establishing precedents.

Why were European foreign ministries established three centuries after the establishment of the first resident diplomatic missions? Describe how and why the need for foreign ministries appeared

-previously foreign affairs was in different and geographical based bureacracies -increasing and diversifying foreign relations increased need as well as the increasing number of resident embassies -increasing and diversifying foreign relations increased the possibilities of inconsistency in the formulation and execution of foreign policy, and this demanded more unified direction and better-preserved archives. -The second trend -foreign policy execution by means of resident missions increased vastly the quantity of correspondence flowing home. This added the need for attention to methods of communication with the missions, including the creation and renewal of their ciphers. - Even in Europe, however, it was well into the nineteenth century before foreign ministries, which remained small, became bureaucratically sophisticated. By this time, they were divided into different administrative units on the basis either of specialization in a particular function (for example, protocol and treaties), or - more commonly' geographical regions.

Which three messages are being conveyed during prenegotiations through direct and indirect contact between rivals, and through propaganda directed at allies and domestic constituencies? (p. 29)

1.That the parties have important interests in common-for example, avoiding nuclear war-as well as interests that divide them 2. That disaster will be inescapable if negotiations are not grasped 3. That there is a possible solution - this might involve the suggestion that negotiation of the dispute in question be linked to another in which the parties are also on opposite sides, thus increasing the scope for trade-offs.

How can a government avoid the ratification of a treaty? Give an example. (pp. 72-73)

A common method is to employ the exchange of notes or exchange of letters, already mentioned. This normally enters into force immediately signature and so is popular for this reason as well as because it avoids the formal complexities of the treaty so-called. Informal agreements with other titles might, however, also be so framed in order avoid pressure for ratification. In the United States, the answer is to create agreements in a form that, definition, do not require ratification, for only 'treaties' need to be ratified by the senate.

What is the difference between the titles "honorary consul" and "consular agent" in the French, British, and American diplomacies? (p. 146)

A consular agent refers to a class of career consuls according to VCCR Lowest rank, below vice-consuls In British and french services: the two terms are pretty much synonymous US makes a distinction between the two but they are kind of an exception not the rule

How many embassies and consulates can a sending state establish in a receiving state? Are there any regulations as to where in a receiving state, a sending state may place its embassies and consulates, in the state capital vs. regional centers? (p. 136)

A sending state can only send 1 embassy Many consulates All in capital Can be in multiple buildings Consulates can be more spread out in major cities

What is a 'treaty'? Explain the term in the framework of legal and diplomatic terminology.

A treaty derives from the word 'traiter,' which is the French verb for 'to negotiate,' thus incredibly fitting for the act. This concept came into fruition during the Vienna Convention on the Law of treaties (1969), which stated that if parties wished to have their agreement create international legal obligations, that they must "write it out and give a copy to the UN" (69). If this is done, a treaty has been created. This definition is also inclusive of international agreements that involve international organizations as parties as well. Other titles for this function are "act charter, concordat, convention, covenant, declaration, exchange of correspondence, general agreement..." and more (69-70). Essentially, if the term 'treaty' is used, this is to specifically highlight and draw attention to the importance of an overall agreement. To briefly outline these documents' components, they include the following: a descriptive title, a preamble, substantive articles, final clauses, a clause stating witnesses, an indication of location, and finally seals and signatures of the plenipotentiaries (70). In short, parties who want their agreement to create international legal obligations must write it out and give a copy to the UN; in so doing, they have created a 'treaty'.

What is one of the key tactics in negotiations related to swapping concessions? Give examples.

A variant on Homans's theorem is a deal in which one party seeks to trade something which it values highly but which it knows it is going have to surrender anyway, irrespective of whether or not it gets a pro quo from the other side. In principle, both parties can do as well. The trick here is to make sure that the other side does not the same information. it is usually best to make concessions in one fell swoop. This avoids the impression given by making small ones incrementally that there are always more for the asking. Major concessions should not be made at the beginning of negotiations, since this leaves little room for later bargaining.

What are the advantages and disadvantages of Virtual Diplomacy?

Advantages ability to read body language cutting down on travel emissions a form of internal communication for organizations like the UN. COVID Disadvantages issues of security lack of opportunities for casual side conversations or quick chats in hallways which can build rapport and allow for a low-pressure environment for discussion.

What are the chief tasks confronting negotiators during the prenegotiation stage?

Agreeing the need to negotiate, agreeing to the agenda, agreeing procedure (secrecy, format, venue, delegations, and timing).

What was the opinion of diplomats until well into the 20th century about the social and class differences that characterized the persona of an ambassador vs. of a consul? (p. 134)

Ambassadors were often of the aristocracy or wealthy class and they maintained a relatively high level of prestige Ambassadors judged consuls harshly Consuls initially worked part-time or were also merchants themselves There was the idea (held by diplomats) that their work was very distinct and different (except that isn't true) They felt like there was a distinct division in class Consuls were "humble" and lowly and looked down upon

Who are the "consular correspondents?"

An idv. employed by the state Voluntary representatives Contact points between consular posts and sections of a community

Berridge is telling us about the "anti-diplomacy" of the USSR and China. What might he have in mind when using this term? Why would The Soviet Russia and later China engage in "anti-diplomacy" at all? (p. 2 and personal research)

As for the anti-diplomacy of the Communist regimes in Soviet Russia and subsequently in China, this was relatively short-lived. "propaganda amongst people." Against/counters a balance of power between a plurality of states, mutually impinging interests of an unusually urgent kind, efficient and secure international communication, and relative cultural toleration.

When thinking of the timing of negotiations, what should their scheduler keep in mind? Give some examples. (p. 42)

At the start of negotiations nevertheless remain considerable in the modern start of negotiations nevertheless remain considerable in the Because of such difficulties in finding a practicable starting date negotiation, it would be surprising to learn that one that also coincides with favorable astrological portents is sometimes sought. Contrast, there can be more certainty that dates on the calendar that strong emotions, good or bad - are taken seriously.

What is the key precondition for any two parties in dispute to accept negotiations? Explain.

Because establishing the need for negotiations rests fundamentally on establishing that a stalemate exists, any party to whom suspicions of weakness attach might feel compelled to raise the temperature of the conflict while simultaneously probing the possibility of walks. If, ultimately, existence of a stalemate is accepted, the parties next have acknowledged the possibility that a negotiated settlement (although not any negotiated settlement) could be better for all concerned continuing with things as they. This is, perhaps, the true begin prenegotiations.

