✅ Learning // Psychology
An experimenter plans to condition a dog to salivate to a light by pairing the light with food. The dog will learn to salivate to the light most quickly if the experimenter presents the light
1/2 a second before the food
___ is a theory of learning that focuses solely on observable behaviors, discounting the importance of mental activities such as thinking, wishing, and hoping.
Behaviorism
Primary Reinforcer
- Naturally or Innately reinforcing such as: Food/Water, Sexual stimulation, Relief from heat/cold/pain
Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory
- Observational learning accounted for by 4 processes - Attentional processes - Retentional Processes - Motor preproductive processes - Motivational processes
Based on the principle of classical conditioning, we might develop a fear of dogs after
having been bitten by one.
___ effects are observable changes that occur in response to a fake pill or medicine containing no active ingredient.
placebo
If getting $1 for every correct answer on this test makes you study harder for the next test, then being given $1 is a form of
positive reinforcement
___ ___ is the presentation or addition of a stimulus after a behavior occurs that increases how often that behavior will occur.
positive reinforcement
Which two of the following are secondary reinforcers?
praise & money
A conditioned reinforcer gains its reinforcing power through its link with a
primary reinforcer
Channing believes that the best way to get his boyfriend to clean up after himself is by initiating sex as soon as his boyfriend cleans up the apartment. Channing knows that sex is a _______ reinforce that will likely _______ the probability that his boyfriend will clean the apartment in the future.
primary: increase
Ellie hates it when her teenagers leave their dirty clothes on the floor. If Ellie decides to use the Premark principle to help her teens change their behavior, she should _______ to reward them for doing a less valued activity.
promise them a more valued activity
behaviorism
psychology should be a science based on observable (and only observable) events, not the unconscious or conscious mind. This perspective was first suggested and propagated by John Watson. Watson's primary rationale was that only observable events are verifiable and thus, are the only events that can be proven false
Steven has been fired twice for being late. In his new job, he has never been late. The consequence of being fired would be considered _____.
punishment
Which of the following is NOT one of the four processes that are involved in observational learning?
punishment
One cognitive factor in learning is _____, which is the idea that much of a behavior is goal-directed.
purposive
One cognitive factor of learning is___, which is the idea that much of behavior is goal-directed
purposive
The idea that much of behavior is goal-directed and therefore related to cognitive factors is referred to as _____.
purposive behavior
In operant conditioning, if one wants a high rate of responding, a ___ schedule should be utilized
ratio
A father takes his young daughter to the park. The girl grabs a red flower and is stung by a bee. The next day, the girl's grandmother brings her a bouquet of red flowers. When the girl sees the flowers, she becomes afraid and runs away. In this example, the conditioned stimulus is the
red flowers
Both positive and negative punishment _____.
reduce the frequency of a behavior
Maurice is taking a class in which he is tested every two weeks. He decides to "cram" for the first test and receives a poor grade. According to the "Law of Effect," the probability of Maurice cramming before the second test has likely been
reduced
Punishment is a consequence that _____.
reduces the frequency of a behavior
An unlearned stimulus-response connection, such as blinking when air is blown into someone's eyes, is considered a
reflex
Every time Max, the family dog, sits on command, he receives a treat. The treat would be considered _____.
reinforcement
Tiffany usually fastens her seat belt so that the buzzing sound will stop. This would be considered negative ___
reinforcement
___ is the process in operant conditioning by which a stimulus or event following a particular behavior increases the probability that the behavior will be repeated.
reinforcement
reinforcement schedule
reinforcement is a process that increases the frequency of a targeted behavior by either using a negative stimulus or a positive stimulus. In addition, reinforcement is effective when it occurs on some schedule.
B. F. Skinner recommended that we control behavior with ________ rather than with ________.
reinforcement; punishment
learning
relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge that comes from experience or training
In Pavlov's experiments on the salivary conditioning of dogs, a CR was
salivation to the sound of a tone
___ of reinforcement are timetables that determine when a behavior will be reinforced.
schedules
The term for reinforcers that are learned by association is _____ reinforcers.
secondary
Earning an "A" in a course is an example of a(n)
secondary reinforcer
Money is to food as ________ is to ________.
secondary reinforcer; primary reinforcer
Employing a process known as ______________, when Brice was first training his dog to do a "high five" he gave it a treat for any behavior, such as lifting its paw, that approximated the desired end-goal behavior of a "high five."
shaping
Vincent wants to use systematic desensitization to treat his patient's phobia of elevators. Vincent's first step in this process should be to
show the patient a picture of an elevator until he can look at it and feel calm
Although 5-year-old Katelyn is not really thirsty, she frequently begins whining for a glass of water about 10 minutes after being put to bed. Her parents would be best advised to
simply ignore her complaining.
intrinsic motivation
However, if you are working at a job because you get a great feeling of personal satisfaction from it, and you are trying to perform the behavior for its own sake (not for money), then you are intrinsically motivated
Hall-Pearce Effect
Occurs when organisms have a history of being exposed to a stimulus followed by a very weak UCS which interferes with the ability to form a fear association to the stimulus later - Example: Two groups of animals are exposed to a tone, then a shock. One group had previously been exposed to the tone multiple times with a weak shock
norepinephrine
Norepinephrine, also known as noradrenaline, acts as a neurotransmitter and as a stress hormone, controlling the body's "fight or flight" response.
Mr. Zandee has stopped smoking because he wants to model healthy behavior patterns for his children. Mr. Zandee is apparently aware of the importance of ________ in his children's development.
Observational Learning
When one monkey sees a second monkey touch four pictures in a certain order to gain a banana, the first monkey learns to imitate that sequence. This best illustrates
Observational Learning
Which of the following are types of conditioning where association are learned? (Select all that apply.)
