Kin 345 Motor & Developmental Learning Exam Review

Evidence for inadequate muscle strength

6-7 month old infants demonstrate increased rate and amplitude of stepping when they are - submerged in water - supported over a small, motorized treadmill After walking onset, postural sway decreases when touching a static surface

Development of release. Why difficult? Anticipation, force regulation, finger coordination.

9 month (drop object) must relax muscles in arm 18 months (accurate relax) relative to the ability to anticipate the weight of the object and regulate force

regressive

going backwards

Ledebt et al. (1995) Trunk and head stabilization during the first months of independent walking. Purpose of the study. Major findings.

purpose: To investigate the development of stability of the trunk and head during the two phases of the development of global gait parameters. Conclusions: Angular deviations of the trunk and head markedly decrease during the first 15 weeks after the onset of independent walking and then remain stable for a number of weeks. Trunk and head stabilization occurs later than stabilization of the hip. Trunk and head stabilization may correspond to the establishment of central integration processes of visual, vestibular, and somatosensory information.

Types of reflexes: infantile- primitive

reflexes serving for protection, nourishing, and survival present in all normal newborns birth to 6 mos. Palmar Grasp Sucking Reflex Searching/Rooting Reflex Moro Reflex Startle Reflex Asymmetric Tonic Neck Reflex Plantar Grasp Reflex Babinski Reflex Palmar Mandibular Reflex

Four abilities required for locomotion:

1. balance 2. strength 3. coordination (which leg, ect.) 4. Cognitive control (attention, perception)

Importance of reflexes

(survival, protection, nourishment, foundation for voluntary movements, diagnosis) protect us from injury - critical for human survival - foundation for future voluntary movements - important in diagnosing infant health and neurological maturation Flexor withdrawal: touch something hot, take away hand Reflexes should appear and disappear at certain times 1 month: moro reflex, can't support neck, thrust hands out curl fingers, toe curling reflex: babies will spread open when touching foot, sucking reflex: suck on what you put in mouth, rooting reflex: will turn toward what brushes cheek, stepping reflex: hold baby up they'll step, fencing reflex Neonates are helpless and therefore highly dependent on their caregivers and reflexes

Phases of the gate cycle

1. Swing phase Begins: foot leaves surface Ends: any part of foot reconnects with surface 2. Support phase - Time spent in contact with surface 3. Flight phase - Airborne phase present in running

Types of reflexes: Postural and Locomotor Reflexes

- basis for future movement - initiated by higher brain centers Parachuting Reflex Labyrinthine Reflex Pull-up Reflex Head-and-Body Righting Reflex Crawling Reflex Swimming Reflex Stepping Reflex

Development of voluntary movements in infancy

1 mo. Voluntary movements start to appear (slight movement of eyes and head) 1 mo. -5mo. Voluntary control of neck muscles to move the head 8 mo. Ability to sit without support Prone locomotion: creeping & crawling 7-9 mos. Control of upright body posture at 9 months Upright locomotion begins at 10-11 months

Walking pattern in elderly

A gradual change in gait pattern is seen Decrease in velocity Reduction in power during push-off phase Increase double support phase time Decrease in step length Increase in step width Decrease in step height More prone to making contact with flat foot Greater tendency to out-toe Changes in gait occur due to Age-related decline in skeletal muscle Decline in the central and peripheral nervous systems Behavioral changes Fear of falling Depression Increase in disease Reduced physical activity

sequential patterns.

A sequence of hand movements to attain a specific goal Examples? Sign language Typing Playing piano/instruments, tying shoe laces

Critical period and related terms (state of readiness, time limit, durable imprint).

A span of time during which a developing organism is particularly susceptible to the influence of an event, stimulus, or mitigating factor For environmental stimulation to be effective, the organism must have achieved a state of readiness There is a specific time limit The effects of stimulation during critical period create permanent and durable imprint Critical periods for all aspects of human behavior State of readiness is kind of like having the determination to learn

Haptic perception - sense of touch. Types of senses, exploratory procedures, rate limiters

Acquiring information about object with hand from touch. Discriminating & recognizing objects from handling them (vs. looking at them) Info from cutaneous receptors and proprioceptors

Simple synergies

Action of all fingers and thumb are similar Examples? Squeezing ball Clapping Setting in volleyball

Catching: Why is it difficult?