What is considered a "normal embassy?" Explain the concept.

Berridge uses the term "the normal embassy" to refer to an embassy as described by the VCDR. an entity that represents their home state as well as gathers intel on the receiving state role to negotiate and build relations with receiving states while respecting international law. Missions are led by an ambassador, and the second in command is deputy chief of mission. They are also supported by an administrative and technical staff that may include locally engaged or (LE) staff.

Short essay question: What is the difference between "career consuls" and "honorary consuls?" Who carries out these functions? (pp. 142-146)

Career Foreign service members Could have been or may later be in diplomatic services (ie. they are not consuls for life) Hierarchy: Consulates-general Consulates Vice consulates Career consuls are usually in regions that have a lot of nationals and commercial interests. Formally subordinate to the embassy Honorary Consular agents and correspondents Some states such as the US accepts but does not appoint honorary consuls, some European countries refuse to acknowledge honorary consuls at all Nationals of sending state with permanent residence in receiving state or nationals of the receiving state Usually self-employed or professionals Often work part time Small salaries or paid for their services Limited privileges Motivations: Helping others Social gain Commercial gain

What is Telephone Diplomacy? What are its advantages and disadvantages?

Conducting diplomatic negotiations over the phone Advantages Very fast and accessible calls can feel more direct and personal given immediately addressing and clarifying misunderstandings as well as receiving immediate responses should the situation require it. Disadvantages Less facial expressions/nonverbal communication Potential for recordings or for listening in Can push decisions too quickly Lack of corridor diplomacy

Essay question: What are the origins of consulates? Why are they now so important? How is their work organized?

Consulates were originally founded to support international trade and shipping industries. Trade on an international level was fraught with problems in the times surrounding the conception of consular services. Issues related to different languages, religions, laws, and competition between ship-owners led to the necessity of a representative to address said discrepancies. As stated by Berridge, the consul served as a "spokesman for the merchants." They were typically merchants themselves and were largely disconnected from the state. It would only be around the mid 17th century in Britain when a more nationalistic role would appear. Berridge outlines 5 major categories to describe the functions of consuls, listing them as "commercial work; assistance to nationals; entry clearance; diplomacy; and secret intelligence." One of the priorities of their work is helping nationals abroad in cases such as deaths, lost passports, and helping individuals in distress (illnesses, arrests, being caught up in an accident, disappearances, etc.). They are also in charge of controlling entry through activities such as issuing visas and working with refugees such as North Korean refugees arriving at the border of South Korea. Consuls also play a role in diplomacy or take the place of diplomats when sending states that have no established embassy. Lastly, they can serve as a protective cover for intelligence officers, similar to embassies.

Describe the early history of diplomacy. When, where and how was it practiced? Why is it considered "rudimentary" at this early stage?

Diplomacy in its modem form has its immediate origins in the Italian peninsula in the late fifteenth century AD. Its main features in these centuries were the dependence of communications on messengers and merchant caravans, of diplomatic immunity on codes of hospitality, and of treaty observance on terror of the gods under whose gaze they were confirmed. However, although apparently adequate to the times, diplomacy during these centuries remained rudimentary. In the main this would seem to be because it was not called on very often and because communications were slow, laborious, unpredictable, and insecure. It was in the Italian city-states system in the late fifteenth century AD, when conditions were particularly favorable to the further development of diplomacy, that the recognizably modern system first made its appearance.

What forms an agreement may take and on what does that depend? Give a brief overview.

Diplomatic agreements vary in form to an almost bewildering degree. Vary in title or style, being given such descriptions as bunding act, final act, protocol, exchange of notes, and even just a plain agreement. Vary significantly in textual structure, language, her they are written or oral, and whether or not they are accompanied by side letters. They also vary in whether they are publicized or secret. The purpose of this chapter is to explain this variation, and indicate what form an agreement might take depending on its subject matter and the political needs of its authors.

It is claimed that embassies have an important role in monitoring the implementation of international agreements. Explain how they do so, what facilitates their success, what hinders it, and give some examples. (pp. 86-87)

Embassies are ideally placed to follow up agreements, whether bilateral or multilateral ones in which the sending state a close interest. As well as having the advantages of local knowledge contacts that come from being on the spot, the larger embassies at least are not without their own experts (traditionally known as 'attaches'); example, in commerce, culture, defense, drugs, and immigration, embassy staff enjoy special privileges and immunities, and are there unlikely to fear the reprisals likely to be suffered in authoritarian investigative journalists or opposition politicians whose questions prove awkward. Their own state to protect, and this requires normal - if not good-relations with the government of the receiving state. Pushing too hard for compliance with the terms of an agreement on a sensitive subject like man rights, therefore, might well compromise completely the rest of leir work; and apprehension on this score will often render them ill-suited to take the lead in following up.

Berridge does not mention the phrase "Dollar Diplomacy" in his book. However, how this phrase could be related to Berridge's discussion on euphemisms in the light of diplomatic agreements between rich and poor states. (p. 78, & this Britannica Article on "Dollar Diplomacy")

Ensure the financial stability of a region while protecting and extending U.S. commercial and financial interests there. Large amounts of money' instead, they are usually described by the payer as 'reconstruction aid.' Guaranteeing loans made to strategically important foreign countries.

Explain the "cuckoos-in-the-nest" metaphor as related to intelligence officers in embassies. What do cuckoos and intelligence officers have in common? Is this metaphor useful? Are diplomatic metaphors in general useful? Why yes or why no?

Explain the "cuckoos-in-the-nest" metaphor as related to intelligence officers in embassies. What do cuckoos and intelligence officers have in common? Cuckoos are known for laying eggs in an existing nest Their babies are often bigger and grow faster and will push the "host's" eggs out of the nest They are parasitic While having spies in the mix in embassies does make it so that diplomats do not need to engage in espionage themselves, they have still let a liability ino their "nest" Intelligence agents may be bigger risk takers which can interfere with diplomatic interests If the "cukoo" is discovered by the host country, likely the whole embassy will go down with them They can attract unwanted attention Is this metaphor useful? I think it depends on one's familiarity with birds Are diplomatic metaphors in general useful? Why yes or why no? I think so, it is quite fun and makes things easy to remember Much can be lost in interpretation though

Why were most states in the 15th century reluctant to tolerate foreign permanent missions (embassies) on their territories? Have the issues that they used as arguments changed much over the centuries?

Fears of spies and traitors They have become an important institution but these are still very much a concern

What is the advantage of drafting the agreements in the language of each party concerned? Why would they decide to add even a third language that might not the official language of either one of the two nations?

