Kinkle 1082 Final (EXAM II - EXAM IV)

what are the 4 characteristics of adaptive immunity?

1. antigenic specificity 2. diversity 3. immunologic memory 4. ability to distinguish between self and non self antigens

Which of the following would increase the amount of oxygen diffusing from the lungs into the blood? A.An increase in the binding rate of O2 to hemoglobin B.A decrease in the partial pressure of O2 in the lungs C.An increase in the partial pressure of O2 in the blood D.A decrease in the red blood cell count E.An increase in the water vapor of air in the lungs

A.An increase in the binding rate of O2 to hemoglobin

Why is an open circulatory system less efficient than a closed circulatory system? A.It is more difficult to deliver O2 to specific tissues when needed. B.There is no heart to pump the blood. C.Open circulatory systems lack hemoglobin. D.Nutrients cannot be delivered to tissues in an open circulatory system. E.All of the above

A.It is more difficult to deliver O2 to specific tissues when needed.

In rapidly metabolizing, acidic tissues, how does hemoglobin respond in comparison to its action in less acidic environments? A.It releases more O2 B.It releases less O2 C.It releases more CO2 D.It releases less CO2

A.It releases more O2

Which of the following is not a common adaptation for respiratory gas exchange? A.Mechanisms to adjust the temperature of the medium to increase diffusion B.Increasing the surface area over which diffusion of gases can occur C.Maximizing partial pressure gradients D.Minimizing the diffusion path length through an aqueous medium E.Countercurrent flow

A.Mechanisms to adjust the temperature of the medium to increase diffusion

Which of the following is not one of the reasons that closed circulatory systems are more efficient than open circulatory systems? A.Open systems rely exclusively on simple diffusion for transport, whereas closed systems rely on pumping mechanisms. B.Transport within closed systems is more rapid than in open systems. C.Blood can easily be directed to specific areas in closed systems, but not in open systems. D.Compared to open systems, closed systems operate better under higher pressure.

A.Open systems rely exclusively on simple diffusion for transport, whereas closed systems rely on pumping mechanisms.

When submerged, frogs receive most of their O2 from capillaries within the skin. Which of the following structures would contain blood with the highest O2 concentration in a submerged frog that is not able to breathe using its lungs? A.Right atrium B.Left atrium C.Aorta D.Ventricle E.Pulmonary vein

A.Right atrium

The respiratory system of insects consists of A.Trachea that supply O2 to cells B.Branched gills that end in trachea C.Branched gills that end in spiracles D.Layers of gas exchange material just under the exoskeleton

A.Trachea that supply O2 to cells

Mammalian, bird, and crocodile hearts have four chambers with two separate atria and ventricles to ensure _____ distinct circuits for blood flow. A.Two B.Three C.Four Eight

A.Two

One theme of evolution is to take existing structures and genes that are prior adaptations for one use and convert them to a new use. Adaptive radiations can result from the evolution of a new feature. Adaptive radiation refers to A.a rapid increase in the number of new species. B.the production of additional gill arches. C.the use of x-rays and gamma radiation to increase the mutation rate and hence evolution of new features. D.the use of pharyngeal pouches to produce jaws and teeth.

A.a rapid increase in the number of new species.

Which of these animals only uses positive pressure breathing? A.amphibians B.reptiles C.birds D.mammals

A.amphibians

An oil-water mixture works as an insecticidal spray against mosquitoes and other insects because it _____. A.blocks the openings into the tracheal system B.interferes with gas exchange across the capillaries C.clogs their lungs D.prevents gases from leaving the atmosphere

A.blocks the openings into the tracheal system

Most of the carbon dioxide produced by humans is _____. A.converted to bicarbonate ions by an enzyme in red blood cells B.bound to hemoglobin C.transported in the erythrocytes as carbonic acid D.simply dissolved in the plasma

A.converted to bicarbonate ions by an enzyme in red blood cells

Compared with the interstitial fluid that bathes active muscle cells, blood reaching these muscle cells in arteries has a _____. A.higher PO2 B.greater bicarbonate concentration C.lower pH D.lower osmotic pressure

A.higher PO2

All other terrestrial vertebrates except amphibians breathe by expanding their lungs and thereby creating a A.negative pressure within the lungs. B.positive pressure within the lungs. C.neutral pressure within the lungs. D.countercurrent pressure within the lungs.

A.negative pressure within the lungs.