Action of bringing airborne object under control by using hands and arms Difficult because it requires: Force absorption Anticipation Anticipatory and preparatory components are essential

Perception of Space: Habituation

Adaptation to a stimulus Development of a concept of an object and how it can be manipulated

Negative effects of falls. Causes (predispositional, situational)

Account for the most accidental deaths among elderly in U.S. Due to a loss of balance 1 in 3 people 65+ fall 50% of those that fall never regain ability to walk Falls in elderly often cause death Avoid physical activity because of fear of falling 40% of falls due to inattention Lung inflamation Predispositional Physiology or cognitive ability of individual Example? 2. Situational Environmental situation Example? How can falls be avoided? Maintain physically active lifestyle Arranging environment Paying attention Predispositional = improper use of medications - double chances of falling (meds for depression) over medication (polypharamacy) - result in interaction among drugs Situational = chairs, rugs, no handrails Wearing protective vests could help while at home

Cognitive control: attention, perception, anticipation.

Adults: Even highly practiced activities, such as walking, postural control, and reaching are attention-demanding Children: Indications of inadequate attention and other cognitive factors: Reduced attention increases variability in walking characteristics When high attention is required (carrying a tray with a cup of water), smaller children move slower Studied with a dual-task paradigm: secondary cognitive or motor task (talking, clapping)

Body awareness

All plus vision contribute to body awareness, which is the ability: to recognize and identify body parts, their dimensions and motion to understand the body's potential in movement performance to coordinate parts of the body to perceive location and orientation of the body in space (spatial orientation)

Effect of aging on driving. Consequences.

An elderly driver whose car ploughed through a shop window today said he was puzzled as to how the accident happened.

Possible factors for abnormal reflexes

As babies grow, reflexes become integrated into voluntary movements Factors that may inhibit normal integration of reflexes: - injuries at birth or after - drugs ingested in utero or through breast milk - allergies - physical and emotional overstimulation - unsafe environment - lack of opportunity for movement

Categorizing reaching: 3 basic methods (backhand sweep, scooping, controlled reach).

Backhand sweeping toward object Does not get object Sweeping or scooping approach Indirect, circuitous Controlled reach

Balance (static, dynamic). Role of sensory information. Development.

Balance ability to maintain a desired body posture or position Static balance When the body is stationary Dynamic balance When the body is moving

Declines in balance. Postural sway. Cognitive control. Testing with dual task. Improvements with exercise

Balance becomes automatic in childhood (progression), but reverses and requires conscious effort in late adulthood (regression) Research of balance to examine cause of falling in older adults Decline enhanced by pathological conditions 80 +, exhibit postural sway like 6 - 9 yrs. Partly due to declining sensory systems Increased age, harder to maintain posture. Young don't have to focus on how to control gait or posture Postural sway measured with motion of the center of pressure (CoP) Aging causes increases in amplitude and frequency of postural sway Postural sway increase with aging.

Information Processing

Brain acts as a computer Notions: stimulus, response, feedback, knowledge of results, etc. Process-oriented

Stages of Motor Development

Cognitive stage: the initial stage of motor learning, develop and overall understand the skill associative stage: the learner begins to demonstrate a more refined movements through practice autonomous stage: the motor learning becomes more automatic

reciprocal synergies

Combinations of dissimilar finger and thumb movements Examples? Writing

Ecological Perspective

Complex interplay of constraints Individual constraints: persons unique charachteristics, physical, motor, intelectual, social, emotional Environmental constraints: relates to the world around us Task constraints: movement goal Two branches Dynamical Systems Perception-Action

Development of bimanual movements.