For some historical reference, since the end of WWII, the common occurrence of agreement copies into different languages has dramatically increased, and even within the Vienna Convention, it was confirmed that each translated version is equally authentic and authoritative (75). While the advantages of differing copies are that they "reflect relationships of equality and contain an equal exchange of concession," these disadvantages are in the fact that there lies ambiguity in interpretation (75). This leads to more vague and loose implementations and understandings of what is said, which is why often there is a third language offered, or a master text, in the case of only two involved parties. A few examples outlined by Berridge are The Paris Accords of 1973 (English and Vietnamese) alongside the Angola/Namibia Accords (English, Spanish, and Portuguese) - more details on page 75. People might try and be sneaky! You may conclude that the problem with interpretations is not in languages and bad translators, but rather in dishonesty of people crafting diplomatic agreements.

In which country was the first foreign ministry established and when?

France is often assumed to be the first foreign ministry, but there might have been other candidates well within and beyond Europe for that title. "It has often been assumed that it was in France that the first foreign ministry began to emerge when, in 1589, Henry III gave sole responsibility for foreign affairs to one of his secretaries of state." Late 16th century early 17th century. Indeed, it was only during the 18th century that a recognizably modern foreign ministry became the general rule in Europe.

short Essay Question: What type of special missions do exist? (Hint: there are four types.) Describe them all and elaborate on their advantages and disadvantages

From belle's reading log "Special missions can be categorized as unofficial or official, which varies by a high or low level. Official missions are often headed by political recruits with formal appointments. Highest ranking leaders do not often go on missions to countries where there are hostile or non-existent relations, so sending a high-ranking subordinate is preferred. These individuals are rarely if ever well known and can slip under the radar. High-level official missions can be led by ambassadors at large or a diplomat or representative who may become well known after said mission. Low-level secret missions can even be more "obscure." As a result, they can be involved in more sensitive or delicate matters because their failures or exposure are easier to cover up. Unofficial special missions are often staffed with recruits from outside the government. At a high level, the appointments are often well-connected. A famous example is Lord Levy who was Tony Blair's wealthy envoy. At a low level, "private envoys" are usually private citizens like "Landrum Bolling, the private American citizen used by US President Jimmy Carter to make contact with the PLO in September 1977" (244). At a low level, there is more flexibility, making them good for sensitive missions. At an unofficial level, an advantage is that the wealthy can pay their own expenses (like Lord Levy) as well, they can "bypass" their own foreign service should it be necessary."

What is "double-edged diplomacy," according to Berridge? (p. 72)

If a government cannot sidestep ratification, the obvious way for it to handle possible problems with the process is to carry affected domestic interest groups with it in shaping a negotiating position, and then perhaps co-opt some of their most respected representatives into the negotiating agreement subsequently brought home for ratification. Foreign service officers will enjoy diplomatic privileges and immunity while negotiating an agreement abroad, but not while trying to sell it to other departments, lobbyist, and elected representatives at home.

After the first stage of prenegotiations is completed, i.e. after negotiating parties agree that there is a need to negotiate, they proceed to the second stage of prenegotiations, which is formulating the negotiation agenda. What does this stage comprehend and what are its challenges? (p. 31-32)

If the need for negotiations is recognized and conditions are propitious, it usually becomes possible to move quickly to discussion of the agenda. This means not only agreeing what will be discussed, but also the order in which the agreed items will be taken. However, in an adversary relationship, difficulties often arise because a proposed agenda might be 'prejudicial' rather than 'neutral.' The order of the agenda can also create difficulties. This is because parties to any negotiation generally approach them in the expect that they will have to give concessions on some items in order to receive them on others.

Describe the main differences between diplomatic and consular privileges and immunities.

Immunity from jurisdiction Immunity only in regards to actions done in an official capacity Diplomats have immunity with private actions in addition Liability to give evidence Consular officers may have to provide evidence in criminal proceedings (not o official business) Diplomats do not have to Personal inviolability The consular officer may be arrested or detained while awaiting trials and can be imprisoned Diplomats cannot Inviolability of premises\ In case of a fire or other emergency, a consulate can be entered without the permission f the head authority Private consular residencies lack immunity Embassies always need approval for entry by receiving state authorities Diplomats private residences have immunity Freedom of communication: the consular bag A consular bag can be detained and searched or sent back if they refuse to open

Why is the US ministry of foreign affairs called "The Department of State" or "State Department?" (

In September, the Department was given certain domestic duties as well, which subsequently came to include management of the Mint, fulfilling the role of keeper of the Great Seal of the United States, and the taking of the census. No longer charged solely with foreign tasks, it was for this reason | at the same juncture, the department's name was changed to the Department of State. Despite surrendering most of its domestic duties in the nineteenth century, the Department found itself stuck with the name.

What does "direct dial diplomacy" mean? Explain the concept and its benefits and flaws. (p. 15) [added later for the next year]

In all states today the OGDs - notably commerce, finance, transport, environment, the central bank, and, above all, defense - engage in direct communication not only with their foreign counterparts, but also with quite different agencies abroad, and do so to an unprecedented degree. Indeed, the extent of this 'direct dial diplomacy' is now so great that the commonly have their own international sections. As a result, it is no longer practical - or, indeed, advisable - for the foreign ministry to insist that, in order to ensure consistency in foreign policy and prevent foreigners from playing off one ministry against another, it alone should have dealings with them.

Berridge claims that there is a staunch difference between democratic and authoritarian regimes in terms how they approach negotiations and deal with their opposition at home when it comes to some unpopular clauses in agreements that emanated from those negotiations. Give his examples and yours and explain why you agree or disagree with him. (p. 29-31, check also my lecture notes on National attribute theories of War Part 1 and Part 2, your own research)

In democracies (even of an imperfect kind), this consideration argues for rapid movement after elections, when a government can take unpopular action in the reasonable expectation that the voters will either have forgotten or secured compensating blessings by the time they are next able to cast their ballots. In autocracies, domestic hardline opponents have to be dealt with in some other way before negotiations - at least, substantive negotiations - can be launched.

What does negotiation consist of in international politics? (p. 25)

In international politics, negotiation consists of discussion between officially designated representatives with the object of achieving the formal agreement of their governments to a way forward on an issue that has come up in their relations.

Essay question: What are the tasks that a ministry of foreign affairs does? Through which departments are they executed?