Observational and Classical
One form of cognitive learning is called
Observational learning
Blocking Effect
Occurs when learning to a new stimuli is impaired because it is presented in compound with another, already established CS
One process theory
Only operant conditioning is involved, punishment is the opposite of reinforcement
Because Saleem was spanked on several occasions for biting electric cords, he no longer does so. Saleem's behavior change best illustrates the value of
Operant Conditioning
Mr. Schlenker has improved worker productivity at his furniture manufacturing plant by occasionally sending notes of appreciation to his hard-working employees. Mr. Schlenker has improved productivity by means of
Operant Conditioning
Prosocial behavior
Positive, constructive, helpful behavior The opposite of antisocial behavior
Research on the role of cognitive processes in learning indicates that the strength of a conditioned response depends primarily on the ________ of the CS-US association.
Predictability
Response Prevention
Prevent the behavior from occurring by altering the environment Goal: Weaken the contingency between obsessions and compulsions
Receiving money as a reward and having a monetary fine suspended are both ________ reinforcers.
Primary
Negative punishment is which of the following?
Removal of a stimulus to decrease a behavior
Renewal Effect
Renewal effect occurs when extinguished CR re-occurs when context is changed *Requires no additional conditioning
Summation Test
Test for inhibitory properties of a CS by presenting it in compound with a known excitatory CS. Like adding a positive number to a negative.
In Pavlov's experiments, the taste of food triggered salivation in a dog. The food in the dog's mouth was the
Unconditioned Stimulus
Sensory pre-conditioning
When one stimulus is conditioned as a CS, another stimulus it was previously associated with can become a CS
Positive punishment
When the behavior occurs an unpleasant event follows and subsequent behavior decreases
Negative Punishment
When the behavior occurs, a pleasant event is removed, subsequent behavior decreases
After little Albert was _____ to fear white rats, he also feared similar objects such as white rabbits.
conditioned
Classical conditioning can explain the placebo effects of a fake pill because the pill can serve as a _____ stimulus for the actual drug.
conditioned
Classical conditioning can explain habituation to a drug's effects because the _____ to the drug can be the body's way of preparing itself for the drug.
conditioned response
Which of the following are considered primary reinforcers? (Select all that apply.)
food & water
In classical conditioning, the tendency of a new stimulus to elicit a response that is similar to the conditioned response is known as
generalization
In operant conditioning, ______means performing a reinforced behavior in a different situation.
generalization
When Ibrahim was six years old, he became terrified when the family's parrot flew at him and bit him on the nose. Since then, he's been afraid of all birds. Ibrahim's bird phobia illustrates the classical conditioning process of
generalization
_____ means performing a reinforced behavior in a different situation.
generalization
Billy hates it when his upstairs neighbor wakes up early to take a shower. He is typically abruptly awakened when the water starts, but then he gets used to the noise and goes back to sleep. In this example, Billy is showing learning through
habituation
Caryn's mother loves the smell of vanilla candles. When Caryn visits her mother, she dislikes the smell of the candles, but after a couple of hours she no longer notices it. The fact that Caryn can now ignore the candles' scent is most likely due to a type of non-associative learning called
habituation
Every day after class, Jerome smells delicious pizza from Steel's Pizza House on his walk home and his mouth starts to water. One day, Jerome is riding the bus home from class and sees the Steel's Pizza House sign, and even this makes his mouth start to water. Jerome has most likely experienced all of the following EXCEPT
habituation
Tolerance and ____ occur when an individual needs a higher and higher dose of a substance to get the same effect.
habituation
positive reinforcement
using positive rewards
Professor Jackson wants his students to complete their reading assignments before he lectures on the material in class. He periodically gives them pop quizzes on the reading assignments. To encourage students to complete the reading assignments, the schedule of reinforcement he should use for the pop quizzes is a _______ schedule.
variable ratio
Watching for shooting stars is an example of ______ schedule because seeing the stars occurs on an unpredictable basis
variable ratio
A(n) _____ schedule is a timetable in which a behavior is reinforced after a variable amount of time has elapsed.
variable-interval
The pattern of intermittent reinforcement in which responses are reinforced after time periods of different duration have passed is called a _____ schedule.
variable-interval (VI)
A 5-year-old observes his father yelling at his older brother, who dropped and broke his dinner plate while removing it from the table. Thereafter, due to ______________, the 5-year-old is very cautious when removing his own plate.
vicarious conditioning
Braxton's friend Shayla is caught cheating on a test and receives an "F." Braxton learns the consequences of cheating by watching Shayla be punished for this action. Braxton has learned through
vicarious conditioning
Rayvonte, a recent college graduate, is impressed when his cousin puts his résumé on their university's job board and then receives many job interviews. Rayvonte decides to post his résumé in hopes of finding his first professional job. He most likely posted his résumé on the job board as a result of
vicarious conditioning
Seventeen-year-old Ryan watches his father fix a broken part on the family car. Then Ryan sees that his mother gives his father lots of affection because he fixed the car. Based on this experience, Ryan will be more likely to fix his girlfriend's car if it breaks. This fact shows how Ryan has been influenced by
vicarious conditioning
The tendency to discontinue behaviors that we observe others being punished for performing best illustrates the influence of
vicarious punishment
Operant conditioning is better than classical conditioning at explaining _____ behaviors.
voluntary
Unlike classical conditioning, operant conditioning typically involves _____ responses
voluntary
Edward Tolman
well-known for his theory on Latent Learning, which states that learning occurs even if there is no reward. He demonstrated this in an experiment where rats were trained to run a maze without a reward. After a few days, a reward was introduced.
discriminative stimulus
when we learn to respond only to the original stimulus, and not to other similar stimuli. whenever you come home from work, the first thing you do is feed your dog. As a result, your dog gets excited as soon as he hears your car pulling up at the driveway, barking and running to the door. Eventually, he begins to get excited as soon as any family member arrives in their car, thinking that he will get fed as well. Everytime he hears any car pull up at the driveway, he starts barking and running to the door. That is Stimulus Generalization. But if none of the other family members ever feed the dog as soon as they arrive home, your dog eventually learns that it is only the sound of your car pulling up at the driveway that's worth getting excited about. That is Stimulus Discrimination, because he learns to distinguish only the specific sound that means food is coming, and learns to ignore all other car sounds as not relevant to his getting fed.