What would be the consequences if we were to reverse the direction of water flow over the gills of a fish, moving water inward past the operculum, past the gills, the out the mouth? This reversal of water flow would _____. A.reduce efficiency of gas exchange B.change the exchange of gases in the body from carbon dioxide out and oxygen in to carbon dioxide in and oxygen out C.increase the efficiency of gas exchange

A.reduce efficiency of gas exchange

Countercurrent exchange is evident in the flow of _____. A.water across the gills of a fish and the blood within those gills B.blood in the dorsal vessel of an insect and that of air within its tracheae C.air within the primary bronchi of a human and the blood within the pulmonary veins D.water across the skin of a frog and the blood flow within the ventricle of its heart

A.water across the gills of a fish and the blood within those gills

Which of the following statements about respiratory adaptations is false? A.Internalization of respiratory surfaces leads to the need for ventilation B.External gills are found only in invertebrates C.Some fish ventilate their gills by constantly swimming with their mouth open D.In fish, water flows unidirectionally into the mouth, over the gills, and out from under the opercular flaps E.Desiccation of the respiratory surface is more likely to occur in lungs than in gills.

B.External gills are found only in invertebrates

Which of the following evolutionary processes was not demonstrated in these studies described in class? A.Fitness differences in humans brought about by natural selection B.Maintenance of Hardy Weinberg equilibrium in human populations C.Convergent evolution occurring in humans D.Natural selection acting on genetic variation in humans

B.Maintenance of Hardy Weinberg equilibrium in human populations

Which factor does not account for the efficiency of gas exchange in fish gills? A.Maximized surface area B.Maximum path length for diffusion C.Countercurrent flow D.Increasing pressure gradient

B.Maximum path length for diffusion

A major disadvantage for O2 exchange in mammal lungs is A.One-way air flow B.Two-way air flow C.Dry surfaces D.Positive pressure breathing

B.Two-way air flow

Organisms with a circulating body fluid that is distinct from the fluid that directly surrounds the body's cells are likely to have _____. A.an open circulatory system B.a closed circulatory system C.a gastrovascular cavity D.branched tracheae

B.a closed circulatory system

Countercurrent exchange in the fish gill helps to maximize _____. A.blood pressure B.diffusion C.active transport D.osmosis

B.diffusion

The only vertebrates in which blood flows directly from respiratory organs to body tissues without first returning to the heart are the _____. A.amphibians B.fishes C.mammals D.reptiles

B.fishes

What is the most likely scenario triggering an increased rate of breathing in humans? A.low blood pCO2 B.high blood pCO2 C.low blood pO2 D.high blood pO2

B.high blood pCO2

In the countercurrent exchange in a fish's gills, the oxygen concentration is always _______ in the blood than the water along the entire pathway of each lamella. A.higher B.lower C.the same D.varies depending on the time of year

B.lower

The rate at which a gas diffuses between two locations is _______ the surface area involved. A.unrelated to B.positively related to C.the square root of D.negatively related to

B.positively related to

Carbon dioxide levels in the blood and cerebrospinal fluid affect pH. This enables the organism to sense a disturbance in gas levels as _____. A.the brain directly measures and monitors oxygen levels and causes breathing changes accordingly B.the medulla oblongata, which is in contact with cerebrospinal fluid, monitors pH and uses this measure to control breathing C.the brain alters the pH of the cerebrospinal fluid to force the animal to retain more or less carbon dioxide D.stretch receptors in the lungs cause the medulla oblongata to speed up or slow breathing

B.the medulla oblongata, which is in contact with cerebrospinal fluid, monitors pH and uses this measure to control breathing

Each molecule of hemoglobin, when fully saturated, carries how many molecules of oxygen? A.1 B.2 C.4 D.20

C.4

The most efficient lungs are found in which of the terrestrial vertebrates listed below? A.Amphibians B.Reptiles C.Birds D.Mammals E.Insects F.Fish

C.Birds

CO2 is more easily transferred into water through respiratory membranes compared to O2 because A.CO2 is a smaller molecule than O2. B.CO2 moves faster than O2. C.CO2 is more soluble in water than O2. D.CO2 has a higher surface cohesion than O2. E.CO2 is a larger molecule than O2.

C.CO2 is more soluble in water than O2.

