Leadership Exam 2: Ch 8- Power and Influence

How does control over information lead to power and ability to influence?

-leader in control of the flow of vital information about outside events has opportunity to interpret them for subordinates and influence their perceptions and attitudes of the event -can enhance expert power and increase subordinate dependence -easier to cover up failures or mistakes that would undermine their image/reputation as an expert

What are major forms of situational engineering?

1) to modify design of subordinate jobs to increase subordinate motivation 2) organizing work activities and design of formal structure 3) control over physical work environment

What research process was used to identify the distinct types of proactive influence tactics?

1. 1980: analysis of critical incidents describing successful/unsuccessful influence attempts --> 2. development of preliminary taxonomy of proactive influence tactics --> 3. used taxonomy to create Profiles of Organizational Influence Strategies (POIS- a self-report agent questionnaire) --> 4. 1990: factor analysis of POIS using data from agents that rated own use of tactics

What are the primary possible relationships among specific forms of power, specific influence behaviors, and influence outcomes

1. Agent power may directly affect the agent's choice of influence tactics 2. Agent power may act as moderator variable to enhance/diminish tactic effectiveness (moderator effect of power) 3. Agent power can enhance the success of an influence tactic for which the power is not directly relevant 4. the agent power can influence the target person (outcomes) regardless of whether agent makes any overt influence attempt

What are a few examples of when agent's power may directly affect their choice of influence tactics?

1. An agent must possess reward power to use exchange tactics 2. An agent with coercive power over the target is more likely to use pressure tactics

According to the Strategic Contingencies Theory, what 3 factors determine a subunit's power?

1. Expertise in coping with important problems 2. Centrality of unit within workflow 3. Extent to which subunits expertise is unique (rather than substitutional)

What are some examples of an agent's power enhancing the success of influence tactics for which the power is not directly related?

1. agent with strong referent power may be more successful when using rational persuasion to gain support 2. agent with strong coercive power may be more successful in gaining compliance with a simple request (even though no pressure or exchange tactics are used) 3. Strong expert power may increase credibility of a request unrelated to agent's expertise

What do studies on leader power indicate about how effective leaders use power?

1. effective leaders have more expert and referent power than ineffective leaders 2. effective leaders rely more on personal power than position power

What are some examples of position power enhancing personal power?

1. information power --> expert power 2. reward power --> referent power 3. decision authority/upward influence (legitimate power*)--> expert and referent power 5. coercive power --> reinforce legitimate and expert power

What are some examples of agent power influencing target without an overt influence attempt?

1. people act more deferential toward somebody w/ high position power (they're aware of possibility that person can affect their job performance and career advancement) 2. People less likely to criticize or contradict powerful agent (don't want to risk agent's displeasure) 3. People more likely to cooperate with an agent with strong referent power

Members are more likely to comply with legitimate power when they what?

1. they identify with the organization and are loyal to it 2. they have an internalized value that it is proper to obey authority figures, respect laws, and follow traditions 3. Agent is perceived to be legitimate occupant of their leadership position

How can a leader, that is trying to influence people that initially oppose their change proposals, use their power to implement the necessary changes?*

A. sufficient expert and referent power to persuade people that change is necessary and desirable, or B. sufficient position and political power to overcome opposition and buy time to show that proposed changes are necessary and effective (forcing change)

What strategies are used by an agent using the proactive influence tactic of personal appeals?

Agent asks target to carry out request/proposal out of friendship/loyalty, or asks for a personal favor before disclosing it

What strategies are used by an agent using the proactive influence tactic of apprising?

Agent explains how carrying out a request/supporting proposal will benefit the target personally or help advance their career

What strategies are used by an agent using the proactive influence tactic of exchange?

Agent explicitly or implicitly offers to reward a person for doing what you request (offers an incentive, suggests exchange of favors, or indicates willingness to reciprocate at a later time)

What strategies are used by an agent using the proactive influence tactic of inspirational appeals?

Agent makes an appeal to target's values and ideals or seeks to arouse their emotions to gain commitment

What strategies are used by an agent using the proactive influence tactic of collaboration?

Agent offers to provide relevant resources and assistance if target will carry our request/approve proposed change

What strategies are used by an agent using the proactive influence tactic of coalition tactics?

Agent seeks aid of others to persuade target to do something, or uses support of others as reason for target to agree

What strategies are used by an agent using the proactive influence tactic of legitimating tactics?