Coordinated movement of the two arms - depends on size, weight, and shape of object Symmetrical - 2 mos. extend and raise arms above head Cooperative - 8 mos. manipulate object cooperatively with both hands Complimentary - 2 years - asymmetrical activities (e.g. holding and manipulating)

tactile sensors

Cutaneous Receptors - highest number in fingers Haptic perception - important for tactile control when grasping, feeling etc. Pain, touch, temperature

Muscle strength decreases (grip strength)

Decreased in inactive adults Affects driving performance Can be trained

Delaying movement decline: compensatory strategies, effect of exercise, effect of practice, specific factors in exercise programs for elderly.

Delay, postpone, maybe prevent via exercise, practice, and compensatory strategies Compensatory Strategies pay more attention pace exercise anticipation of movement sacrifice speed for accuracy Effects of Practice - older adults benefit from practice - practice at a particular task improves that task - mental practice improves balance balance training improves balance Movement practice improves cognitive and social functions

Perception of Space

Depth / Distance retinal disparity - image differences between the eyes optical flow - changes in the image due to motion Objects Boundaries, shape, size Figure-and-ground Whole-and-part

Normative Descriptive

Determining norms for different age groups Quantitative, focus on product rather than process (average speed of running, etc.)

Perception of Motion

Direction and velocity The understanding of time relationships Coincidence - anticipation of timing ability to predict the arrival of a moving object to a certain point in space and to coordinate movement with that arrival Examples?

biomechanics

Examines differences in joint angles during gait across ages

growth vs. maturation

Growth quantitative: height, larger hands, feet structural: Running faster, how they walk at start vs how they walk when older Maturation Qualitative: flexion of knees when younger vs older Functional: NoBoDy KnOwS

Slowing (reaction time, movement time, task complexity, changes in other characteristics, such as velocity and acceleration)

How do we measure this? Reaction Time interval from presentation of a stimulus until the beginning of the response Ex.??? Movement Time interval from the initiation of the movement until its termination Ex. ??? ** Both decline systematically in adulthood Takes 200 milli seconds to start moving. No movement during reaction time. Reaction time and movement time don't overlap. Slowing increases as task complexity increases I Age affects reaction time more than movement time: cognitive slowing! Muscle strength decline can slow down movements

Balance, understanding of the problem, types of compensation in early walking

How do we stay vertical? There is constantly some motion, our muscles are constantly repositioning to remain vertical through using our senses and using tactile information to figure out how to move. How do we stay vertical? There is constantly some motion, our muscles are constantly repositioning to remain vertical through using our senses and using tactile information to figure out how to move. CoM - Center of Mass = Center of Gravity CoP - Center of Pressure Compensations for inadequate balance: 1. Wide base of support 2. Hyper-rotation of toes 3. Larger lateral sway 4. Hyper-flexion of knees 5. Arms in high guard 6. Shorter swing phase 7. Longer double support phase

Coordination: intralimb, interlimb. Problems in early walking.

Indications of inadequate coordination - Intralimb: 1. EMG recordings demonstrate co-activation and inappropriate muscle activation sequences 2. Stiff and small joint movements 3. No extension-flexion-extension of support leg Interlimb: 1. Not perfectly alternating steps 2. Arms not coordinated with steps High variability of leg movements 35:65 % phasing between the two legs instead of 50% less variability in leg relationship on motorized treadmill stiff arms

Aging-related changes in speed-accuracy trade-off. Reasons

In older adults, the accuracy/time curve is shifted right Why? Weaker muscles Slower neural processes More cautious Monitor movement with use of sensory feedback

motor behavior

Includes: Motor development Motor control Motor learning Motor control in special populations

Phases of research

Maturational MD is dictated by maturation, stages Normative and Biomechanical Descriptive Focus on product, movement patterns Process Oriented Information processing (brain = computer) Ecological perspective, constraints (indiv., env., task) Dynamical Systems (Self-organization due to body + CNS properties) Perception-Action Approach (Individ. and environment interaction)

audition

Mechanically sensitive hair bundles move with sound and send message to brain Important information for movement: Signal initiation - cross walk Direction of stimulus/source of sound Speed of movement