In many countries, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs is the government department responsible for the state's diplomacy, bilateral, and multilateral relations affairs as well as for providing support for a country's citizens who are abroad. In most states today, the foreign ministry must formally share control over the making of foreign policy with other ministries and executive agencies and to a growing extent with its missions abroad. Nevertheless, it tends to retain significant influence via its broader perspective, geographical expertise, control of the diplomatic service investment in public diplomacy nurturing of domestic allies, and acceptance by outsiders that it is well positioned to make a major contribution to the coordination of the state's multidimensional international relationships. The foreign ministry traditionally had the main role in policymaking, issuing the appropriate instructions to missions, and ensuring they are carried out. The foreign ministries of states that have to deal regularly with crises with national security implications tend to have a crisis section that is permanently operational. Some foreign ministries also have departments known by names such as 'intelligence and research' or 'research and analysis.' Geographical departments normally concentrate on regions or individual states of particular importance, while functional departments (sometimes called subject' or 'thematic' departments) deal typically with high-profile general issues such as climate change, drugs and international crime, human rights, and energy security. The first task stated is "providing the personnel for the state's diplomatic and consular missions abroad," which not only includes positions at the permanent headquarters of these international organizations, but also the overall recruitment and training process (9). Furthermore, they also are answerable to supporting diplomats and their families in terms of navigating any hardships or emergencies (9). Another task is that they are responsible for the "physical fabric" of these missions abroad as they must explore and solidify the means of "renting, purchasing, or even constructing suitable buildings" as well as providing furnishing, maintenance, guards, and communication (9). Moreover, they are also in charge of measuring performance through reports and inspections done through visits. An interesting point within this facet is the idea that quantitative performance measurements, despite being popular, are actually rather inadequate, doing more harm than good as they tend to "frustrate staff and magnify the importance of their commercial and consular services" due to the ability of them simply being more measurable (10).

Essay question: The final task of prenegotiations is "agreement on procedure." What are the typical procedural questions that need to be resolved in prenegotiations? (Hint: There are five of them.) Describe each. (pp. 33-42)

In no specific order, the five procedural details are secrecy, format, venue, delegations, and timing (33). Secrecy outlines whether or not to keep contents of a negotiation, knowledge of a negotiation, contents of agreements issued from negotiation, or agreements at all should be kept a secret and away from the public's eyes and ears (33). Format takes into account whether or not the negotiations will occur directly or indirectly, alongside the bilateral or multilateral logistical considerations (34). Venue determines whether or not to have the location be either "home" or "away," though for a tense relationship this may look like alternating home venues, neutral ground, or even meeting halfway, and also requires both symbolic and practical considerations (36). Delegation addresses level, composition, and size concerning who and who will not be involved in the process alongside participants (40). Timing considers when the negotiation should occur as well as the duration period for preparation, appropriate consultations, and even deadlines (41).

What is diplomacy? What is its purpose? How does it achieve its goals?

In the introduction of Diplomacy: Theory and Practice, diplomacy is described as not only being inclusive as both "political activity and... a major ingredient of power," but also as the reflection and reinforcement of the balance of power (1). For these very reasons, diplomacy is the vital way by which states are able to pursue and exert their authority regarding foreign influence and affairs, but also an effective means by which states are shaped. As outlined in the book, the main purpose diplomacy serves for states is to "secure the objectives of their foreign policies without resort to force, propaganda, or law," which is achieved through substantial amounts of communication between official diplomatic agents and other officials with the goal of reaching and securing agreements (1). Though, it is important to note that the act of diplomacy is not solely limited to professional diplomatic agents and said official others, but also private persons who may work under the direction and discretion of those officials (1). Overall, the act of diplomacy is akin to that of negotiation, but also includes certain activities such as "gathering information, clarifying intentions, and engendering goodwill" (1).

Intelligence, imagination, and empathy are constituent parts of what? Explain their role. (p. 29 and your own intelligence, imagination, & empathy)

Indeed, encouraging the belief that negotiations are at any rate worth means floating a formula or framework for a settlement. This will to give something to both sides and, at the least, suggest that n listing intelligence, imagination, and empathy - that is to say diplomacy - might be able to produce a solution. It will also have to be fairly ague because a vague formula avoids giving hostages to fortune in a in which circumstances are constantly changing.

Why are "euphemisms" used in international agreements? Give an example related to the USSR and one related to USA.

Indeed, in the description of concessions, the of words or expressions more palatable to the party that has made is another face-saving feature of almost all politically sensitive A good example of the use of euphemisms is to be found in the Geneva Accords on Afghanistan referred to earlier, in which Soviet sensitive the issue of the withdrawal of their troops were so solicitously handled by confining the relevant provisions to the small print. Humiliating the Kremlin was reduced further by the complete absence any reference whatever to the withdrawal of 'Soviet' troops. To be withdrawn instead were 'foreign' troops. Since, however, it would be humiliating for the poorer state if this were to be too obvious, and present the richer one in a particularly flattering light either, these large amounts of money are never called 'large amounts of money' instead, they are usually described by the payer as 'reconstruction aid'

In diplomatic history the phrase "secret diplomacy" is used in two different ways. Portray how Berridge uses this phrase, then depict its pejorative meaning in the context of WWI, i.e. as opposed to the concept of "open diplomacy." (p. 33, the video on our website Promises and Betrayals, and/or Lecture Notes on WWI &

It can mean keeping secret all or any of the following: the contents of a negotiation, knowledge that negotiations are going on, content of any agreement issuing from negotiations, or the fact that any agreement at all has been reached. Keeping the content, and often the fact, of negotiations secret is important chiefly because a successful negotiation means, by definition, that each side has to settle for less than its ideal requirements, ^which is another way of saying that certain parties - radical supporters of the governments concerned, other domestic constituency, or a foreign friend -have, in some measure, to be sold out.