If a shock is always preceded by a tone, and then sometimes also is preceded by a light that accompanies the tone, a rat will react
with fear to the tone but not to the light
Reinforcement
An event that increases the frequency of behaviors that preceded it
Continuous reinforcement
Behavior reinforced every time it occurs
Which of the following describes spontaneous recovery?
An extinguished conditioned response reemerges.
John Garcia
'Conditioned taste aversion.' Conditioned taste aversion can be viewed as a survival mechanism due to the fact that people/animals can decipher whether the food about to be eaten are poisonous or not; which essentially can avoid sickness or death.
operant chamber
+ add to my flashcards The operant chamber was created by B.F. Skinner to assist with laboratory analysis of animal behavior. The chamber is a box that holds the test subject, an animal such as a rat, and is often sound and light proof, to limit responses from unintended stimuli. The box is built with a system for delivering a stimulus and can detect the response. It has an automatic system of reward or punishment delivery, simplifying the process of observation and data collection in behavioral studies.
Positive Reinforcement
- Adds pleasant consequences - Behavior increases - Reward training
Response Deprivation
- Behavior becomes reinforcing when an organism is prevented from engaging in it at a normal frequency
Multiple Schedule Reinforcement
- Behavior is under the influence of 2+ simple schedules - No more stimuli to indicate schedule change
Partial Reinforcement Effect
- Behavior maintained on an intermittent schedule is more resistent to extinction
Behavior Order for CC
- CS must come before the UCS
Observation Learning
- Can one individual learn by observing the experienc of another individual
Vicarious Learning
- Change in behavior due to the experience of observing a model
Variables affecting observational learning
- Consequences of model's behavior - Consequences of observers behavior - Characteristics of the model - Observer's age - Complexity of the task
Variables affecting reifnorcement
- Contingency - Contiguity - Reinforcer characteristics (magnitiude/qualitative) - Deprivation level
Pioneers of OC
- Edward Thorndike - B.F. Skinner
Problems with punishment
- Escape - Aggression - Apathy - Abuse - Imitation of punisher
Shared Terms between CC and OC
- Extinction - Spontaneous Recovery - Generalization - Discrimination
Extinction
- Identify the reinforcer for a behavior - Remove reinforcer and any alternative reinforcement - May provoke emotional oubursts
Observational Learning vs. Imitation
- Imitation of a model does not imply observational learning has occurred
Operant conditioning names
- Instrumental Conditioning - Law of Effect - Skinnerian Conditioning
Major component in Classical Conditioning
- Involuntary (subject is passive)
Pioneers of CC
- Ivan Pavlov - John Watson
Differential Reinforcement
- Low rate - Zero Responding - Incompatible Behavior - Alternative Behavior
Spontaneous recoery
- Re-emergence of an extinguished conditioned response after a rest period
Attentional Processes
- Refers to the processes that determine what is attended to and therefore what is learned through observation.
Behavior order for OC
- Reinforcement comes after the behavior
Major terms in OC
- Reinforcers - Reinforcement positive and negative - Punishment - Shaping - Reinforcement schedules (continuous and partial)
Negative Reinforcement
- Removes unpleasant feeling/situation - Behavior increases - Escape training
Other names for classical conditioning
- Respondent conditioning - Pavlovian Conditioning
Alternatives to punishment
- Response Prevention - Extinction - Differential Reinforcement - Noncontingent Reinforcement
Major component in operant conditioning
- Subject is active
Factors affecting CC Association
- US Intensity - US Duration - CS Intensity and Duration - CS-UCS relevance or belongingness - Consistency of Pairing - Novelty of CS and UCS
Classical Conditioning Major Terms (5)
- Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) - Conditioned Stimulus - Unconditioned Response - Conditioned Response - Conditioned Emotional Response
B Process properties
- dynamic; changes with repeated exposure - with repeated exposure the Bstate begins earlier, has greater magnitude, & lasts longer - if time passes without exposure, the changes in the Bstate reverse
Punishment
An event that decreases the frequency of behaviors that preceded it.
A process properties
- magnitude & duration of the A-state are determined by the stimulus event - magnitude & duration are fixed (no change with experience)
Secondary Reinforcer
-Dependent on their association with other (often primary) reinforcers: Praise/positive feedback, Money, Token economies
Pavlov Looked at:
1. Acquisition 2. Extinction 3. Spontaneous recovery 4. Generalization 5. Discrimination
Simple schedules of reinforcement
1. Continuous 2. Ratio 3. Interval 4. Duration 5. Time
Two kinds of consequences
1. Reinforcement 2. Punishment
neutral stimulus
A Neutral Stimulus is a stimulus that produces no response other than catching your attention. For example, let's say you have to bring your child to the pediatrician for a shot. Prior to the shot, the pediatrician presses a buzzer to call her assistant to come in and help her administer the vaccine. In this case, the sound of the buzzer is the neutral stimulus because it doesn't produce any response from the child, but the child does notice it.
cognitive map
A cognitive map is a mental representation of the layout of one's environment. It seems that many animals, not just humans, are able to form a mental representation of an environment that they have been in or are currently in. For example, when a friend asks you for directions to your house, you are able to create an image in your mind of the roads, places to turn, landmarks, etc., along the way to your house from your friend's starting point. This representation is the cognitive map.
conditioned stimulus
A conditioned stimulus is created when we learn to react to something because we associate it with something else. It is part of the psychological theory of classical conditioning. (red light with where car accident occurred
Intrinsic Motivation
A desire to perform a behavior effectively for it's own sake
Extrinsic Motivation
A desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment
Operant conditioning definition
A form of learning in which behavioral frequency is altered through application of positive and negative consequences Consequences produce changes in the probability of the behavior's future occurrence
Cognitive Map
A mental representation of the layout of one's environment For example: After exploring a maze, rat's act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it
Primary Reinforcer
A natural reinforcing stimulus, ex. such as one that satisfies a biological need
Reinforcement Schedule
A pattern that defines how often a desired response will be enforced
What is a conditioned stimulus?