Which of the following statements comparing respiration in fish and in mammals is correct? A.The respiratory medium for fish carries more oxygen than the respiratory medium of mammals. B.A countercurrent exchange mechanism between the respiratory medium and blood flow is seen in mammals but not in fish. C.The movement of the respiratory medium in mammals is bidirectional, but in fish it is unidirectional. D.In blood, oxygen is primarily transported by plasma in fish, but by red blood cells in mammals.

C.The movement of the respiratory medium in mammals is bidirectional, but in fish it is unidirectional.

A rabbit taken from a meadow near sea level and moved to a meadow high on a mountainside would have some trouble breathing. Why? A.The percentage of oxygen in the air at high elevations is lower than at sea level. B.The percentage of oxygen in the air at high elevations is higher than at sea level. C.The partial pressure of oxygen in the air at high elevations is lower than at sea level. D.The partial pressure of oxygen in the air at high elevations is higher than at sea level.

C.The partial pressure of oxygen in the air at high elevations is lower than at sea level.

Small insects may take a bubble of air underwater when they dive. The bubble can serve as an air tank for some time because A.as CO2 increases, the bubble inflates. B.as O2 is consumed, air pressure in the bubble decreases. C.as O2 is consumed, more O2 diffuses into the bubble. D.for each O2 molecule used, a CO2 molecule replaces it.

C.as O2 is consumed, more O2 diffuses into the bubble.

The archenteron of the developing sea urchin eventually develops into the _____. A.blastocoel B.heart and lungs C.digestive tract D.brain and spinal cord

C.digestive tract

Bird and fish respiratory systems are similar in that both A.employ a countercurrent exchanger. B.have air sacs. C.function by means of unidirectional flow of the environmental medium over the gas exchange membranes. D.consist of tidal flow of air.

C.function by means of unidirectional flow of the environmental medium over the gas exchange membranes.

In a cool environment, an ectotherm is more likely to survive an extended period of food deprivation than would an equally sized endotherm because the ectotherm _____. A.maintains a higher basal metabolic rate B.expends more energy per kilogram of body mass than does the endotherm C.invests little energy in temperature regulation D.has greater insulation on its body surface

C.invests little energy in temperature regulation

The transcription factor Tbx5 is involved in chromatin remodeling by the BAF complex which controls heart development. This is an epigenetic regulatory mechanism that involves A.changes in the DNA sequences B.coupling of transcription & translation C.unwinding of DNA from histone proteins D.sRNA modulation of genes

C.unwinding of DNA from histone proteins

______________ are used for respiration by terrestrial insects. A.Gills B.Moist skin surfaces C.Lungs D. Tracheal tubes

D. Tracheal tubes

Dr. Kinkle's four-year old daughter Sally is having a temper-tantrum in Krogers since he won't buy her Fruit Loops (you know how he is). In a final attempt to get her way, she yells, "I'm gonna hold my breath 'til I die!" What is the primary reason Dr. Kinkle is unconcerned. A.It is impossible for Sally to control the contraction of her diaphragm and intercostal muscles since they are made up of smooth muscle. B.As Sally holds her breath, the decreasing levels of oxygen in her blood will lead to stimulation of the respiratory control center in her brain. C.Sally is too young to hold her breath for more than 30 seconds. D.As Sally holds her breath, the increasing levels of carbon dioxide in her blood will lead to stimulation of the respiratory control center in her brain.

D.As Sally holds her breath, the increasing levels of carbon dioxide in her blood will lead to stimulation of the respiratory control center in her brain.

How has the avian lung adapted to the metabolic demands of flight? A.Airflow through the avian lung is bidirectional like in mammals. B.There is more dead space within the avian lung so that oxygen can be stored for future use. C.Countercurrent circulation is present in the avian lung. D.Gas exchange occurs during both inhalation and exhalation.

D.Gas exchange occurs during both inhalation and exhalation.