Agent seeks to establish the legitimacy of a request or to verify authority to make it by referring to rules, policies, contracts, or precedent

What strategies are used by an agent using the proactive influence tactic of pressure?

Agent uses demands, threats, frequent checking, or persistent reminders to influence the target to carry out a request

What strategies are used by an agent using the proactive influence tactic of rational persuasion?

Agent uses logical arguments and factual evidence (rational appeals) to show a proposal/request is feasible and relevant for attaining important task objectives; may include factual evidence that project/change is likely to be successful

What strategies are used by an agent using the proactive influence tactic of ingratiation?

Agent uses praise/flattery before or during an influence attempt, or expresses confidence in target's ability to carry out difficult request

What is an important determinant of reward power?

Agent's authority relationship: authority over subordinates, control over tangible benefits, effects of constraints

What is the most general way that power can be classified?

As either position or personal power

Why is pressure most likely to be used to influence subordinates and least likely to be used with superiors?

Authority and power needed to pressure in a credible way is much greater in downward position

Which influence tactics are most useful for resisting or modifying a request for you from someone else?

Collaboration, Apprising, Legitimating, Pressure

What are the 3 distinct influence outcomes possible for an influence attempt involving a single target?

Commitment, compliance, resistance

What influence tactics are likely to be saved for follow-up influence attempts? why?

Continued resistance leads to agent escalating to "harder" tactics like pressure, coalition, and exchange; they involve greatest costs and risks

What do studies, on the amount of influence exercised by people at different levels of authority hierarchy, tell us about how effective leaders do and do not use their power?

Do use power to empower members to discover and implement new ways of doing things; Do not use power to dictate how things will be done

According to Social Exchange Theory, how can innovation by a leader be a double-edged sword?

If successful: receive greater credit & confirm group's trust in their expertise If unsuccessful: receive greater blame, may lose status and influence

What are the 3 general types of influence tactics? How are they differentiated?

Impression management tactics, political tactics, proactive tactics; differentiated according to primary purpose

Generally, which individual proactive influence tactics are moderately effective for influencing subordinates and peers, but difficult for attempts with superiors?

Ingratiation, exchange, and apprising

What strategies are used by an agent using the proactive influence tactic of consultation?

Involves agent inviting target to participate in planning how to carry out a request, revise a strategy, or implement a proposed change

What did research conducted from 1992-2008 on proactive influence tactics identify and help develop?

It identified 11 distinct influence tactics (5 similar to POIS and 6 new); Influence Behavior Questionnaire (IBQ) developed to measure target rating of agent's influence behavior

What type of research would be useful to test Social Exchange Theory? What other insight could it provide?

Longitudinal field research in organizations; determine if the theory applies to other types of power

When exchange is used to influence peers, what is rewards likely to be? why?

More likely to be task-related than personal benefits; because agent has limited control over rewards desired by peers (can't offer raise, day off, better shifts)

What is the source of expert power?

Power derived from agent's task-relevant knowledge, skills, or abilities

What is power?

Power involves the capacity of one person (agent) to influence another party (target)

What is the source of legitimate power?

Power is derived from formal authority over work activities

What are soft influence tactics vs hard influence tactics? Which tactics are which

Soft influence tactics rely on personal power, while hard influence tactics rely on position power*

How does the target behave when the influence process is internalization? Why?

Target becomes committed to support and implement proposals embraced by agent; because they appear to be intrinsically desirable and correct in relation to target's values, beliefs, and self-image

When the influence process is instrumental compliance, why does the target carry out request?

Target carries out requested action for purpose of obtaining a tangible award/avoiding punishment controlled by agent

Hoe does the target behave when the influence process is personal identification? Why?

Target imitates agent's behavior or adopts same attitudes; to please agent and be like them-- motivated by need for acceptance and esteem

What is the coalition tactic called an "upward appeal"?

When an agent get help from the target's immediate superior

When is collaboration an especially appropriate proactive influence tactic?

When compliance would be difficult for target without it

When are proactive influence tactics not needed to get compliance? What can be used instead?

When request is clearly legitimate, relevant to the work, and something knows how to do; "simple request" based on legitimate power is often sufficient

In what situations is more power needed for leader to be effective?

When the organization needs major changes, but their is strong initial opposition to the leader's change proposals (prepare for future crisis, short-term sacrifices)

When are inspirational appeals an especially appropriate proactive influence tactic?

