KIN test 3 questions
(a) Discuss the similarities and differences between fixed and flexible central-resource theories of attention capacity. (b) Discuss the differences between central- and multiple-resource theories of attention capacity
(a) Both fixed and flexible central resource theories of attention propose that attention capacity is limited. Flexible central resource theory states that the amount of available attention allocated to each activity can vary depending on conditions related to the individual, the tasks performed, and the situation. Fixed central resource theory states that attention allocated to each activity is constant, or fixed. (b) Central resource theory states that attention for all activities comes from one pool of cognitive effort and that all activities compete for available attention, while multiple resource theory states that attention for all activities comes from several different pools of cognitive effort.
Describe the function of each of the subsystems for working memory and long-term memory
WM subsystems: phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad and central executive. phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad store different types of info. Phonological loop is short term storage of verbal information, and visuospatial sketchpad is the short term storage of visually detected spatial information. central executive coordinates all the info in working memory, including info retrieved from long-term memory. Subsystems of LTM: Procedural, semantic and episodic. Procedural memory stores info about how to do something, semantic memory stores general knowledge about the world based on experiences (eg concepts) and episodic memory stores knowledge about personally experienced events (memories)
Describe four performer or performance changes that occur as a person progresses through the stages of learning. Describe an example
1. changes in muscles used to perform skill 2. changes in energy cost 3. changes in visual selective attention 4. changes in conscious attention demands
What six performance characteristics typically characterize the learning of a skill? Give an example of each for a motor skill learning situation.
1. improvement 2. consistency 3. stability 4. persistence 5. adaptability 6. reduced attention demands
Discuss two effective strategies a person can use to help him or her remember a movement or sequence of movements that he or she must perform. Give an example of the use of each strategy in a motor skill performance situation.
A person can attach a specific label to a movement to help them remember it. For example: the breast-stroke movement can be remembered as making a key shape with the arms. A person could also organize the sequence of movements with labels in their head. For example the sequence of movements for breast-stroke can be remembered as stroke-kick-breathe...stroke-kick-breathe. A third strategy is to make the movement meaningful.
Describe a motor skill situation in which two or more actions must be performed simultaneously, and then discuss how Kahneman's model of attention could be applied to the situation to explain conditions in which all the actions could be performed simultaneously
An example of a motor skill situation in which two or more actions must be performed is when you are talking on the phone and driving a car. Kahneman's model of attention says that depending on the conditions related to the individual, the tasks at hand, and the situation, the level of attention for each activity, driving a car and talking on the phone, will vary. We will allocate attention of each activity based on several things. First, our arousal level, second, attention requirements for the tasks, thirdly, ensuring that we can complete the activity, fourth is novelty, and lastly, based on our intention. So when driving and talking on the phone, more attention would be allocated to driving because it requires more attention, and we intend to continue doing it so we can reach our destination. a situation in which we can perform both activities simultaneously is when our arousal level is optimal
Describe the meaning of the terms declarative and procedural knowledge. Give a motor skill example of each
Declarative knowledge is knowledge that you can verbalize; it tells you what to do. Example: when you catch on fire you STOP DROP and ROLL. Procedural knowledge is relatively non-verbalizable; it tells you how to do a skill. Example ridding a bike or writing with a pen
Discuss how working memory and long-term memory differ in terms of the duration and capacity of information in each
Duration: WM duration is 20-30 seconds, LTM is unknown. Capacity: WM capacity is 7 +/- 2 items while LTM is relatively unlimited.
What is the encoding specificity principle, and how does it relate to performance of motor skills?
Encoding Specificity Principle is a memory principle that indicates the close relationship between encoding and retrieval memory process; it states that memory test performance is directly related to the amount of similarity between the practice and the test context; i.e. the more similarity, the better the test performance will be.
How does Gentile's learning stages model differ from the Fitts and Posner model? How does her model relate specifically to learning open and closed skills?
Gentile's learning model only breaks down the learning process into 2 parts, Fitts and Posner refer to their model as a continuum of practice time that is made up of 3 parts. Gentile's stages are focused around the goal of the learner, while Fitts and Posner's continuum is based on practice time. Gentile's model and Fitts and Posner's model do however agree that after first learning a skill (in the first stage of Gentile's model and the first and second stages of Fitts and Posner's model) the learner is not consistent with his or her performance and they make many errors. They agree that the learner's consistency improves as practice continues. Gentile's model relates to learning open and closed skills specifically. In the second stage of Gentile's model, the learner's goal depends on the type of skill, either closed or open. If the skill being learned is closed, then during the second stage, the goal is fixation. If the skill being learned is open, then the goal is diversification.
Describe how the dual-task procedure can be used to demonstrate learning of a motor skill. Give an example of a real-world situation in which you can use this procedure
If one has learned a new motor skill they should be able to test if it has been learned by pairing another skill with it. For example: someone just learned how to stand again after a stroke. To test if learning has really occurred, pair standing with catching a ball and throwing it back. If learning has occurred, they will not have to focus all of their attention on just standing because it has become an automatic skill.
Discuss whether a person should focus attention on his or her own movements or on the movement effects. Give an example
Movement effects. If you want to hit the ball over the net in a tennis serve, imagine the ball going over the net instead of focusing on how to serve properly
Explain how the terms performance and learning differ and why we must infer learning from performance situations
Performance is the behavioral act of executing a skill at a specific time and in a specific situation while learning is the change in the capacity of a person to perform a skill. If a person has shown a relatively permanent improvement in the performance of a skill as a result of practice, then we infer that learning has taken place.
Describe some characteristics of learners as they progress through the three stages of learning proposed by Fitts and Posner.
The three stages of learning are the cognitive stage, the associative stage, and the autonomous stage. During the cognitive stages, the learner displays a lack of consistency, they ask many simple questions about the movement. During the associative stage, the learner makes fewer errors because they have the basic fundamentals. During the autonomous stage the learner does not consciously think about the movement and they perform the skill with consistency.
Discuss the primary causes of forgetting in working memory and in long-term memory
The two primary causes of forgetting in working and long-term memory are proactive interference and retroactive interference. Proactive interference happens when there is similarity between what is to be remembered and an interfering activity that happens right before or after the primary activity. In long term memory, proactive interference can be overcome by practice. Retroactive interference happens when an activity occurs during the retention interval of an activity to be remembered.
What is an advantage of using transfer tests in making a valid assessment of learning? Give an example of real-world situation what illustrates this advantage
Transfer tests assess a person's capability to adapt to different situations as well as the stability of what has been learned by the performer. The degree to which that person's performance is disrupted by these external and internal perturbations provides evidence of the amount of performance stability a person has acquired as a result of practice.
What is a performance plateau? What seems to be the most likely reason a performance plateau occurs in motor skill learning
While learning a skill, a period of time in which the learner experiences no improvement after having experienced consistent improvement; typically, the learner then experiences further improvement with continued practice
Discuss two different dual-task techniques that researchers use to asses the attention demands of performing a motor skill. Give an example of each
primary task and secondary task. primary task is the task of interest. secondary task performance (how well one performs the task) helps to make an assessment of the attention demands on the first task. An example for primary task is driving and an example for a secondary task is talking to a friend
