Knowledge in organisations

Alvesson and Karreman introduce their own framework: two modes on intervention

1. Coordination and control: Management intervention in the co-ordination mode is relatively weaker, involving minimal activities for orchestrating collective action. In contrast, the control mode features stronger and broader intervention, encompassing activities that specify, monitor, and evaluate individual and collective actions. 2. Normative and behavioral

Two ways HRM facilitates knowledge management

1. Create socio-cultural factors that contribute to employee participation. in KM activities 2. Create organizational trust and commitment

Frenkel et al. knowledge worker in 3 dimensions

1. Creativity: Original problem solving 2. Predominant form of knowledge used in work: characterizes knowledge as either theoritcal and contextual 3. Three types of skills involved: i. Intellectual skill: ability to take reasoning and sysnthesize ideas ii. Social skills: ability to motivate and manage others iii. Action-based skills: Physical dexterity

Characteristics of Practice-Based Perspective on Knowledge

1. Embedded in practice: Knowledge is tied to what people do every day; it's not something separate from their activities. 2. Multi-dimensional and non-dichotomous: Knowledge isn't easily categorized as either this or that; it can be many things at once. 3. Embodied in people: Knowledge is inseparable from the people who use it; it's not something that can be completely separated from them. 4. Socially constructed and culturally embedded: Knowledge is shaped by the society and culture it comes from; it's not neutral or unbiased 5. Is contestable: People can disagree about what counts as knowledge; it's not set in stone.

Critique of nonaka

1. Empirical evidence supporting the theory is unconvincing 2. Model has conceptual problems 3. Limited as only relevant to companies using japanese business practices

Rushmer and davies two types of unlearning

1. Wiping: This is when the change is caused by something that comes from outside a person. Imagine a company introducing new rules or a new way of working 2. Deep unlearning: This type of unlearning happens quickly and is usually a response to a surprising or unexpected event.

Two ways in which CoP's can be managed

1. With a "light touch": develop natural knowledge communities without formalizing them. 2. All management should reinforce the essential attributes of communities to make them so effective at facilitating knowledge processes

2 distinctions of types of knowledge

1. explicit and tacit' 2. Individual and group knowledge: i. Objective knowledge (rules) ii. collective knowledge (Informal routines

COP's are based on two premises

1. practice-based perspective 2. Group-based character of organizational activity

Framework by Schultze and Stabell

4 management discources: Epistemology: practice-based perspective (Duality) and Objectivist perspective(Dualism) Social order: Dissensus and consensus

Remaining problems of understanding of knowledge

4. Objectivity and robustness: Knowledge management often assumes that knowledge is objective, separable from individuals, and can be stored and retrieved reliably. However, this perspective faces challenges from scholars who argue against such objectivistic views. 5. Functionalism: The logic of using knowledge because it seems to solve problems in a functional way is problematic. Knowledge is not inherently functional, and its definition can create norms and gaps between ideals and current imperfections.

Knowledge society

A society charactirized by high levels of information and knowledge intensity

Nononka's knowledge creation theory

A theory that not only talks about knowledge creation but also leadership, management, and organizational structure. Shows that should be dynamic rather than being a static body of ideas

Theoritcal knowledge

Abstract knowledge which can be codified in system rules and framework for action

'All work is knowledge work' perspective

All behaviour involves self-reflexive monitoring and thus knowledgable, and all work develop tacit knowledge, allowing it to be classified as knowledge work

Knowledge strategy

Competitive strategy built around the organizations intellectual resources and capabilities

Crowd-based approach

Concept: Outsourcing knowledge-intensive tasks to a large, undefined group of people outside the organization (crowdsourcing) Key Feature: Engages a wider community to tap into external knowledge and foster innovation. Methods: General Community Engagement: Engaging customers or potential customers in online forums for feedback and experience sharing. Idea Competitions: To generate new product ideas or solve problems. Interactive Value Creation: Using online platforms for consumer co-creation. Participatory Design: In-depth discussions on product design. Product Design: Direct involvement of users in collaborative product design; users typically need specific skills.

Collaboration Tools for Communication and Knowledge Sharing

Concept: Using ICTs to facilitate rich interactions among people who are physically apart. Key Feature: Utilizes a variety of virtual tools, including social media, for sharing and creating content

Network-based approach

Concept: Using ICTs to help people find and connect with others who have the expertise they need. Key Feature: Knowledge is shared through personal communication and interactions, not by storing it in databases. Transactive Memory System (TMS): This is about knowing who in a team has what kind of specialized knowledge.