If the O2-binding curves were plotted for the following molecules at the pH levels indicated, with pO2 on the x-axis and % oxyhemoglobin saturation on the y-axis, which curve would be to the left of all the others? A.Adult human hemoglobin at pH 7.2 B.Fetal human hemoglobin at pH 7.6 C.Adult human hemoglobin at pH 7.6 D.Myoglobin at pH 7.6

D.Myoglobin at pH 7.6

Which of the following is not a reason oxygen can be exchanged more easily in air than in water? A.The oxygen content of air is higher than that of water B.Oxygen diffuses more slowly in water than in air C.More energy is required to move water than air because water is denser D.Oxygen in air is exchanged by active transport, but by diffusion in water

D.Oxygen in air is exchanged by active transport, but by diffusion in water

In which way are crocodilians different from other reptiles? A.They have open circulation B.They have bigger atria C.They have lungs but no gills D.They have a 4-chambered heart

D.They have a 4-chambered heart

To adjust blood pressure independently in the capillaries of the gas-exchange surface and in the capillaries of the general body circulation, an organism would need a(n) _____. A.open circulatory system B.Hemocoel C.two-chambered heart D.four-chambered heart

D.four-chambered heart

A decrease from pH 7.4 to pH 7.2 causes hemoglobin to _____. A.release all bound carbon dioxide molecules B.bind more oxygen molecules C.serve as a buffer D.give up more of its oxygen molecules

D.give up more of its oxygen molecules

Which of the following events would be predicted by the Bohr shift effect as the amount of carbon dioxide released from your tissues into the blood capillaries increases? The amount of oxygen in _____. A.arterial blood would increase B.arterial blood would decrease C.venous blood would increase D.venous blood would decrease

D.venous blood would decrease

Rapid gas exchange can be accomplished more easily in air than in water because A.the O2 content of water is higher than that of air. B.the CO2 content of water is higher than that of air. C.O2 diffuses more rapidly in water than in air. D.water is more dense and viscous than air.

D.water is more dense and viscous than air.

Which of the following statements about vertebrate circulatory systems is false? A.Crocodilians have a four-chambered heart. B.In birds and mammals, pressures in the pulmonary circuit are lower than those in the systemic circuit. C.The ventricle of turtles, snakes, and lizards is partly divided by a septum. D.Amphibians have two atria and one ventricle. E.In fishes, blood passes through the gills, returns to the heart, and then is pumped to the body.

E.In fishes, blood passes through the gills, returns to the heart, and then is pumped to the body.

A two-cycle heart of a bird or a mammal is more efficient than the amphibian heart in all of the following except A.it can pump twice as much blood. B.it creates a true double circulatory system. C.it separates oxygenated and nonoxygenated blood. D.it increases the speed of the blood through the lungs. E.it exchanges gases by mixing aerated and nonaerated blood.

E.it exchanges gases by mixing aerated and nonaerated blood.

what is an autoimmune disease?

a disease in which the body's immune system attacks healthy cells; auto-reactive T cells become activated and auto-reactive B cells produce antibodies causing inflammation and organ damage

what is an ion pump?

a transmembrane protein that moves ions across a plasma membrane against their concentration gradient using ATP

what is an ion channel?

a transmembrane protein with a hydrophilic interior providing an aqueous channel allowing the diffusion of species that cannot cross the membrane

what is immunological tolerance?

acceptance of self cells

what is an allergy?

allergen binds and activates B cells to secrete allergen immunoglobulins; T(H) cells release cytokines which bind to B cells and signal for antibodies to secrete IgE

what happens when an individual is exposed to an allergen a second time?

allergen binds to most exposed regions of identical IgE molecules and binding triggers cells to secrete histamines, prostaglandins, and other mediators to produce allergy symptoms

what is cell-mediated immunity?

an immune response that does not involve antibodies, but rather involves the activation of phagocytes, antigen-specific cytotoxic T-lymphocytes, and the release cytokines in response to an antigen

explain how homeostatic kidney functions are coordinated; use ADH (anti-dieuretic hormone) as an example

an increase in osmolarity of blood plasma sends action potentials to the integration center (located in hypothalamus) which triggers thirst and an increased secretion of ADH

how does the respiratory system provide a barrier against invading cells?

any microorganisms inhaled are trapped in mucous; epithelial cells line the respiratory cells and have cilia that continuously sweep mucous to the glottis where it can be swallowed into the digestive tract

what is HIV?

autoimmune disorder in which it attacks T(H) cells and binds to CD4 proteins present and uses proteins to promote endocytosis into cells; HIV infected cells only die after releasing the replicated virus that infects other CD4 cells

what are B cells?

binds specific soluble antigens to its membrane-bound antibody and serves as an antigen-presenting cell to T(H) cells

what are plasma cells?

biochemical factory devoted to the secretion of antibodies directed against specific antigens; derived from B cells

what is protonephridia?

bulb-like flame cells that are open to the outside of the body; cilia inside draws fluid from body then water and metabolites are reabsorbed and then substances are excreted by excretory pores

what is a motor neuron?