When used to gain commitment for a new project and to gain support for a proposed change that involves values and ideals

What does it mean to exercise referent power through "role modeling"?

a person that is well-liked and admired can have considerable influence over others by setting an example of proper and desirable behavior for them to imitate

Where is position power derived from?

a person's position power is derived from the position they they hold in the organization; it is unrelated to them as an individual

What limitations are associated with referent power? What risks relate to this limitation?

a request based solely on referent power should be consistent with the extent of target's loyalty and friendship; risk making target feel exploited and undermining relationship if requests are too extreme or frequent

What is an influence tactic?

a type of behavior used intentionally to influence the attitudes and/or behavior of another person

What is a proactive influence tactic?

a type of behavior used intentionally to influence the attitudes and/or behavior of another person; in order to achieve an immediate task objective

What form of coalition is least likely to be effective? When would this form of coalition be used?

an upward appeal to an authority person; saved as a last resort for resolving a conflict with a peer who has ability to cause and important project to fail

According to Social Exchange Theory, A leader may lose more power if a failure is due to what?

appears to be due to poor judgement/incompetence (rather than circumstances out of leader's control) or it is perceived that leader pursued selfish motives (rather than loyally serving group)

According to the Strategic Contingencies Theory, how does the degree of interdependence among subunits affect the importance of a particular type of problem? Why?

as degree of interdependence increases, so does important of particular type of problem; other subunits cannot perform their own functions unless this type of problem is handled effectively

What is authority?

authority involves the rights, prerogatives, obligations, and duties associated with particular positions in an organization or social system

Why is the extent to which a target trusts an agent an important determinant of the outcome of an influence attempt? How can an agent preserve their perceived integrity?*

because any influence tactic can be used in an unethical way; to preserve integrity, must avoid using tactics in way that is deceptive/manipulative

How can reward power increase referent power?

by facilitating the development of a deep exchange relationship

How might someone attempt to protect their expert power?

by keeping procedures/techniques secret (use alternative jargon to make it seem more complex/mysterious, destroying alternative sources of info ab task procedures)

How is power classified?

by power sources: classification involves differences in the sources or bases for potential influence over another person or event

How can the evolutionary power shift described in the Strategic Contingencies Theory be delayed?

by using political tactics (institutionalization of power)

What are potential risks of harder forms of pressure? (like threats, warnings, and demands)

can lead to resentment and can undermine working relationships

Coalition in combination with which other individual proactive influence tactics can be especially effective for influencing a peer or superior?

coalition in combination with direct tactics like rational persuasion and inspirational appeals

What influence outcome is common when using reward power to influence? What other influence outcome is possible and under what circumstances?

compliance if reward is valued by target; resistance is likely if rewards are perceived as manipulative

How can ambiguity about the nature of the environment and how it changes be used by a powerful leader/subunit to maintain dominance even after their expertise is no longer critical?

creates an opportunity for leader to interpret events in a biased manner, magnify the importance of their expertise, and justify their policies

According to Social Exchange Theory, how does demonstrated competence impact a leader's status and influence? What effect can it have on their leadership abilities?*

demonstration of good judgement increases status and influence; over time they accumulate "idiosyncrasy credits" and are allowed more latitude to deviate from nonessential group norms

What is the source of ecological power?

derived from control over physical environment, technology, and the organization of the work

Where is personal power derived from?

derived from individual attributes of the agent and the agent-target relationship; separate from their position in the organization

What do studies-- about the amount of influence exercised by people at different levels of authority hierarchy-- tell us about relationships between effective leaders and their subordinates?

effective leaders create relationships in which they have strong influence over subordinates and are also receptive to influence from them

Which influence tactics are commonly used in initial influence attempts? Why?

either simple requests, a weak form of rational persuasion; easy to use and entail little costs to agent

What type of power is emphasized in Social Exchange Theory?

expert power and authority, other forms receive little attention

What 5 types of power were included in the early taxonomy of power sources?

expert, referent, legitimate, reward, and coercive power

How can legitimating be used to resist or modify a request from someone else?

explaining how request is inconsistent with company rules/formal contract

How can apprising be used to resist or modify a request from someone else?

explaining why proposed plan is unlikely to succeed or change is likely to result in unfavorable outcomes for agents

What does the Strategic Contingencies Theory explain?

explains how some organizational units gain or lose influence power over important decisions

Why is influence the essence of leadership?

for a leader to be effective, it is necessary to influence people to carry out requests, support proposals, and implement decisions