Role of management on Practice-Based Perspective on Knowledge

Facilitate interpersonal communication and collaboration between people.

Knowledge assets

Firm specifc resources that are indispensible to create value for the firm, and has four types: 1. Experiential 2. Conceptual 3. Systematic 4. Routine

Sociology of radical change

Forces of coercion, conflict and change are continuously challenging the established social order dissensus

Knowledge integration

Going beyond just creating knowledge, this process involves acquiring, integrating, and applying various knowledge sources to develop client-specific solutions.

KM strategy/ KM approach

How an organization manages its knowledge

Knowledge creation

In knowledge-intensive firms, work is not routine; instead, it involves creating customized and innovative solutions for clients.

Van Krogh et al (2001) levarging, expanding, appropriating, and probing

Includes two dimensions that make up 4 more; knowledge domain and knowledge process: 1. Levarging (transfer and existing): Using existing knowledge efficiently within and among existing areas of expertise. 2. Appropriating (transfer and new): Building a new knowledge domain by connecting with external knowledge resources through partnerships with other companies and institutions. 3. Expanding (creation and existing): Incremental innovation by combining existing expertise within the company and possibly bringing in external experts. 4. Probing (creation and new): Pursuing radical innovation by creating a completely new knowledge domain, often involving significant internal resources and forming a new community.

Communities of practice

Informal groups of people who have a particular activity in common, and as a consequence have some common knowledge, a sense of community identity, and some element of shared language and values.

Group of context

Involve collaborations between people who are more diverse and heterogeneous and have limited sense of shared identity and common knowledge.

Boundary-spanning situations

Is when something involves collaboration between people from different groups or communities.

Hansen et al (1999) Codification vs personalization framework.

Simplest: Codification: is most relevant for for companies whose competitive advantage comes from reuse of codified knowledge Personalization: is most relevant for companies whose competitve advantage comes from knowledge creation and provision of innovative/creative services

Sociology of regulation

Society tends towards ideal state of integration, equilibrium, and order consensus. Trust - Common interest - science/knowledge is neutral

Divergent interests

Some analysts argue that conflicts and turnover rates in knowledge-intensive firms indicate that loyalty to the organization should not be taken for granted.

Reichs definition of knowledge worker

Someone whose work is primarly intellectual, creative, and non routine in nature, which involves both the utiliaztion and creation of abstract theoritcal knowledge.

The importance of unlearning and forgetting

The ability to create and develop new knowledge is directly related to person or organization's ability to "unlearn", because it recognizes limits of existing knowledge

Unlearning

The ability to deliberately discard or dispose obsolete or outdated knowledge

Nature of knowledge management

This looks at how knowledge is managed based on the idea that there are two types of knowledge - tacit (hard to explain) and explicit (easy to explain).

Practice-Based Perspective on Knowledge

This perspective doesn't see knowledge as something that can be easily written down; instead, it says knowledge is deeply connected to what people do every day.

Verburg and Andriessen's types of CoP's

Two variables that make up four are; PROXIMITY and INSTITUTIONALIZATION: 1. Informal networks (Low formalization and high proximity): 2. Q&A networks (low formalization and low proximity): Loosely connected, large networks of people 3. Strategic networks (High formalization and high proximity): Consists of experts to bring about transformation and organizational innovation 4. Online strategic networks (High formalization and low proximity):

Practice-based perspective for cross-cultural community knowledge sharing

Understanding involves "perspective making and taking," which means considering different viewpoints. In cross-community situations, where common knowledge is lacking, this process becomes crucial.

Duality

When there are two contrasting things or ideas that exist together. (Day and Night). When is knowledge

Antecedents of Unlearning

Willingness of people to unlearn occurs in two levels: 1. Individual: i. Negative emotions ii. Defensive routines iii. Cognitive rigidity iv. Attitudes towards change 2. Organizational: i. Rigidity due to established practices ii. Socially embedded routines iii. Communication processes iv. Nature of job - Stressors as positive influence - Hindarance stressor

Kim et al (2014) Internal and external codification and peronalization

consists of two contextual factors: 1. Environmental knowledge intensity: The amount of innovation needed to stay competitive (low incremental, high radical) 2. Organizational informations systems maturity: Development of knowledge resource which empolyees can use

Social capital

the networks of relationships among people who live and work in a particular society, and the resources they have access to.