A previously neutral stimulus that eventually elicits a learned response
Claire wants to write a paper about how often animals use observational learning. Which of the following should Claire NOT include as evidence to support her point that animals use observational learning?
A rat learns to run through a maze quickly to get the food at the end of the maze.
stimulus
A stimulus is any object or event that elicits a response. For example, when food is presented to a lab mouse as a reward for pressing a lever, the food is a stimulus, and the mouse will likely respond by pressing the lever again.
Conditioned Reinforcer (learned)
A stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association WITH A PRIMARY reinforcer; also known as the secondary reinforcer
What is an unconditioned stimulus (US)?
A stimulus that produces a response without prior learning
Operant Conditioning
A type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher
variable-ratio schedule
A variable ratio schedule (VR) is a type of operant conditioning reinforcement schedule in which reinforcement is given after an unpredictable (variable) number of responses are made by the organism. This is almost identical to a Fixed-Ratio Schedule but the reinforcements are given on a variable or changing schedule. (slot machine)
How did Pavlov discover classical conditioning?
Accidentally after discovering that dogs salivated to various stimuli such as a food dish or a door opening
The first step of classical conditioning: When a Neural Stimulus becomes a Conditioned stimulus :
Acquisition
The stage of classical conditioning when a neutral stimulus first begins triggering a conditioned response is called
Acquisition
_____ involves the initial learning of the stimulus-response link.
Acquisition
acquisition
Acquisition refers to the initial stage of the learning or conditioning process. In this stage, some response is being associated with some stimulus to the point where we can say the organism (person, animal, etc.) has "acquired" the response. During this stage the response is strengthened (reinforced) so that it is truly "learned". For example, if you are trying to train a rat to press a lever in response to you ringing a bell (i.e., trying to condition the rat to press the lever when and only when you ring the bell), then once the rat presses the lever in only response to the bell, you can say the response is "acquired". You would then continue to gradually reinforce the lever pressing in response to the bell to make sure the response is strengthened.
Sequential hypothesis
Actions leading to reinforcement become cues during training
Positive punishment is which of the following?
Addition of a stimulus to decrease a behavior
Rapid Reacquisition
After being extinguished, a CS can be associated with a US more rapidly than before
Which theorist viewed learning as the process of observing and imitating behavior?
Albert Bandura
Unconditioned Response
An action that the unconditioned stimulus automatically elicits.
Extinction
An active learning process where after a conditioned association is formed between a CS and US, repeated exposure of CS w/out the US eliminates the CR
Unconditioned Stimulus
An event that consistently and automatically elicits an unconditioned response.
Premack Principle
An individual will be more motivated to perform a particular activity if they know that they will be able to partake of a more desirable activity as a consequence. If high-probability behaviors (more desirable behaviors) are made contingent upon lower-probability behaviors (less desirable behaviors), then the lower-probability behaviors are more likely to occur.
Shaping
An operant conditioning In which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior ex. Little kid play T-ball before Baseball
Stimulus
Any event or situation that evokes a response
Which of these is an example of aversive conditioning in humans?
Applying a bitter substance to nails to prevent bitting them
habituation
As humans, we get used to things. Something that is new and incredibly exciting can become boring. This tendancy to have decreased repsponsiveness to something is habituation (you might also hear someone say that you get habituated to something). For example, there may be a painting or picture you really like so you put it on the wall in your room. You see this picture every day, 10 times a day. Over time and repeated exposures to this picture you might start feeling like you've "seen it a million times" and it just doesn't have the same effect on you that it used to. This is habituation.
The form of ___ learning in which stimulus becomes associated with a stimulus to which the subject has an automatic inborn response is called classical conditioning.
Associative
Learning that certain events occur together is called
Associative Learning
Which of the following are components of observational learning, according to Bandura? (Select all that apply.)
Attention Retention Reinforcement Motor reproduction
Which of the following is the correct order of the four processes involved in observational learning?
Attention, retention, motor reproduction, and reinforcement
The psychologist most closely associated with the study of operant conditioning was
B. F. Skinner
Pavlov is to classical conditioning as ________ is to ________.
Bandura; observational learning
According to Thorndike's law of effect, which of the following are true? (Select all that apply.)
Behaviors followed by good results are more likely to occur again. // Behaviors followed by bad results are less likely to occur.
Which of these was the neutral stimulus (NS) in Pavlov's original experiment?
Bell
biofeedback
Biofeedback is a technique that involves using visual or auditory feedback to gain control over involuntary bodily functions. This may include gaining voluntary control over such things as heart rate, muscle tension, blood flow, pain perception and blood pressure
Task analysis
Break the chain down into behavioral components
When considering Pavlov's dogs, how would you permanently extinguish the association between the bell and food?
By ringing the bell and then never providing food
Mario believes that his son is learning to be aggressive because he plays violent video games. In what way could observational learning explain the connection Mario sees between media and his son's behavior?
Children who watch violence in video games tend to show more aggressive thoughts and actions.
Associative learning is best illustrated by
Classical and operant Conditioning
cognitive learning
Cognitive Learning Theory is a broad theory that explains thinking and differing mental processes and how they are influenced by internal and external factors in order to produce learning in individuals. When cognitive processes are working normally then storage of knowledge works well, but when these cognitive processes are ineffective, learning delays and difficulties can be seen. (someone seeing themselves as fat but is actually skinny)
What is the CS?