Experiment: Held & Hein (1963)

Method raised 2 kittens in complete darkness for 8-12 weeks attached kittens to carousel 3 hours /day active kitten, propelled itself around passive kitten glided around due to active kitten Both received the same visual experience Results Active kitten showed signs of normal depth perception Passive kitten showed signs of impaired depth perception; improved greatly when allowed to actively move in lighted room Conclusion Active movement is necessary for development of visual-spatial skills such as depth perception

Experiment: Kermoian & Campos (1988)

Method: Participants (all 8.5 mos of age) Prelocomotor infants Prelocomotor infants with walker experience Locomotor (creeping) infants Tasks 1. retrieving hidden object under a cloth 2. retrieving hidden object under one of 2 identical cloths 3. retrieving hidden object after 3 second delay Results: Infants with more locomotor experience scored better Conclusions: Any locomotor experience appears to facilitate development of infants' spatial perceptions (no diff between creeper & walker)

improvements of exercise

Motor Function (strength, bone density, flexibility, use of sensory information) Neural Function (Loss of neurons, declines in nerve conduction) Cardiovascular Function (Maximal oxygen uptake, maximal heart rate) Exercise makes the rate of decline half as fast Body Composition With age, body weight decreases and body fat component increases. Heavy resistance weight training improves this. Cognitive Function (memory, attention, perception, information processing) Emotional Function (positively affects mood, anxiety, depression) Social Function (social interactions, association memberships

maturational approach

Motor development is dictated by maturation process predetermined by heredity and genetics Emphasis on the role of the nervous system Transition through a sequence of stages Studies exposed twins to different amount of training (nature-versus-nurture debate) Conclusion: Skills will automatically develop Body is preprogramed for different stages. You can't necessarily change when certain movements are going to be developed. Can't change sequence of development.

Biomechanical Descriptive

Movement patterns and how they change Both practically useful (education) but little attention to underlying processes

gross movements

Movements produced by large muscles Movements that move the body in space What are some examples of gross movements? Locomotion Jumping

fine movements

Movements usually produced by small muscles and requiring accuracy Usually involve hands and fingers What are some examples of fine movements? grasping, reaching

proprioception

Muscle and Joint Receptors Info about relative position and motion of body parts in space Muscle Spindles Active when the muscle is stretched Being able to know the position of all limbs. Kind of like inner vision with eyes closed.

balance

Not a state, skill, or ability, but rather the aspect of a particular action involving a variety of processes that allow for the orientation of the body that is necessary to carry out the functional task at hand. Relies on all sensory systems Development on some tasks till 19th yr 7-10 yr - adult-like postural responses (muscle activation sequence) Help maintain vertical posture: vestibular apparatus, proprioception (w/out, they can't stand even if they can see), vision, brain needs to prepare body for postural change.

Categorizing reaching: Phase I and II.

Phase I Reaching 4-6 months Reach and grasp occur at the same time Random and repeated grasping One handed reach Visually initiated Not capable of error correction during the reach Phase II Reaching 6-7 months Reach...then grasp Can demonstrate two handed reach Visually guided reaching Use tactile sensation to guide grasping

Product vs. process approach

Product Approach Task-oriented End result or outcome is the focus Performance scores Quantitative More about quantitave characteristics. Task-oriented: reaching, running, ect. End result: accuracy in reaching, 5mo. Ability to reach toy, how much time it takes to reach toy. How long it takes you to run _m. process approach Emphasizes the movement itself, little or no concern with the outcome Form and function Qualitative Looks out how it is preformed. Ex. Gymnasics, figure skating, ect. How they go through the motions is important just as much as the ability to go through motions is important.