Consensus

unproblematic

Different definitions of knowledge-intensive firms

1. Alvesson (broad definition): Companies where most work can be said to be of intellectual nature and well-qualified employees make up majority of the workforce. 2. Swart et al.: Wide range of features which distinguish them from traditional hierarchal organizations

Knowledge management

1. Built: Make spaces where people can share and create knowledge 2. Find: Capture ba as it emerges and help is formulation by seeing people interact 3. Connect: Facilitate interaction between ba and people using knowledge vision 4. Energise: give energy and quality to ba so that it facilitates SECI process

2 types of trust

1. Cognitive-based: trust a person's competence to carry out an activity based on their previous preformance 2. Affect-based: Emotional form of trust based on strength of the personal relation between people, developed over time, where a sense of mutual care exists.

3 elements of CoP's

1. Common knowledge 2. Overlapping values 3. Shared identity

Combining these two modes creates four analytically distinct management types

1. Communal: co-ordinate through norms (morale and team spirit) 2. Clerical: Co-ordinate behaviour 3. Socio-ideological: Social relations, identity formulation, and ideology are basic ingredients. This is occasionally referred to as leadership. 4. Technocratic: Management works primarily with plans, arrangements and system-focused behavior and/or measurable outputs

Alvesson and Karreman's (2001) 4 knowledge managemnt approach

1. Extended Library (week management and behavior focused): Emphasizes centralized control and top-down management, using IT systems to create databases where employees codify knowledge. 2. Community (week management and attitude focused: Focuses on creating a positive environment for direct sharing of tacit knowledge among employees, with limited reliance on IT systems 3. Normative control (Strong management and attitude focused): Involves strong managerial interventions focused on creating a culture that values and rewards employee participation in knowledge sharing. 4. Enacted blueprint (strong management and behaviour focused): Combines strong managerial control with the use of codified databases to guide employee actions, facilitating the dissemination of best practices.

Crossan/Zietsma Framework

1. Feed worward loop: exploration based learning process involves development and assimilation of new knowledge 2. The feedback loop: exploitation based learning involving the utilization of already existing knowledge

How can the lack of shared identity and differences in shared knowledge inhibit knowledge processes?

1. Identity: Differences in cultural identity can affect how knowledge is shared. Cultural beliefs and practices influence everyone's knowledge to some extent, making cross-cultural communication challenging 2. Knowledge: The more shared knowledge, the easier knowledge processes become. The complexity increases when there are significant differences in the assumptions and values of the knowledge base.

Two Interrelated Processes for Knowledge Acquisition and Sharing

1. Immersion in practice: Learning by doing or observing closely helps people develop and share knowledge 2. Rich social interactions between people: Effective communication of knowledge happens through various social interactions.

Three elements to the way knowledge is conceptualized in this theory

1. Knowledge as justified true belief: Knowledge, according to Nonaka, is what individuals justify as true based on their experiences. It's highly subjective, residing within people, aligning with the practice-based perspective. 2. Knowledge action connection: Knowledge shapes behavior, and actions influence and shape knowledge. This emphasizes the practice-based nature of knowledge. 3. Tacit and explicit knowledge

Two contrasting perspectives on the willingness of knowledge workers to engage in knowledge management initiatives

1. Knowledge employees, the ideal employees: Many argue that knowledge workers are ideal employees due to their intrinsic motivation, willingness to invest time and effort into their work, and their self-driven nature 2. Factors inhibiting knowledge workers: i. Inherent conflicts in the employment relationship can discourage knowledge workers. ii. Infra-Organizational Conflict: Potential conflicts within the organization (between individuals, groups, or teams) can impede knowledge management activities.

3 dimensions in Von Nordenflychts taxomonies of KIF are:

1. Knowledge intensity: the extent to which the develpoment and usage of complext knowledeg are involved in the creation of its outputs 2. Low capital intesnsity: Not really dependant on non-human assets 3. Proffesionalized workforce: Possesion of specialized knowledge, where this knowledge is institutionally regulated.