Conditional stimulus (learned) ex. Tone after the procedure
conditioned reinforcer
Conditioned Reinforcers are items used as rewards for behavior and that are used to elicit (gain) desired behaviors from a test subject. For instance, most of us have seen "piano-playing chickens" at a fair. These chickens have been taught that they receive food in reward for pecking at the keys of a toy piano.
What is the CR?
Conditioned Response ex. Blink to tone
Secondary reinforcers
Conditioned reinforcers: dependent on their association with other reinforcers: praise/positive feedback, money and token economies
If the sound of an electric can opener causes a child to salivate because it has previously been associated with the presentation of food, the child's salivation to the sound of the can opener is a
Conditioned response (learned)
In classical conditioning, discrimination refers to the learned ability to distinguish between a ________ and other irrelevant stimuli
Conditioned stimulus
Chaining
Connected sequence of behaviors
Sam wants her cat, Mr. Whiskers, to run into the kitchen for tuna when he hears the electric can opener. However, sometimes Sam opens canned vegetables for herself instead of tuna. ____ would explain the most likely reason Mr. Whiskers would not associate the sound of the can opener with the tuna.
Contingency
coping
Coping refers to the human behavioral process for dealing with demands, both internal or external, in situations that are perceived as threats. This can mean doing what is necessary at the time to deal with a situation in the safest or easiest way.
_____ is a classical conditioning procedure for weakening a conditioned response by associating the fear-provoking stimulus with a new response that is incompatible with the fear.
Counterconditioning
Tim has decided not to go out this weekend to party with his friends but to save his money and go on vacation with his girlfriend over Christmas break. Tim's actions are an example of which of the following?
Delayed reinforcement
Noncontingent Reinforcement
Delivered w/out regard to behavior. Often involves extinction component wherin reinforcers are not given after unwanted behavior
discrimination
Discrimination is a term that is used in both classical and operant conditioning. In classical conditioning, it refers to an ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus (CS) and other, similar stimuli that don't signal an unconditioned stimulus (US). For example, if Pavlov's dog had developed discrimination, it would have salivated to the tone that had been paired with the delivery of the meat powder, and not a similar tone with a slightly different pitch. In operant conditioning, the definition is essentially the same, but here the organism discriminates between a learned, voluntary response and an irrelevant, non-learned response. For example, a dog that has learned to sit when a person says "sit" in order to receive a treat, but the dog does not sit when a person says "bit".
dopamine
Dopamine is both a neurotransmitter and a neurohormone produced in multiple areas of the brain. As a hormone it is often associated with pleasant experiences. Receiving an unexpected reward may cause your heart to speed up and increase your alertness due to the sudden release of dopamine. As a neurotransmitter it transmits signals associated with concentration and motor skills. Conditions such Parkinson's Disease and schizophrenia are associated with an interruption in the brain's production of dopamine.
Susie wants to use operant conditioning to teach her cat to sit up for a treat. A psychologist who has conducted research that would be useful to her in this situation is
Edward Thorndike
Reynold believes that reinforcement affects the performance of a behavior more than the acquisition of a behavior. Reynold's belief is consistent with the ideas of the cognitive theorist
Edward Tolman
emotion-focused coping
Emotion-focused coping strategies are effective in the management of unchangeable stressors (Baldacchino & Draper, 2001; DeGraff & Schaffer, 2008). These coping mechanisms involve a cognitive reappraisal process that includes self-reflection and taking control over one's emotions (Carver, 2011). Rather than changing the problem, as in problem-focused coping, emotion-focused coping examines the emotional response to the stressor.
Opponent Process Theory of Emotion
Emotional events elicit two competing processes: - The primary- or A-process that is immediately elicited by the event • e.g., taking an exam elicits an unpleasant Astate - An opponent- or B-process that is the opposite of the A-process and counteracts it • e.g., the pain during the exam (A-state) creates a pleasant relief response (B-state) following the exam
When a CS is not paired with a US, the subsequent fading of a CR is called
Extinction
When a unconditioned stimulus no longer follows the conditioned stimulus, and the Conditioned response becomes weakened:
Extinction
extinction
Extinction is from conditioning and refers to the reduction of some response that the organism currently or previously produced. For example, you keep getting your dog to sit on command, but you stop giving it a treat or any other type of reinforcement. Over time, the dog may not sit every time you give the command).
True or False: Operant conditioning involves associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus
False
True or false: Stimulus generalization occurs when one responds only to the original conditioned stimulus.
False
True or false: When 3-year-old Maddy calls out "grandma" and reaches to hug every gray-haired, older woman she encounters, Maddy is demonstrating stimulus discrimination.
False
Ratio Schedules
Fixed - Behavior is rewarded after ever X responses Variable - # of responses between reinforcements varies but averages to X
Interval Schedules
Fixed - Behavior reinforced reinforced when it occurs after a specified time or interval Variable - Interval between reinforcements varies but avgs to X
Duration Schedules
Fixed - Reinforcement given after a behavior is performed for a specified period of time X Variable - Req'd period of performance varies but avg to X
Time Schedules
Fixed - Reinforcement is given after a designated amount of time (X) regardless of behavior Variable - Reinforcement given after variable intervals that avt out to X regardless of behavior
What is the NS?
Neural Stimulus ex. Tone, light, touch
Conditioned Stimulus
Formerly the neutral stimulus, having been paired with the unconditioned stimulus, elicits the same response.
Mirror Neurons
Frontal lobe neurons That some scientists believe fire when perorming certain actions or when observing another do so -The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable information and empathy
functionalism
Functionalism was the psychological school of thought that followed Structuralism and moved away from focusing on the structure of the mind to a concern with how the conscious is related to behavior... How does the mind affect what people do? One of the major proponents of Functionalism was Thorndike (created the ever-popular puzzle box) who studied the primary issue of functionalism...WHAT FUNCTION DOES A BEHAVIOR HAVE. In addition, this school of thought focused on observable events as opposed to unobservable events (like what goes on in someone's mind).