What can help prenegotiations turn successful? (Hint: It refers to the background of negotiators and to the situation surrounding the negotiations) Explain. Give one or more examples. (pp. 30-31)

It is a further advantage to the leadership of parties contemplating negotiations if they have a record of hostility towards the other side. Coming from such a background, they are well placed to defend themselves against any charge that they are moved by secret sympathies for -the enemy or an inadequate grasp of their own national or ideological priorities; and they are therefore suitably positioned to hold their own conservatives in line. and if no events that would cause public alarm are avoided

What is the diplomatic corps made of and how does it operate? (p. 117)

It is a group of diplomats from different states that have residency in the same capital Headed by senior ambassador (who has served the longest) A key demonstration of the "professional identity" of diplomats

Are functional departments within a ministry of foreign affairs likely to replace geographical departments? Explain why yes or why no

It is, however, highly unlikely that functional departments will replace the geographical departments completely and - except on the part of small, poor states with very limited bilateral ties of any importance - it would be a mistake to pursue this course. Apart from the fact that the disappearance of geographical departments would weaken the case for a separate foreign ministry (since the international sections of 'other government departments' - OGDs - might be regarded as capable of taking over their functional work), there are two main reasons for this. First, the conduct of bilateral relations with an important individual a different global agenda, is hardly likely to be well coordinated. Second, functional departments inevitably have little - if any - of the kind of specialist knowledge of the languages or history of the world's regions essential for judicious policy advice.

Which key question does the New York Convention of 1969 address? What are some of the possible reasons that it has never been ratified by the majority of the world's states? (pp. 241-242, and class discussion)

It was to clarify rules and regulations surrounding special missions Privileges and immunities International law previously was not so generous to consuls (the poor chaps) Only 38 states ratified because: Thats a hell of a lot of immunity.... Kinda scary for a country Special missions don't happen super often Why sign then? People are dying... this was not the most important issue to be dealing with (priorities)

Is the use of embassy and consular premises for purposes of espionage tolerated based on the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations and the Vienna Convention on Consular Relations (1963)? Explain. (p. 160)

No: Use of consul and embassy premises for intelligence goes against diplomatic law and consular law Espianoge in general is allowed by international law in peacetime. But there are a lot of nuances to what is illegal and what is not Treason and espianoge is banned in some states Intellectual privacy rights Theft of classified information Bribery and blackmail

Under which circumstances and regarding which information is Telephone Diplomacy appropriate?

Not very discreet info Emergencies To clarify actions Like between thatcher and Reagan

Who is a nuncio and who is a plenipotentiary? Explain their roles.

Nuncio "Living letter" Middle ages position in charge of diplomacy According to online sources: Papal ambassador (oxford languages) Plenipotentiary Full powers of diplomacy Middle ages era diplomat of sorts "a person, especially a diplomat, invested with the full power of independent action on behalf of their government, typically in a foreign country." Oxford languages

How are the agreements that do not have the legal status of a "treaty" usually called? Can they, nonetheless, be called "treaties" and under which circumstances? Give an example. (pp. 69-70)

Others include act, charter, concordat, convention (now applied to a multilateral treaty with a large number of signatories), covenant, declaration, exchange of correspondence, general agreement, joint communique, memorandum of understanding, modus vivendi, pact, understanding, and even agreed minutes. Some treaties nevertheless, still called treaties, usually when there is a desire to underline the importance of an agreement. This is because of the terms historical association with the international deliberations of their rulers/plenipotentiaries, and because the treaty so-called is presented in imposing manner, complete with seals as well as signatures. Agreements on matters of special international significance tbt have accordingly been styled treaties include the North Atlantic Treaty the Treat/ Lisbon of 13 December 2007, which amended the previous constitution-making treaties of the EU and, among other things, established office of 'High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy'; and the various Treaties of Accession of new members to the EU. Agreements ending wars are commonly called peace treaties, agreements providing ill-important guarantees of a territorial or constitutional settlement are variably called treaties of guarantee. "If an agreement is believed by its authors to be of great political impor-tance but is not of such a character as to warrant the creation of legal obligations, its importance cannot be signalled, neither can its binding character be reinforced by calling it a treaty: it is not a treaty. However, precisely because the parties have rejected the possibility of clothing their agreement in international law but remain politically bound by it, as well as deeply attached to the agreement's propaganda value, it is doubly impor-tant to dress it in fine attire of a different kind. Hence the use of imposing titles such as Atlantic Charter (1941) and Helsinki Final Act (1975)."

If powerful third parties position themselves to act as mediators between two warring parties, how could they potentially engineer a stalemate to facilitate the peace process? Give an example. Think why the third parties might not be willing to engineer a stalemate. What does that tell you about the primacy of national values or national interests in international relations? What would then be the purpose of such a negotiation and mediation? (p. 28 and your own research)

Parties might be calling for gestures of goodwill but stepping up the pressure will safeguard the balance of power with its rival and offer protect ion against domestic hard-liners. If, on the other hand, powerful third parties are positioning themselves to act as mediators (see Chapter 17) hey might be able - for example, by regulating the flow of arms to rivals-to engineer a stalemate. In bitter conflicts where the stakes are high, as in that between the Indians and the Pakistanis over Kashmir, acceptance of a stalemate nearly always takes a long time. When the issues concern core values perhaps even survival itself, there will be enormous reluctance to accept that another party has the ability to block achievement of one's aspirations or permanently threaten an otherwise satisfactory status quo. Acceptance of a stalemate in such circumstances requires repeated demonstrations of power and resolve by both parties. In the Arab-Israeli it took four wars (five, including the War of Attrition from. 196*7 1970) before Egypt made peace with Israel, in 1979 - and then it required the assistance of sustained top-level American mediation and the application of heavy pressure on both sides.

. What is considered a "fortress embassy?" Explain the concept. (Refer to the Boxer Rebellion and Opium Wars in the 19th century China.) What are its pros and cons? (pp. 125-127, & your own research)

Post-WWII, the US began spending more money on embassies, but it attracted unwanted attention that at times was hard for receiving countries to defend. Up until the 1950s, attacks on embassies were rather rare, however, after the suicide bomb attack on the American embassy in Beirut in 1983, the US implemented new safety standards. Some of these new standards include setting embassies 100 feet back from streets, blast-proof construction, the introduction of a high perimeter, and building safe rooms. While the construction itself may be safer, some have argued that fortress embassy design impedes job functions and appears non-trusting to the public. (Refer to the Boxer Rebellion and Opium Wars in the 19th century China. Compounds in china during the boxer rebellion where the US embassy was under attack To drive foreigners from china Anti-imperialist, anti-christian (they probably deserved it but oh well) What are its pros and cons? Pro It is safer Some argue it doesnt significantly deter Cons It can be intimidating and deter cooperation or visits to the embassy If meetings have to be elsewhere, whats the point? Advertises distrust in the local community

What are the three distinct stages of negotiations? Briefly describe each stage.