Under what circumstances is it more likely that legitimating tactics would need to be used to influence superiors?

for requests involving personal matters; especially if superior is new and unfamiliar with relevant policies, contract agreements, and standard practices

Coalition in combination with which other individual proactive influence tactics can be especially ineffective for influencing a target?

if coalition partners use pressure tactics; can be viewed as a "gang up"

Is there ever a situation in which resistance as an influence outcome can be beneficial?

if it helps the agent avoid a serious mistake

When a subordinate has information power how does this impact their ability to influence superiors/decisions?

if leader is dependent on subordinate, may invite them to participate directly in decision making; and even without participating, a subordinate providing information for a decision has substantial influence over it

When are proactive influence tactics especially useful?*

if request or proposal is unusual, controversial, or difficult to do, OR when agent has little actual authority over target

What situational aspects increase the likelihood of success of each type of proactive tactic?

if target perceives tactic to be socially acceptable form of influence behavior, agent has sufficient position and personal power, agent has strong interpersonal skills, and if the tactic used is legitimate and consistent with target's values/needs

What are risks of delaying the evolutionary shift of power?

if top management lacks expertise needed to develop an appropriate strategy to deal with environmental changes, the organization's performance will decline; unless replaced, may eventually go bankrupt or be taken over by outsiders

What type of influence can ecological power provide? How?

indirect influence over people; rearranging of situation can subtly alter perception of opportunities/constraints that partly determine behavior

What additional types of power were later added to the taxonomy of power sources?

informational power and ecological power

What are the 3 types of influence processes?

instrumental compliance, internalization, and personal identification

What is involved in the psychological explanation for interpersonal influence?

involves the motives and perceptions of the target in relation to the action of the agent and the context in which the interaction occurs

How is the proactive influence tactic inspirational appeals different from rational persuasion or apprising?

it involved emotional or values-based appeals rather than logical arguments

Why is ingratiation often used early?

it is more credible when used as part of rationale for the request

Which types of power are considered position power?

legitimate, reward, coercive, information, and ecological power

According to Social Exchange Theory, what factors determine the amount of status and power given to elected or emergent leaders?

loyalty, demonstrated competence, and contribution to the attainment of shared objectives

When in sequence may legitimating tactic be used?

may be used either early or late, depending on how target is likely to perceive legitimacy of request

What level of effort is likely to be associated with instrumental compliance influence process?

minimum effort necessary to gain reward

Why is ingratiation more effective when used with subordinates and peers than with superiors?

more credible and meaningful when agent has higher status and expertise than target; Likely to be views as less sincere when used with a boss

According to Social Exchange Theory, how is a leader's loss of status related to their status before failure?

more is expected of a leader with high status, so when they fail, they lose more status if they are perceived to be responsible for failure

What makes rational persuasion more effective? less likely?

more likely if agent is perceived to have high expertise and credibility; less likely if agent and target have incompatible objectives, or agent lacks expertise/credibility

Who are likely to be targets of apprising? is there an exception?

more likely to be used with subordinates and peers; exception when subordinate is experience and boss is new to organization

Ingratiation can be more useful if used as what, rather than as a proactive influence tactic? Why?

more useful as part of long-term strategy for building cooperative relations; may be viewed as manipulative if used just before asking something

When are personal appeals an especially appropriate proactive influence tactic?

most useful for getting assistance/information or for requesting a personal favor unrelated to work

How can collaboration be used to resist or modify a request from someone else?

offer to help accomplish objective in different way

Who are most socially acceptable targets of personal appeals?

peers or outsiders

According to the Strategic Contingencies Theory, how can increased expert power lead to increased legitimate power?

people with valuable expertise are more likely to be elected or appointed to positions of authority

What influence process is involved in the strongest form of referent power?

personal identification

Why is personal power less susceptible to misuse than position power?

personal power erodes quickly when leader acts against follower interest

For the majority of influence attempts, what is the role of the agent's power? What is this also known as and when is it most likely to occur?

power acts as a moderator variable to enhance or diminish the effectiveness of the tactics used by the agent; moderator effect of power, most likely to occur for types of power directly relevant to the tactics used in an influence attempt (expert power and the effect of rational persuasion)

What does it mean that power is a dynamic, rather than static, condition? What causes this?

power can change over time due to changing conditions and the actions of individuals or groups

What is the source of information power?

power derived from control over information; both access to it and control over distribution of it