Conditioned taste aversion reference article
Garcia & Koelling, 1966 Bright noisy water studies
After getting a slight burn from the spark of a flickering campfire, Julie became afraid of getting close to lighted gas stoves. This best illustrates the adaptive value of
Generalization
In classical conditioning, the tendency of a new stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus to elicit a response that is similar to the conditioned response know as _____.
Generalization
generalization
Generalization refers to a process within operant and classical conditioning, where a conditioned response (CR) starts occurring in response to the presentation of other, similar stimuli, not just the conditioned stimulus (CS). For example, a dog is trained to sit (CR) when you give the command, "sit" (CS). Soon after that, the dog might sit when you say "hit", "bit", and "kick". In this case, the CR (sitting) is not only done to the CS (the command, "sit") but also to commands that are similar.
Motivational Processes
Goal oriented activities
higher-order conditioning
Higher Order Conditioning (also known as Second Order Conditioning) is a classical conditioning term that refers to a situation in which a stimulus that was previously neutral (e.g., a light) is paired with a conditioned stimulus (e.g., a tone that has been conditioning with food to produce salivating) to produce the same conditioned response as the conditioned stimulus. Wow...if you understand how a neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus (conditioning), you understand higher order conditioning because this is really just extending the conditioning one more level...the conditioning is happening not by pairing the stimulus with something that naturally produces a response, but with something that has been conditioned to produce a response.
The bell began as a ____ stimulus in Pavlov's original experiment and became a ____ stimulus by the end.
Neutral, conditioned
Drive Reduction
Humans are motivated to reduce the state of tension caused when certain biological needs are not satisfied.
Observational learning is also known as which of the following? (Select all that apply.)
Imitation and modeling
Five-year-old Fatima observes her mother feeding her infant brother. Fatima picks up her doll baby and begins to mimic the behavior. In this case, Fatima pretending to feed her doll is an example of which of the following learning concepts? (Select all that apply.)
Imitation, modeling, observational learning
Every time he drinks, Boris has a painful hangover the morning after. But he continues to drink because just a couple of drinks begin to reduce his anxiety. Boris' continued drinking illustrates the power of
Immediate reinforcement
classical conditioning
In behaviorism, classical conditioning is a kind of learning in which a person or animal comes to associate two kinds of stimuli, one that naturally prompts a given behavior and one that does not. Nuetral and unconditioned stimulus. Some psychologists believe classical conditioning helps explain learning. neutral signal before reflex, invonoultary
Neural Stimulus (NS)
In classical conditioning A stimulus that elicits NO RESPONSE before conditioning
Unconditioned response (UR)
In classical conditioning An unlearned, NATURALLY OCCURING response such as: salivation to an unconditioned stimulus (such as food in the mouth)
Conditioned Response CR
In classical conditioning A LEARNED response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned response)
Unconditioned Stimulus: (US)
In classical conditioning A stimulus that is naturally and automatically - triggers a response (UR)
Conditioned Stimulus CS
In classical conditioning An originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR)
Discrimination
In classical conditioning The learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus
unconditioned stimulus
In classical conditioning, an unconditioned stimulus (US or UCS) is any stimulus that can evoke a response without the organism going through any previous learning; the response to the US (the unconditioned response) occurs naturally. For example, if you smell a lemon, it might get a sour taste in your mouth and you may salivate. This may occur from the time you are born and can occur without you ever having tasted a lemon before. The lemon, therefore, is a US since it produced the salivation and sour taste (the UR) naturally, without you having any previous experience with lemons.
conditioned response
In classical conditioning, the conditioned response (CR) is the learned response (reflexive behavior) to a conditioned stimulus (CS). This response is almost identical to the Unconditioned Stimulus except that now the reflexive behavior occurs in response to a conditioned stimulus as opposed to an unconditioned stimulus. For example, a dog salivates (UR) from the smell of a bone (US) naturally, without any conditioning. Once some neutral stimulus (CS) (for example, a "beep" that the dog would not naturally or normally cause the dog to salivate) has been paired with the bone for some time, the dog will salivate (CS) when the "beep" occurs.
Frustration Hypothesis
No frustration in continuous reinforcement During extinction, NOT responding is negatively reinforced. Responding during frustration is reinforced and frustration becomes the cue to respond
unconditioned response
In classical conditioning, there are stimuli that can produce responses all by themselves and without any prior learning. These types of stimuli are called unconditioned stimuli (US or UCS) and they evoke unconditioned responses (UR or UCR), or responses that are completely natural and occur without an organism going through any prior learning. For example, if you smell a lemon, it might get a sour taste in your mouth and you may salivate. This may occur from the time you are born and can occur without you ever having tasted a lemon before. The salivation and sour taste would be unconditioned responses.
Reinforcement
In operant Conditioning Any event that STRENGTHENS the behavior it follows
Variable Ratio Schedule
In operant conditioning A reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses
Variable-Interval Schedule
In operant conditioning A reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals
Fixed-Interval Schedule
In operant conditioning A reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed
Fixed-Ratio Schedule
In operant conditioning S reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a SPECIFIED number of responses
Operant Chamber
In operant conditioning research, a chamber, also known as a "skinner box" containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking
Positive Reinforcement Add a desirable stimulus
Increasing behaviors by presenting a positive reinforcers -A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented AFTER a response, strengthens the response ex. Pet a dog that comes when you call it ex. Pay a person for painting your house
Negative Reinforcement **NOT PUNISHMENT
Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli -A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed AFTER a response strengthens the response ex. Means you will probably end up doing it again ex. Take pain killers to relieve the pain, fasten seatbelt to end beeping noise
Retentional Processes
Information retained in 2 ways - Imaginal internal representation: Visual image Ex: Forming a mental picture - Verbal system: Verbal description of behavior Ex: Silently rehearsing steps in behavior
Caroline loves to read and enjoys looking up the meanings of words she does not know. In school, her teacher promises a gold star to students each time they learn a new word. The teacher's behavior is most likely to undermine
Intrinsic Reward
A positive reinforcer is anything that when ________ a response, strengthens the response.