Experiments of Stimulated Environments

Reasons for infant's precocity in rural Kenya - Super (1976) Methods: motor skills (sitting, walking) were practiced by caretakers as a course of daily routine Results: achieve 1 mos. earlier than American infants No advance in skills which are not taught or practiced Conclusion? the average age of attainment __by the environment Walker Use - Burrows and Griffiths (2002)- review - no effect of walker use on the onset/development of walking - may even cause negative effect or delay. No difference b/w those who did and those who didn't. Walkers may, however, delay the child from learning how to walk as the child may get used to using the walker. McGraw Twin Study - Jimmy and Johnny (1935) - investigated directly the effects of early stimulation on motor development Method: 21 days - 22 mos. Johnny toys and considerable stimulation, practice experience in a variety of movement activities Jimmy few toys and minimal motor stimulation At certain periods tested on selected movement activities Results: Johny got a tricycle at 1 yr but started to use it at 20 months Jimmy got a tricycle at 22 mos and learnt it quickly Readiness (minimum necessary characteristics are present) individual is prepared, or ready to acquire a particular behavior sufficient information and ability have accumulated the necessary physical characteristics have been attained the child is motivated

Catch-up: possibilities and limitations for recovery

Remarkable power a human displays to stabilize and return to a predetermined behavior or growth pattern Evidence that the human body is capable of acquiring growth more rapidly than normal during a period of recovery Can occur intellectually, socially, and motorically Degree of recovery depends on the severity, length, and time of deprivation May never realize their genetic potential Genie- had psychological progress, but didn't go through catch-up period

Types and challenges of advanced locomotion

Running Requires flight and higher speeds, hence, higher muscle force and better balance Early Running - starts in 6-7 months after walk - steps are short - shortened flight period - arm swings follow trunk motion rather than driving it Jump - more leg strength - harder landing forces - different coordination between arms & legs Hop - more strength required - more balance required on one leg - shift of center of gravity - difficult coordination between arms & legs Gallop - different relationship between arms & legs - different base of support Slide - move in different direction from body position Skipping - combine hop and step on same leg - alternation of leading leg

Difference between sensation and perception

Sensation - passive process of detecting environmental stimuli Perception - integration of the sensory events into organism's world, especially as a function of expectations derived from past experience

vestibular

Sensors in the inner ear that provide info about head movement Fluid bends hair cells which send info to CNS Important for balance Sense direction of self-movement

Manipulation: skillful hand movements

Simple Synergies Reciprocal Synergies Sequential Patterns

lifespan approach

Study the individual through both progressive and regressive phases of development As body grows, function improves

Fallang et al. (2003) Kinematic Quality of Reaching Movements in Preterm Infants. Purpose of the study. Major findings.

Suggests: While deficiencies in postural control of pre-term infants had been established, little was known whether arm kinematics was also abnormal. Take home message: Motor development of LR preterm infants rapidly progresses during the first 6 months of live. Motor deficits in HR infants become more apparent at 6 month age Puzzling: That movements of preterm infants had less movement units, took less time, and included a larger transport unit than movements of full-term infants

Stimulating environment (programming, no programming).

The environment in which a child is placed can facilitate or delay motor development. Stimulation to optimize early motor development No Programming - does not emphasize practice of specific future motor skills - Example? Programming - parent takes an active roll in moving baby Disadvantages No research that indicates any long-term benefit to normal infants. Young children more susceptible to injury More stimulation is not always better Harmful if type and intensity are not individualized Advice Create a stimulating home environment that may facilitate the child's natural development Provide a safe, nurturing, and minimally structured play environment for infant

motor development

The study of the age-related changes in human motor behavior over the lifespan, the processes that underlie these changes, and the factors that affect them

Five sensory modalities

Vision Audition Vestibular Tactile Proprioception (muscle and joint perception)

Prehension,

act of reaching, grasping, releasing - develops between 1 mos. - 13 mos. Involves 4 Steps (Halverson, 1931): 1. Object is visually located 2. Object is reached 3. Object is grasped 4. Object is released

Stereotypies.