Prenegotiations, formula, and details. The main purpose of prenegotiations is to establish what exactly the around-the-table negotiations would look like through the creation of an agenda and procedures, as well as whether or not they are worthwhile or necessary to begin with. In no specific order, the five procedural details are secrecy, format, venue, delegations, and timing (33). For the broad principles of a settlement there are many synonyms, among the more common of which are 'guidelines', 'framework for agreement', and 'set of ideas.' The recipe for a good formula within this stage are simplicity, comprehensiveness, balance, and flexibility (45). As this stage is both more formal and publicized, simplicity is key as it allows for the formula to be more straightforward as a guide for negotiators, but also the public if the event is broadcasted (45). If a formula is agreed by the parties to a negotiation, the final stage involves fleshing it out - agreeing the details. There are five difficulties in which Berridge outlines. The first reason is that it is a complicated and thus complex process by definition, and the following reason is due to the careful thought and attention that must be given toward establishing a common language (49). Once again, the theme of communication arises as another aim must be to avoid any and all misunderstandings that may inflame or stir any tensions. The third reason is that the details stage is extremely time-consuming and requires the immersive participation of specialists among other things which further delays (49). The fourth reason is because "it presents an opportunity to shift the balance of advantage in the agreed formula... [though] this might not be easy to detect (50). Lasty, it is simply because it is "the moment of truth," and if negotiators fail or make any missteps, suffering will ensue (50). One other aspect worth mentioning in terms of bringing about awareness and consideration for is that "when negotiators come from different cultural traditions, there can be problems" (52).

What are the perils and benefits of electronic mail and text messaging?

Pros Speed and convenience Pretty good encryption nowadays Good supplemental tool and for follow-ups Easy to send and receive documents Cons Hacking and cybercrime potential It can be easy to make impulsive decisions Accidents or just improper usage Reply all when not meant, accidental forwarding Weak passwords Iranian embassy in Tunisia's password? tunisia If countries use free and general platforms such as Gmail there can be more vulnerabilities

What are the two chief purposes of secret intelligence? (

Provide gov. With valuable information that is hard to get from outside the country/ open sources "To weaken or eliminate foreign enemies"

Why is publicity considered both, one of the worst enemies of negotiations, as well as its animator? Explain. (pp. 62-64)

Publicity - and this is often true and "invariably so when an attempt is made to conduct it in the open" (63). Though, publicity can also be used as a tool to assist negotiations in moving forward. Berridge then states three ways in which this can occur. The first is "by flying kites to see how the other side will react," then "by mobilizing popular support for a negotiated solution," and lastly by "talking up the talks" (63). It is also important to note that this is why the press office is an essential aspect of both governments and their foreign ministries.

What are the roles of intelligence officers within an embassy? What are the advantages of diplomatic cover to intelligence officers? (pp. 153-159)

Roles "employees of civilian foreign intelligence agencies or one or other of the branches of armed forces intelligence, which in most countries originated before the former" Some under supervision by foreign service ministries, some under defense ministries, some are their own ministries Advantages Diplomatic immunity Excuse to gain political intel New recruits who were unknown is common in low-level consul positions Still many have been in high ranking positions

What is the purpose of "fine print" in agreements? What are its advantages and disadvantages? How is it done? Could the "fine print" be used to keep on dragging negotiations? Can you think of an example? (p. 76-77 and your personal research)

Sensitivity to language only deals with the question of face in the most general way and negotiators must needs turn to other devices when are confronted with the problem of disguising a sensitive contain the text of an agreement. Perhaps the most common way of doing this is to say very little about it, tuck it away in some obscure recess, and pad out the rest of the agreement with relatively trivia] detail - a tactic that used to be known as 'throwing dust in our faces.' Another 'small print' technique for saving face is to place embarrassing concessions in documentary appendages to the main text. These many forms: side letters, interpretive notes, appendices, additional protocols, and so on. Tucking sensitive matters away in documentary appendages to the main document also has disadvantages. First, in a complex and tense negotiation Second, it can subsequently be claimed that ancillary documents do not have the same value as the main text of agreement. "", it can subsequently be claimed that ancillary documents do not have the same value as the main text of an agreement. This is what Israeli premier Menachem Begin alleged of the side letter of 17 September 1978 from Sadat to Carter. This was the one in which the Egyptian president indicated his readiness to negotiate on the West Bank and Gaza on behalf of the Palestinians should the Jordanians refuse to assume this responsibility. Begin hoped to persuade the Americans that there was no point in discussing the West Bank at all if Jordan refused to take part (Quandt: 299, 386-7). "

What is Corridor Diplomacy? (p.109)

Side conversations in hallways, during breaks etc. of in-person meetings The goal is often for more casual conversations Can help to build a relationship/ rapport with other leaders Can make negotiations and deals a casual and friendly manne

Why are negotiations sometimes preferred at lower-level delegations than at higher levels?

Sometimes, lower-level talks can be better because it is easier for delegates to throw out ideas 'speaking personally' also there is less publicity or likely existing biases between negotiators

How was the implementation of agreements secured up to the mid 18th century? Usually, five methods are mentioned. Depict at least some of them. (p. 82)

Surety of this sort was the exchange or unreciprocated surrender of valuable hostages. Another form of surety was the pawning or mortgaging of towns or provinces, which - should the promise not be would be lost for good in the first case, and liable to seizure in the second. Another device occasionally employed to ensure treaty observance to entrust the task to men of stature from both signatory states. A final method was the treaty of guarantee, by which powerful states took to enforce, if necessary, an international agreement.

Which two methods are usually used when negotiating a detailed agreement? Describe both and give an example for each. (pp. 50-51)

The first method is to compromise on individual issues; for example, two splitting the difference between the opening demands of the parties on the timetable for a troop withdrawal. This is what happened in regard to the Cuban oops in Angola during the American-brokered negotiations in 1988. The South Africans wanted them out as soon as possible, and had in By contrast, the Marxist government of Angola, anxious to retain the protection afforded by Fidel Castro's nationalist military contingent' for as long as possible, was thinking of a timetable for its withdrawal in terms of three or four years. In the end, they compromised on a year and half, which was spelled out in detail in an annex to the agreement The second method for making concessions is to give the other side or less what it wants on one issue in return for satisfaction on □rate one; in principle, this is the same as linkage (P- 47), except that the issues, while separate, are of the same species. A simple example would be the exchange of packet of rich biscuits for a piece of lean steak, where the former was initially by a meat-loving weight-watcher and the latter by a vegetarian with a sweet tooth.

Compare the "deductive" and "inductive" approach to negotiations. (p. 46)

The nettle of general principle might be grasped immediately the described as the 'deductive approach' Alternatively, the nettle of principle can be approached with caution - by stealth, perhaps from Sometimes described as the 'inductive approach1 his is more commonly known as 'step-by-step' diplomacy.