Objectivist perspective on knowledge

1. Knowledge is an entity which can be separated from individual 2. Based on postivist theory, knowledge is objective 3. Explicit knowledge valued more than tacit knowledge 4. Knowledge is cognitive entity

3 types of learning mechanisms

1. Learning via formal training and education 2. Learning via use the interventions in work processes 3. Learning that is embedded in and emerges from day-to-day work activities

Holan and phillips's forgetting typology:

1. Memory loss (accidental and existing): Knowledge was accidentally lost 2. Failure to capture (accidental and newly innovated): accidental forgetting of knew knowledge, it is not institutionalized 3. Avoid bad habits (Intentional and new): Assumes that not all new learning is positive, and need to determine whether new knowledge is meaningful or not 4. Unlearning (Intentional and existing): Getting rid of knowledge which no longer meaningful, which is usually the hardest to do.

Factors that effect the character of the environment in which an organisation operates in.

1. Nature of knowledge and labour market 2. Market nature and competition 3. Type of organisation

Three alternative ways ICT can be used

1. Network-based approach 2. Collaboration Tools for Communication and Knowledge Sharing 3. Crowd-based approach

5 problems with popular understanding of knowledge

1. Ontological incoherance: There is confusion in the literature because knowledge is simultaneously described as subjective, tacit, and socially constructed, as well as true, verified, functional, and non-problematic. 2. Vagueness: Both researchers and practitioners struggle to articulate distinct aspects of knowledge, hindering progress in the field. The lack of clarity limits researchers' ability to advance their understanding. 3. All-Embracing and Empty View on Knowledge: "everything is knowledge, and knowledge is everything" A concept of knowledge should be broad yet specific. However, broad concepts can become empty and cover too much, losing their informative value.

3 problems with concept knowledge

1. Ontolologically or epistomologically inchorent 2. Vague, knowledge is everything and everything is knowledge 3. Not neutral, not even always functional

Different types of Ba

1. Originating ba: In-person interactions where individuals share experiences, emotions, and mental models. Fosters care, love, trust, and commitment, forming the basis for knowledge conversion. 2. Dialoguing ba: Collective face-to-face interactions for sharing mental models and skills, articulated as concepts. Supports externalization and group communication. More consciously constructed than originating ba. 3. Systemizing ba: Context for integrating and formalizing explicit knowledge into complex bodies. Supports both existing and new knowledge. 4. Exercising ba: Shared context supporting internalization. Enables people to absorb explicit knowledge comfortably and experiment with it.

The three building block of CoP's

1. Participants in a community possess and develop a stock of common shared knowledge. 2. Members of communities possess a sense of communal identity 3. Communities typically also develop shared values and attitudes

2 perspectives of knowledge workers

1. Professional knowledge work perspective: 2. All work is knowledge work perpective

Two ways to manage the challenges of cross-communities

1. Relationship management: i. Brokers: Connect multiple communities, using their knowledge to build common understanding where overlaps exist. ii. Translators/Boundary-Spanners: Primarily part of one community, but strategically build relations and share knowledge with other communities where there's no shared knowledge. 2. Boundary object: Objects common to multiple communities, physical or symbolic, in order to provide a focal point for negotiation, discussion, or shared activities among people from different communities.

3 approaches in which ICT can facilitate knowledge management process

1. Repository-Based Approach: Once knowledge is turned into a formal code, it can be stored in a digital repository, like a computer-based system 2. Process and Domain Knowledge Approach: Supports task execution through workflow or assisting in diagnosing, problem-solving, and decision-making 3. Sensory-based approach: Applies data analytics techniques, especially with big data, to generate new insights and knowledge

Hecker's three types of collective knowledge

1. Shared knowledge: It's what everyone in a group knows together. (A soccer team.) 2. Complentary: People in a group have different specialized knowledge, and by combining their skills, they achieve more together. (A restaurant) 3. Artefact-Embedded Knowledge: It's the knowledge stored in tools or systems the group uses. (Shared calander)

The three dimensions of social capital

1. Structural: The overall pattern of social relations a person has, including the number and types of people in their network. 2. Relational: The strength of relationships between people, ranging from weak to strong bonds that involve high levels of trust, often built over time through repeated interactions. 3. Cognitive: The extent to which people share cognitive resources such as common knowledge, assumptions, interpretations, and belief

What are knowledge workers

1. They constitute an elite and quite distinctive element of the contemporary workforce. 2. They posses high level formal qualifications 3. Their output typically contributes significantly to employers performance. 4. Highly creative and involves lots of problem solving and the creation and use of knowledge

Management's two main objects of focus

1. To the extent that it addresses people rather than technical issues 2. Worker behavior and the minds of the employees: Under normative control, members act in the best interest of the company, not merely due to physical coercion or a utilitarian concern for economic rewards and penalties.