Introduced after
The researcher most closely associated with the study of classical conditioning is
Ivan Pavlov
If Dr. Raybel wants to observe how people learn to play a new game, he may want to consult the founder of behaviorism,
John Watson
____ is a relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs through experience.
Learning
Observational learning
Learning by observing others
Associative Learning
Learning that certain events occur together The events may be 2 stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or A response and its consequence (in operant conditioning)
Latent Learning
Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an INCENTIVE to demonstrate it
Which of the following are thought to become active both when people watch an action being performed and when they perform that action themselves?
Mirror Neurons
mirror neurons
Mirror neurons are a type of brain cell that fires when you do an action, and also when you simply watch someone else doing the same action.
When Mitch watches his brother Jacob stand on tiptoes to open the cabinet door, which of the following is most likely happening in Mitch's brain?
Mitch's mirror neurons are being activated
modeling
Modeling is a form of learning where individuals ascertain how to act or perform by observing another individual. Think of it this way, you may know how to tell a joke better because you have watched Jay Leno's standup routine on TV.
Discrimination hypothesis
More difficult to discriminate between extinctions an intermittent schedule than between extinction and continuous schedule
William is an observant teenager who encounters many different types of people as he goes about his day. Which of the following people is William LEAST likely to model?
Mr. Schafer, the bus driver who is very talkative to the students he drives
Inhibitory Conditioning
NS is associated with absence of US
Excitatory Conditioning
NS is associated with presentation of US
A CS for sexual arousal is ecologically relevant if it is similar to stimuli associated with sexual activity in an organism's
Natural Observation
Primary reinforcers
Naturally or innately reinforcing: food, water, sexual stimulation, relief from heat/cold pain
What type of punishment is a time-out?
Negative
operant conditioning
Operant Conditioning is a type of learning in which a behavior is strengthened (meaning, it will occur more frequently) when it's followed by reinforcement, and weakened (will happen less frequently) when followed by punishment.
Learning associations between one's own personal actions and resulting events is most relevant to the process of
Operant Learning
operant behavior
Operant behavior (which goes along with operant conditioning) refers to behavior that "operates" on the environment or is controllable by the individual.
partial (intermittent) reinforcement
Partial reinforcement is reinforcing an organism only sometimes and not everytime the desired behavior occurs. Think of trying to teach your dog to sit. Will he learn to sit faster if you reward the dog every single time he sits when you tell him to or if you reward him only sometimes? Of course he will learn to sit slower using this partial reinforcement approach.
What behavior do rats engage in while in a Skinner box?
Perform a behavior to receive food
_____ punishment occurs when a behavior decreases when it is followed by a stimulus.
Positive
problem-focused coping
Problem-focused coping focuses on the changing or modifying the fundamental cause of the stress. This can be an effective method of coping when it is practical, and the stressor is changeable or modifiable. The overarching goal for this type of coping is to reduce or remove the cause of the stressor.
prosocial behavior
Prosocial Behavior refers to the phenomenon of people helping each other with no thought of reward or compensation. You may have thought this didn't exist, but it's been known to happen
Which of the following may be a step in the process of shaping a rat to press a lever?
Providing a reinforcer to the rat for being near the lever
An event that decreases the behavior that precedes it is a
Punishment
Two process theory of punishment
Punishment involves 1. pavlovian conditioning - association of a stimulus w/the negative effects of a punishment 2. Operant conditioning - escaping the negative stimulus is reinforcing
Motor reproductive processes
Putting to use the information your mind has taken in
Which of the following is NOT a schedule of partial reinforcement?
Ratio-interval
Forward chaining
Reinforce first link
Backward chaining
Reinforce the last link
Chain Schedule
Reinforcement delivered only upon completion of last of a series of schedules
Cooperative Schedules
Reinforcement depends on behavior of two or more organisms
reinforcement
Reinforcement is an Operant Conditioning term that refers to a process by which the likelihood of a behavior occurring is increased either by giving a pleasant stimulus (positive reinforcement) or removing an unpleasant stimulus (negative reinforcement).
Shaping behaviors
Reinforcement of successive approximations of a desired behavior
Partial (intermittent) reinforcement
Reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement
Continuous reinforcement
Reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs
Retardation of Acquisition
Test for inhibitory properties of a CS by training with it as an excitatory CS.
respondent behavior
Respondent behavior is a behavioral process (or behavior) that happens in response to some stimuli, and is essential to an organism's survival. This behavior is characterized by involuntary action. For example, the pupil starts to flicker when exposed to direct sunlight. If the pupil does not flicker, the eye will be more exposed to sun rays, which may lead to blindness.
Thorndike Law of Effect
Response leads to positive event, it is repeated Response leads to negative event, not repeated
Which of the following is a variable-ratio schedule?
Sam is reinforced every two to five times he puts his toys away.
Sampson is a dolphin trainer who trains his dolphins to perform tasks by blowing a high-pitched whistle, the sound of which dolphins enjoy, immediately after the dolphins do the task. Sampson is using _______ reinforces to train the dolphins.
Secondary
self-control
Self Regulation refers to our ability to direct our behavior and control our impulses so that we meet certain standards, achieve certain goals, or reach certain ideals. Self regulation involves being able to set goals, monitoring one's behavior to ensure that it is in line with those goals, and having the willpower to persist until goals are reached. (sticking to a diet)
Golf instruction that reinforces short putts before attempting to reinforce long putts best illustrates the process of
Shaping
The process of reinforcing successively closer approximations to a desired behavior is called
Shaping
What learning process is exhibited by the following: In teaching a child to walk, the child is rewarded first for crawling, then for standing up, and then for taking his or her first step?