The first stage of "Around-the-Table" negotiations is the so-called "formula" stage. The term "formula" is synonymous with the term "guidelines" or "framework for agreement" or a "set of ideas." Explain what the diplomatic term "formula" means, what its purpose is, and give some examples. (pp. 44-45)

The recipe for a good formula within this stage are simplicity, comprehensiveness, balance, and flexibility (45). As this stage is both more formal and publicized, simplicity is key as it allows for the formula to be more straightforward as a guide for negotiators, but also the public if the event is broadcasted (45). Comprehensiveness is also a significant aspect as "it will promise solutions to all major points of dispute between the parties" (45). Next is balance, which serves as the promise to roughly allow for equal gains to all the parties involved, alongside flexibility, which should permit the implication to allow each party "to believe that it might get what it wants in the details stage of the negotiation" (46). land for peace formula ending the 6 days war 1 country 2 systems to clarify the difference between Taiwan and China

22. In the 1994 Budapest Memorandums, " Russia, the USA, and Britain gave 'security assurances' for the independence, sovereignty and existing borders of Ukraine, Belarus, and Kazakhstan - in return for their accession to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT)." (p. 83) Why was the phrase "to give security assurance" used instead of the phrase "to give guarantee" in this agreement? What does this teach you about the diplomatic language, nature of diplomatic agreements, and purpose of diplomacy?

The treaty of guarantee had always been of limited use because of the onerous responsibility it placed on the guarantors. Shows that people are always finding loopholes! It was only likely to by a state with a strong indirect interest in the observance of an then to be so riddled with escape clauses that serious doubt always the probability that the guarantor would stand by its promises. ""The treaty of guarantee had always been of limited use because of the onerous responsibility it placed on the guarantors. It was only likely to be signed by a state with a strong indirect interest in the observance of an agreement or a special friendship with one or more of the parties - and even then to be so riddled with escape clauses that serious doubt always attended the probability that the guarantor would stand by its promises. That it would do so became even less likely with the enhanced risks of warfare in the twentieth century. For example, in separate treaties signed in December 1994 (the so-called 'Budapest Memorandums'), Russia, the USA, and Britain gave 'security assurances' for the independence, sover-eignty and existing borders of Ukraine, Belarus, and Kazakhstan - in return for their accession to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT). However, these assurances would only be activated in the event of a threat or act of nuclear aggression and then require their protectors only to 'seek' immediate assistance for the victims from the UN Security Council - where, of course, each of the signatories has a veto. The use of the word 'guarantees' in the Budapest Memorandum was deliberately avoided (Pifer)."

What are the chief methods of monitoring by means of which international agreements are followed up today? Names some agencies that do this task and portray their work. (pp. 84-86)

The two umbrella categories are monitoring by both experts, employed by the government, international organizations, or even NGOs(like the red cross and HRW), as well as embassies. Another avenue is through review meetings, 'naming and shaming,' and if need be, implementation can be sought through international courts, tribunals, and, "in extreme cases - by economic sanctions, blockade, or military intimidation" (93-94). As agreements are rather complex, technical matters that draw and rely upon various expertise, experts such as "scientists, engineers, lawyers" and even national intelligence agencies are pivotal groups involved. For example, the US Department of State's inter-house organization of the Bureau of Arms Control, Verification and Compliance is dedicated "to the analysis of compliance with arms control, non-proliferation, and disarmament agreements," meaning that this group of experts are not only closely connected to the intelligence community but have deep specialization with such as well (84).

Why is the case of Israel's capital city particularly intriguing in international relations? Explain. (Hint: think how many countries have embassies, and how many only con

There is the issue between Israel and Palestine on "disputed territories" Having an embassy in jerusalem symbolically acknowledges israel's control over the city. "The nine states with consular posts in Jerusalem are Belgium, France, Greece, Italy, Spain, Sweden, Turkey, UK, and USA. In addition, there is an apos-tolic delegation of the Holy See in the city, and a number of states have honorary consulates there. " (237) In unrecognized states, it can be more convenient to have consulates there instead

In view of the widespread cynicism about the effectiveness of international law, why might the parties to a negotiation want to create an agreement entailing international legal obligations? (p. 69)

This because they know that such obligations are, in fact, honored more often than not, even the states with unsavory reputations 'his is mainly because the obligations derive from consent; because natural inhibitions to law-breaking exist in there between states that do not obtain in the relations between individuals - notably the greater ability of states to defend their interests and the far greater likelihood that the fact and the authorship of international law-breaking will be detected; and because a reputation for failling to keep agreements will make it extremely difficult to promote means of negotiation in the future.

What explanation does Berridge provide for why "Britain has usually preferred to negotiate through its own embassies rather than through a foreign embassy in London? (p.36) What does he say why China also prefers negotiating on its own territory. (p. 39) Can you offer an alternative explanation for this attitude by the British and Chinese officials?

This gives it greater assurance that its messages to the -foreign government are delivered quickly and securely to the right people and are not distorted en route. Chinese unquestionably prefer to negotiate on their own territory as it I 1 States their internal communications and decision-making procedures and maximizes their control over the ambiance of a negotiation.

What is considered the "back channel" in diplomatic negotiations? What are its advantages and disadvantages? Explain.

This is a higher channel that, on important issues, bypasses the lower or front channel. Their advantages are secrecy, speed, and the avoidance of internal bureaucratic battles. T heir disadvantages include the possibility of overlooking key points, damaging the morale of the front channel difficulty of getting those excluded from the decision-making to support the implementation of any agreement that emerges.

What does the term "ratification" mean? Explain the benefits and difficulties that "ratification" may represent in the life of a treaty.

This means avoiding the need confirmation on the part of the negotiators' political masters that they will honor an agreement negotiated and signed on their behalf. Ratification became normal practice when poor communications make it difficult, if not impossible, for there to be any certainty that negotiators had not willfully or accidentally misinterpreted their instructions, that their masters had not changed their minds altogether^ etching them on their diplomatic errand - why would you not ratify avoid delays and rejection

Berridge tells us that "sticks and carrots might be applied, when necessary, to those falling down on their [contractual] obligations." (p. 82, 264) Do you see anything undiplomatic or unethical in this phrasing? Explain.