4 most influential knowledge management frameworks.

1. Van Krogh et al (2001) levarging, expanding, appropriating, and probing 2. Kim et al (2014) Internal and external codification and peronalization 3. Hansen et al (1999) Codification vs personalization framework. 4. Alvesson and Karreman's (2001) 4 knowledge managemnt approach

Why is Boundary-spanning knowledge processes difficult?

1. Weak shared identity or a different sense of identity 2. Knowledge-related differences: i. Lack of common knowledge. ii. Tacitness and content specificity making transferability difficult iii. Epistemic differances

Benefits and negatives of hoarding

Benefits: 1. Avoid risk of give away individual power and expertise to others. 2. Less time consuming Negatives: 1. Never recieve full recognition of what you do

Benefits and negatives of sharing knowledge

Benefits: 1. Intrinsically rewarding 2. Group-level benefits (enhanced team performance) 3. Enhanced individual status Negatives: 1. Time-consuming 2. Chance to give away individual power and expertise to others

Knowledge-based theory of the firm

Dominant theory which adopts the objectivist on knowledge, and has two main perpectives: 1. Assumes knowledge can bring competitive advantage for the firm. Knowledge is valuable, rare, inimitable, and non-substitutable. 2. Assumes organization provide a more effective mechanism than markets for sharing knowledge between people

Industrial society

Emphasis on manufacturing and fabrication

Neo-Functionalist discource (Objectivist and consensus)

Knowledge = asset: Knowledge is an objective asset that can be measured and acquired. It helps reduce uncertainty and efficiently allocate resources

Dialogical Discourse (practice-based and Dissensus)

Knowledge = discipline: Knowledge is like a continuous conversation or dialogue. It's always evolving and correcting itself.

Constructivist Discourse (Practice-based and consensus)

Knowledge = mind: Knowledge is created in our minds through our experiences and shared understanding in our social interactions.

Critcal Discource (Objectivist and Dissensus)

Knowledge = power: Knowledge is a tool of power. It can either maintain the current social order or be used for liberation from oppressive systems

Main criticism of bell

Knowledge work and service sector job are confused. Not all service worker can be classified as knowledge workers, it a large range of jobs.

Forgetting

Loss of knowledge that is not necessarily intentional or planned

Article Alvesson & Karreman

Making sense of curios concepts of knowledge management

Nonaka's SECI Model

Nonaka's SECI model distinguishes tacit and explicit knowledge and outlines a knowledge creation spiral with four modes: 1. Socialization: Sharing knowledge through social interactions and experiences. 2. Externalization: Converting tacit knowledge into explicit knowledge, making it communicable. 3. Combination: integrating different explicit knowledge to create new insights or concepts. 4. Internalization: Embedding explicit knowledge back into tacit knowledge through learning and practice.

5 factor personality model

OCEAN acronym

When does unlearning occur

Only when survival anxiety is greater than learning anxiety

dissensus

Problematic

Strategic KM

Process in which organization arrives at its knowledge strategy, and is needed for knowledge strategy

Constructivist perpective

Refers to purposeful human activity. Physical and cognitive activity elements which are inseparable

Post-industrial society

Service sector replaced manufacturing sector as the biggest source of empolyement.

Ba

Shared context for knowledge creation, ba provides energy, quality, and place to preform individual convesations, and move along knowledge spiral

Dualism

The belief that there are two separate and different fundamental things or ideas. What is knowledge

Symbolic analysts

The came from the shift towards high value-added, they are individuals who: 1. Solve, broker, and identify problems by manipulating symbols. 2. Frequently use codified bodies of knowledge

Conduit model of knowledge sharing

The conduit model sees knowledge as something that can be neatly packaged and sent from one person to another like a message. Knowledge is like an object that can be separated and put into clear packages. Sender --> knowledge --> reciever

Critism of conduit model

The model doesn't consider that sharing knowledge also involves exchanging tacit norms and values.

Article Shultze & Stabell

The paper explores the apparent double-edeged nature of knowledge by developing a theory-based framework that highlights different fundamental assumptions about knowledge and its assumptions