carry impulses from the brain and spinal cord to muscles and glands (efferent neurons)

what is a sensory neuron?

carry impulses from the sense organs to the spinal cord and brain (afferent neurons)

what are antigen presenting cells?

cells that mediate cellular immune responses by processing and presenting antigens for recognition by certain lymphocytes (dendrites, macrophages, and B cells)

where does secretion occur?

distal convoluted tubule

what is excretion?

elimination of harmful substances

what are the malpighan tubes?

extensions of the digestive tract that branch off the anterior hind gut; no pressure difference between the blood and body cavity and tubule so no urine is made; waste molecules and potassium ions are secreted into tubules by active transport

what is nephridia?

filter fluid from the body into nephrostomes; fluid is formed under pressure and passes through small openings so certain sized molecules are excluded; fluid is isotonic to coelom

what is filtration?

fluid in the blood is filtered into the tubule system leaving cells and large proteins in the blood and filtrate is composed of water and blood solutes

where does excretion occur?

from tubules out of body

where does filtration occur?

glomerulus

what is humoral immunity?

immune response mediated by antibodies secreted by macromolecules found in extracellular fluid

what is uric acid?

insoluble nitrogenous waste product produced by reptiles, birds, and insects

what is the osmoregulatory organ found in insects?

malpighan tubes

how does the digestive system provide a barrier against invading cells?

microbes are killed by saliva and the acidic environment of the stomach and intestines kill the invading cells; the gastrointestinal tract has many nonpathogenic flora which inhibit the growth of pathogenic competitors

what is the osmoregulatory organ found in round worms?

nephridia

what is ammonia?

nitrogenous waste that is quite toxic to cells (only present in diluted concentrations); found in bony fish and aquatic invertebrates

what is urea?

organic molecule formed in vertebrate liver; the principle form of nitrogenous waste by mammals and fish

what is an osmocomformer?

organisms that are in osmotic equilibrium with their environment; example: sharks and hagfish

what is an osmoregulator?

organisms that maintain a relatively constant blood osmolarity despite the difference in concentrations in the surrounding environment; freshwater vertebrates are hypertonic to environment and marine vertebrates are hypotonic to environment

what is the osmotic challenges faced by marine organisms and what adaptation is used to fix it?

problem: lose a lot of water adaptation: drink seawater and secrete unneeded ions

what is the osmotic challenges faced by freshwater organisms and what adaption is used to fix it?

problem: lose inorganic ions to environment adaptation: actively transport the ions back into body

what is adaptive immunity?

protection from an infectious disease agent following exposure to that specific antigens

what is the osmoregulatory organ found in flatworms?

protonephridia

how does the skin prevent antigens from entering the body?

provides nearly impenetrable barrier and has chemical weapons on the surface; oil/sweat glands make the pH of the skin 3-5 which is too acidic for pathogenic organisms; sweat also contains lysosomes that digest bacterial walls

where does reabsorption occur?

proximal convoluted tubule

what is the innate immune system?

recognizes specific molecules that are conserved in particular pathogens; a rapid response that brings cells to site of infection and uses soluble antimicrobial proteins to fight pathogens

what is passive immunity?

short term immunity using antibodies produced outside the body

what are helper T cells?

specifically recognize foreign peptides on antigen presenting cells, inducing the release of cytokines that activate B cells or macrophages

what are cytoxic T cells?

specifically recognizes and kills "altered self" cells or tumor cells

what is membrane potential?

the difference in electric potential between the interior and the exterior of a cell

what is active immunity?

the immunity that results from the production of antibodies by the immune system in response to the presence of an antigen

what is an immunization?

the introduction of an antigen into the body and thus allows immunity against the disease to develop naturally

what does the degree of concentration relate to the loop of Henle?

the longer to loop the larger the concentration

what is secretion?

the movement of substances from blood into the extracellular fluid; adds to what will be expelled from body

what is reabsorption?

the selective movement of important solutes out of the filtrate to the extracellular fluid and back into the blood stream; uses active and passive processes

what is the loop of Henle?

thin segment of the nephron; allows reabsorption of water from urine, making it hypertonic to their body fluids

how does the urogenital tract provide a barrier against invading cells?

vaginal secretions are sticky and acidic and promote the growth of normal flora which prevent foreign invasion; urine is acidic and continuously washes potential pathogens from the urinary tract