This method is a form of coercive diplomacy that is comprised of a two-person non-cooperative game that involves a Manipulator and its Target. There are four distinct types of Manipulators and four distinct types of Targets. Manipulator may or may not honor its promise or execute its threat. Depending on its preferences and beliefs about Manipulator's type, Target may or may not resist Manipulator's demand. you are also very much insulting the other party You are refering to the other as a "lowly animal" to be controlled or manipulated

In which type of situation can broadcast communications be indispensable? Explain how and why.

Urgent messages to be delivered immediately to a large number of allies "No change in policy" messages If all other forms of communication with a hostile or rival state have been dispensed with Can convey a lot more nonverbal messages Little risk of the message not being received Can be recorded and translated

Berridge states that " When ... an embassy's association with espionage is exposed, particularly if the victim is an important ally, trouble for an ambassador's own agenda is bound to ensue." Discuss the case of the NSA's eavesdropping on German Chancellor Angela Merkel's phone, then address the question why allies would spy on allies?

Us had been tapping phone conversations Resulted in an understandably angry merkel "Upstaged" EU summit that followers Why would we spy on an ally? A friend today may not be a friend tomorrow or in the future It is possible to be allies but also have differing national interests Can be to monitor if they still are.should be friends Are they following through with promises? Are they a friend behind closed doors?

Why did Israel insist to have negotiations with its Arab neighbors in one of the UN member states rather than in UN buildings while simultaneously refusing to directly negotiate with the Palestinians until 1993? (pp. 38-39, 41)

Venue, however, is not only of symbolic importance because of its implications for prestige; it might also be of symbolic significance because of the ability of a particular venue to assist one or other of the parties in making some point of propaganda. The Israeli view was that if the so-called' Palestinians were to be represented at all, it should be as part the Palestinians were 'really' Jordanians.

What are the accomplishments of the Vienna Convention of Diplomatic Relations (1961)?

Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations established rules and regulations for diplomatic conduct. Strengthened privileges for embassies and made it the duty of the receiving state to protect the embassy. it established protections for the receiving countries from interference in their political affairs. Adjusted rules to modern needs Agents of recieving state cannot enter without permission, Receiving state required to provide special protections

What does the term "metaphor" mean and how is it applicable to negotiations and diplomacy? Explain

Within the language of negotiation, metaphors arise with direct ties to automobiles, trains, and other forms of transpiration to not only capture the essence of momentum but to signify one's journey to the desired 'destination.' A perfect fit for exactly what this context strives to accomplish. Though the effectiveness of these devices remains somewhat speculative, there are two conclusions offered: that "the influence of these metaphors will often be considerable" and that the potency of this rhetoric, "if picked up, embellished and repeated by the mass media, must be difficult to resist" (62) a way to also say things softly, quite charismatic

Berridge closes his chapter on the Around-the-Table negotiations by stating that "when negotiators come from different cultural traditions, there can be problems." Do you think that the issue lies in cultural differences and/or in something else? Explain. (your own research)

Yes, but also attitudes and beliefs. Superiority, inferiority, power, etc. issues of personality racism?

How would you explain the claim that "a wishful thinker is a negotiator's ally?" Do you agree with that claim? Why yes and/or why not? (p. 29 and your own factual pondering)

Yes. Such a formula also meat and drink to that ubiquitous individual, the wishful thinker; at this early stage, when nothing that will help to launch the negotiations can be spurned, the wishful thinker is the negotiator's ally.

Looking at the example of the UN Resolution 242 and the case of 1967 Arab-Israeli war, would you say that the clarity and implementation of an agreement depend on the clarity of the language or on something else? What? First, depict the semantic dispute of the UN Resolution 242 first. (see my Lecture notes on the UN Resolution 242).

You may conclude that the problem with interpretations is not in languages and bad translators, but rather in dishonesty of people crafting diplomatic agreements. The Palestinians maintain that Resolution 242 requires an Israeli withdrawal from all the occupied territories as part of any final settlement. Israeli government web-sites, articles in the media by writers favorable to right-wing Israeli stances, and letters written to the press frequently assert that a withdrawal from 'some' but not 'all' of the territories was intended by Resolution 242.

What is considered the "militarized embassy?" Explain the concept.

a wartime embassy with a military focus. roles can include participation in evacuations, as well as advising their leaders based on on-the-ground knowledge.

Describe each of the five major categories of work that consulates typically do.

commercial work; Negotiations, sanctions etc. assistance to nationals; Illnesses, lost passports, evacuation, births, deaths etc Finding local lawyers, visiting prisons entry clearance; Visas Refugees (non-nationals) Diplomacy In cases of a large sending state, this is common An ambassador cannot be everywhere at once in a large country like China or America and secret intelligence Cover for intelligence missions

Why is the details stage of negotiations often so difficult and why, as a result, do talks often flounder here? (pp. 49-50)

five difficulties: 1. a complicated and thus complex process by definition (a lot of details to be worked out) 2. due to the careful thought and attention that must be given toward establishing a common language -making definitions of words to be used (which is hard to make equally flattering to both parties)(49). 3. the details stage is extremely time-consuming and requires the immersive participation of specialists among other things which further delays (49). 4."it presents an opportunity to shift the balance of advantage in the agreed formula... [though] this might not be easy to detect (50). 5. it is simply because it is "the moment of truth," and if negotiators fail or make any missteps, suffering will ensue (50). 6. One other aspect worth mentioning in terms of bringing about awareness and consideration for is that "when negotiators come from different cultural traditions, there can be problems" (52).

Essay question: State which types of embassies exist and describe the key characteristics of each one of them.

fortress embassy. after the suicide bomb attack on the American embassy in Beirut in 1983, the US implemented new safety standards. including setting embassies 100 feet back from streets, blast-proof construction, the introduction of a high perimeter, and building safe rooms. While the construction itself may be safer, some have argued that fortress embassy design impedes job functions and appears non-trusting to the public. Mini-embassies, smaller-scale diplomatic missions typically with a maximum of 4 sending state staff. While they are often inexpensive, their scope is limited, and there is little room to specialize. militarized embassy a wartime embassy with a military focus. Experiences vary based on the specific conflict that is happening, but roles can include participation in evacuations, as well as advising their leaders based on on-the-ground knowledge.

What is considered a "mini embassy?" Explain the concept. What are its pros and cons?

smaller-scale diplomatic missions typically with a maximum of 4 sending state staff. inexpensive, their scope is limited, and there is little room to specialize.

Why do states seek mediator's role? And how about NGOs? Why do NGOs seek mediator roles?

states: glory, interests in the outcome NGO's financial gain, glory and noteriety