What is the source of coercive power?

power derived from one's authority over punishment

What is the source of referent power?

power derived from target's respect for agent; their desire to please agent because of their strong feelings of affection, admiration, and loyalty towards them

What is the source of reward power?

power is derived from agent's perceived ability to control important resources and rewards desired by target

Why is hard tactic pressure incompatible with personal appeals and ingratiation?

pressure undermines the feelings of friendship and loyalty that are basis of soft tactics

What is one of the best ways to ensure continued leader responsiveness to followers? How can this be achieved?

promote reciprocal influence and discourage arbitrary actions by leaders-- rules/policies/procedures/regulations relating to: use of power; requirements of leaders; selection, review, and removal of leaders

Which influence tactic is most easily combined?

rational persuasion is usually compatible with any other tactic

What are the 11 distinct proactive influence tactics?

rational persuasion, apprising, inspirational appeals, consultation, collaboration, ingratiation, personal appeals, exchange, coalition tactics, legitimating tactics, pressure

Which 4 individual proactive influence tactics are generally the most effective? What are these referred to?

rational persuasion, consultation, collaboration, and inspirational appeals; they are "core tactics"

Which types of power are considered personal power?

referent and expert power

According to Social Exchange Theory, how can leaders gain influence?

repeated demonstration of good judgement, expertise, and loyalty to subordinates

What research has been used to find most evidence supporting Social Exchange Theory? How do results relate? *

research with small groups in lab settings; results are inconsistent across studies

How are the proactive influence tactics collaboration and exchange different?

similar in that they both offer to do something for the target, but there are important differences in underlying motivation processes and facilitating conditions; Exchange = increased benefits vs Collaboration = decreased difficulty/costs; Exchange = impersonal trade of unrelated benefits vs Collaboration = joint effort to accomplish same task

How are the proactive influence tactics apprising and rational persuasion similar and different?

similar: may also involve use of facts and logic different: benefits described are for target (not organization or mission)

Using ecological power to indirectly influence people by rearranging situation is sometimes called what?

situational engineering or ecological control

What did the 1990 factor analysis of POIS find?

support for 6 proposed tactics (rationality, exchange, ingratiation, assertiveness, coalition, and upward appeal)

How is the influence tactic of consultation different from the leadership behavior of consultation?

target is only invited to help determine how objective should be attained, not what the objective should be

What occurs when influence outcome is commitment?

target makes great effort to carry out a request or implement a decision effectively

What must target believe in order for exchange to be an effective influence tactic?

target must believe that agent is able to provide the promised benefit and can be trusted to actually deliver on promise

What must be specified to describe an agent's power?

target(s), influence objectives, and time period

What can be the impact of too much position power?

temptation to rely on it instead of developing personal power and using other approaches (consultation) for influencing people to comply w request/support change; can lead to corruption

What does the term "power" describe?

the absolute capacity of an individual agent to influence the behavior or attitudes of one(+) designated target persons at a given point in time

How are the proactive influence tactics apprising and exchange tactics different?

the benefits associated with apprising are likely consequences of completing agent's request, rather than something the agent actually provides to target

What is one's scope of authority largely dependent on?

the influence necessary to accomplish role requirements and organizational objectives

In what ways can an influence attempt be evaluated?

the influence outcome, the effect on interpersonal relationships, and effect on perception of agent

What makes it difficult to determine an optimal mix of power?

the interdependence among different sources of power

What does the Strategic Contingencies Theory fail to account for?

the possibility that a powerful subunit can use its power to protects its dominant position in organization by enhancing perceived expertise and denying potential rivals opportunity to demonstrate their greater expertise

When combining influence tactics, what is outcome dependent on?

the potency of component tactics and the extent of their compatibility

What does "Scope of Authority" mean?

the range of requests that can properly be made and the range of actions that can properly by taken by someone in a particular position

What occurs when influence outcome is resistance?

the target is opposed to proposal or request; several forms: 1. Refuse to complete 2. Explain why completion is impossible 3. Attempt to persuade agent to withdraw/change request 4. Ask higher-ups to overrule 5. Delay acting in hopes agent will forget 6. Make pretense of complying but attempt to sabotage task

According to Social Exchange Theory, a leader's contribution may involve what?

their control over scarce resources, access to vital information, or skill in dealing with critical task problems

How important is a target's perception of an agents reward power?

their perception is more important than the agent's actual control over reward

Why might agent abandon influence effort instead of making a follow-up influence attempt?