constant repetition of certain meaningless gestures or movements rhythmical, patterned, movements not learned by imitation most common in legs and feet believed to precede more complex voluntary movements Motor calibration - relation of neural commands, motor output and sensory feedback Kicking (simult, alternating, single) feet rubbing together; Arm waving while holding an object Banging against a surface Single leg kick Two-leg kick Alternate leg kick Arm wave Mouth opening Arm banging against a surface Finger flexion

Reflexes

definition, properties of reflexive movements involuntary response to a particular stimulus - occurs below the level of the higher brain centers (subcortical) - Infant reflexes typically do not last longer than 1 yr. Involuntary- automatic starts at higher nerve loops and gets processed lower nerve loops. Subcortical. Most processed in the brain stem. Can affect reaction time, can teach to respond a different way to some reflexes.

Spatial Awareness

is facilitated through involvement in movement activity. Extensions: far/near, large/small Levels: low, middle, high Pathways: straight, curved, zigzag Improves movement activity Improves academic activity Interdependence of brain activity in motor and cognitive tasks

Types of reflexes: lifespan

knee-jerk reflex

Deprived environment. Evidence from Hopi Indians, orphan study, monkeys, deprivation dwarfism. Effect on growth and health

less than optimal environments which affect normal development Experiments: Hopi Indians' Cradleboards - Dennis (1930) Methods: 1 mos. to 1 yr. swaddled and tied to a board arms were extended at sides allowing only a slight bend Results: movement skills (sitting, creeping, walking) developed with same usual timing and sequence Can affect basic motor skills and intellectual level - Can affect speech, walking, etc Deprivation Dwarfism emotional disturbance that is conveyed by hormones to centers that control the secretion of the growth hormone Situations: long-term hospitalization results in listless, apathy, and depression Affects Motor Function, Growth and Health: fail to gain weight, develop respiratory infections, and fever Study of two orphanages (Gardner, 1972) Method: one director stern and uncaring, the other cheerful and loving, interchanging each other. Eight favorites moved with the stern. Results: Gains in children's weight were lower in the orphanage to which the stern one moved. Favorites gained weight normally Monkeys (Suomi & Harlow, 1978) Method: Socially isolated for 3, 6,and 12 mo Results: The longer periods cause more devestating effect 3 mos - shocked and fearful when allowed to interract socially, recovered 6 mos - same but did not recover 12 mos - apathy, withdrawn, passive and defendless

Perception of Space: Objective Localization

more advanced referencing objects relative to other objects

Perception of Space: Egocentric Localization

most aspects of surroundings are noted in reference to themselves

Perceptual-motor programs

perceptual-motor abilities are learned replace academic activities with movement activities to improve problem solving (count balls for math; jump to learn about gravity) activity improves depth perception which eventually may improve reading Many educators believe that a perceptual-motor program is an excellent medium through which reading, spelling, math, and social studies can be facilitated However, meta-analysis of 180 studies indicated that Little improvement in cognitive abilities when involved in a perceptual-motor program No support for perceptual-motor programs to improve the child's intelligence later in life

Cross-sectional study designs

subjects from various treatment or age groups are examined on the same measure once and at the same time (comparison between groups). ex. Looking at different age groups with rotator cuff injury to see how it effects the rest of the arm. (looking at kinetic chain), each person comes only once. Predominant since it is the easiest. Can still study development by using different age groups.

Directional Awareness

the ability to understand and apply concepts of up, down, front, back, right, left Laterality understanding of various directional concepts Directionality the application of laterality mature by 6 yr. Does it improve with movement activities? Does it improve academic abilities? Directional awareness is important in reading

motor control

the study of neural, physiological, physical, and behavioral aspects of human movement the brain is the mover of motor control Examines underlying neurophysiological factors as they change with aging

motor learning

the study of processes involved in acquiring and perfecting motor skills through practice Development vs learning: practice makes perfect. Motor learning takes conscious practice. Adults can learn consciously and can asses their movements. Children observe and try to repeat from what they see. Children also have to face factors such as body changes and brain growth that will affect how they learn. Examines the acquisition of movement skill as a child ages

progressive

to the future, development