their request doesn't justify the risks of escalation involved with using "harder" tactics

What has research found about the POIS questionnaire?

there is no systematic research to validate the questionnaire as a measure of tactics used to influence subordinates and peers

How can the control over distribution of information about an organization's performance be used by a powerful leader/subunit to maintain dominance even after their expertise is no longer critical?

they can exaggerate success of past decisions and cover up past mistakes

How may subordinates possess coercive power over their boss?

they can indirectly influence boss's performance evaluations: by restricting production, sabotaging operations, initiating grievances, holding demonstrations, making complaints to higher-ups

How can pressure be used to resist or modify a request from someone else?

threat to resign or pursue legal action if unethical request is not withdrawn

What is (are) the primary purpose(s) of proactive influence tactics?

to achieve an immediate task objective or to resist/modify a request made by somebody trying to influence you

Why can it be very useful to use consultation as an influence tactic on peers?

to elicit concerns/suggestions from peers who may not be committed to supporting activity/change unless their needs/opinions are taken into account

What is(are) the primary purpose(s) of political influence tactics?

to influence organizational decisions or otherwise gain benefits from an individual/group

What is(are) the primary purpose(s) of impression management influence tactics?

to influence people to like agent or evaluate them favorably

Coalition tactics are especially appropriate when trying to influence target how? *

trying to gain support, from their peers or boss, for a proposed change or new initiative

What situational aspects determine the effectiveness of each type of proactive tactic?

type of agent-target relationship, agent's power/authority, agent's interpersonal skills, type of influence objective, and extent to which request is seen as appropriate and acceptable by target

What tactics are likely if agent anticipates some resistance by target?

use a stronger form of rational persuasion and "soft tactics" (like personal appeals, consultation, collaboration, apprising, and inspirational appeals)

How might someone gain power through the institutionalization of power?*

use political tactics to increase influence or protect existing power source

What strategies can be used by a powerful leader/subunit to maintain dominance even after their expertise is no longer critical?

used to limit distribution of information, to deny others the resources and opportunities necessary to demonstrate their superior expertise, and to silence, co-opt, or expel critics and rivals from the organization

What factors determine the amount of power necessary for a leader?

what needs to be accomplished and the leader's skill in using their available power

When is expert power most influential?

when 1) person has unique knowledge that 2) others are dependent on to 3) solve a problem that is important to target and they 4) cannot easily find another source of knowledge

In what case will the effects of expert power be automatic?

when agent clearly has more relevant expertise than target

When is consultation an especially appropriate proactive influence tactic?

when agent has authority to plan task or make change, but needs target to help carry out work or implement to change

According to Social Exchange Theory, when is innovation expected of leaders? What happens if leader does not fulfill this expectation?

when innovation is necessary to deal with serious problems; a leader that fails to show initiative and to deal decisively with serious problems will lose esteem and influence

when is compliance considered a successful influence outcome?

when it is a simple, routine request and compliance is all that is necessary to accomplish the task objectives

When are legitimating tactics more likely to be necessary?

when request is unusual, clearly exceeds authority, or when target doesn't know who you are or what authority you have

when might it be necessary to use pressure tactics in addition to soft tactics?

when tactics like rational persuasion, consultation, and collaboration are unlikely to be effective alone because the target doesn't share the agent's task objectives; pressure tactics might be necessary to motivate target willingness to find a mutually acceptable agreement

When is pressure most likely to elicit compliance?

when target is just lazy or apathetic rather than strongly opposed

What occurs when influence outcome is compliance?

when target is willing to carry out request but is indifferent about it and will only make minimal effort

When is commitment considered the most successful influence outcome?

when task is complex and difficult, requiring enthusiasm, initiative, and persistence from target

When is coercive power most likely to result in compliance?

when the perceived threat is credible and the target strongly desires to avoid threatened punishment

When is it likely that the legitimacy of one's power to make a request may be questioned?

when the request contradicts the basic values of the organization or larger society to which members belong

When is exchange an especially appropriate proactive influence tactic?

when the request doesn't offer any important benefit to target and would involve considerable effort and inconvenience

When is rational persuasion most useful as a proactive influence tactic?

when the target shares agent's objectives, but doesn't initially recognize their request/proposal as the best way to attain the shared objective

Why are legitimating tactics most often relevant for influence attempts with peers or outsiders?

where role relationships are often ambiguous and agent authority less well defined