Shaping
Doris works in a factory where she is paid $10 for every toy she assembles. Given that she is on a fixed-ratio schedule of reinforcement, which pattern of behavior can we generally expect from her?
She would likely be more productive than someone paid by the hour.
spontaneous recovery
Spontaneous recovery is a term associated with learning and conditioning. Specifically, spontaneous recovery is the reappearance of a response (a Conditioned Response; CR) that had been extinguished. The recovery can occur after a period of non-exposure to the Conditioned Stimulus (CS). It is called spontaneous because the response seems to reappear out of nowhere. Let's look at an example. Let's say I condition (teach/train) a rat to press a lever whenever I ring a bell. Then I teach the rat to press the lever when I flash a light and not when I ring the bell. Once I've accomplished this, we can say that the first conditioned response (pressing the lever when I ring the bell) has been extinguished. But then one day, the rat starts to press the lever when I ring the bell and not when I flash the light. In this situation, there was spontaneous recovery of the response that was previously extinguished.
Associated Phenomena w/Extinction
Spontaneous recovery, rapid reacquisition, renewal, reinstatement
COnditioned Inhibition
Stimuli can become conditioned to signal the absence of a US
Even though his owner has a ring tone on his cell phone that sounds like a door bell, Buster, the family dog, only barks when the door bell rings and not when the phone rings. This is an example of which of the following?
Stimulus discrimination
Joan was bitten by a chihuahua when she was 5 years old. As a result, she is now afraid of all dogs, no matter the breed. What is this an example of?
Stimulus generalization
Methods of Detecting Inhibition Conditioning
Summation test Retardation of Acquisition Test
S-R Learning
The CS becomes directly associated with the UR - Tone with Salivation
Long delay conditioning
The CS comes on but there is a long interval before the US is delivered. The CS essentially signals a period when the US is absent
Backward Pairings
The US comes and is followed by the CS. The CS essentially signals a period when the US is absent. Analogous to Negative CS-US contingency
Negative Contingency
The US is less likely when the CS occurs than when it does not. This procedure produces inhibitory conditioning to the CS, as in backward conditioning.
Cognitive Learning
The acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language
Acquisition - Classical Conditioning Neural stimulus - conditioned (learned) response
The initial stage in classical conditioning, when one links a neural stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus (natural) so that the neural stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response (learned) -In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response
observational learning
The process of acquiring information by observing others. Learning to tie your shoe by observing another individual perform the task would be an example of observational learning.
Learning
The process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors
Acquisition
The process of developing and strengthening a conditioned response through repeated pairings of CS with US - Magnitude of CR increases over repeated pairings, with more learning occurring in earlier trials - The asymptote is the maximum amount of conditioning that can take place in a particular situation
Modeling
The process of observing and imitating a specfic behavior
Shaping Behaviors
The reinforcement of successive approximations of a desired behavior
Conditioned Response
The response elicited by the conditioned stimulus due to the training. Usually it closely resembles the UCR.
Behaviorism
The school of thought that stresses the need for psychology to be an objective science. In other words, that psychology should be a science based on observable (and only observable) events, not the unconscious or conscious mind. This perspective was first suggested and propagated by John Watson in 1913, who wanted psychology to study only observable behaviors and get away from the study of the conscious mind completely. Watson's primary rationale was that only observable events are verifiable and thus, are the only events that can be proven false. This is an extremely important concept for science; without it, how can you ever find out what is true, false, real, or fake.
Generalization
The tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses Ex. Fear of black shoes for the prisoner who was tortured, first thing he saw before was the black shoes ex. Like people you don't know if they look someone you do know and like
Eleanor wants to use classical conditioning to teach her students to run to the closet when the "intruder alert" sounds at their school. To be successful, Eleanor must begin the learning process with a(n)
Unconditioned Stimulus
latent learning
The type of learning that occurs, but you don't really see it (it's not exhibited) until there is some reinforcement or incentive to demonstrate it. This may seem a bit silly, but it is important to understand that there is a difference between learning and performance. For example, if you are in a car going to school with a friend every day, but your friend is driving all the time, you may learn the way to get to school, but have no reason to demonstrate this knowledge. However, when you friend gets sick one day and you have to drive yourself for the first time, if you can get to school following the same route you would go if your friend was driving, then you have demonstrated latent learning.\
Behaviorism
The view that psychology: 1. Should be an objective science that 2. Studies behavior without mental processes Most research psychologists today agree with 1 but not 2
Inferring another's mental states is an ability known as
Theory of mind
If Watson and Rayner attempted to recreate their 1920 study today, they would violate the ethical guidelines of the American Psychological Association. What is the primary concern about their study?
They did not reverse Albert's fear of furry objects, so presumably this phobia remained with him after the experiment.
associative learning
This is a "learning" or "conditioning" term that refers to learning that two different events occur or happen together. This is really a fundamental component of conditioning since a response to a stimulus won't really be learned if the organism doesn't get the point that the stimulus and response are supposed to occur together. This doesn't have to be a conscious learning (remember, there is a big difference between classical and operant conditioning) but the association must be made for the learning to occur. For example, will a rat learn to press a lever if it never makes the association between pressing the lever and getting the reward? Or why would a dog salivate to a bell if it never makes the connection between the bell and getting food?
shaping
This is a behavioral term that refers to gradually molding or training an organism to perform a specific response (behavior) by reinforcing any responses that are similar to the desired response.
primary reinforcer
This is a term used in conditioning, and it refers to anything that provides reinforcement without the need for learning to an organism. This means that the reinforcer is naturally reinforcing to the organism. For example, water is naturally reinforcing because organisms don't need to learn to be reinforced by it, they naturally get reinforced especially in times of being thirsty.
continuous reinforcement
This is an operant conditioning principle in which an organism is reinforced every single time that organism provides the appropriate operant response. For example, you, as a researcher, might present a food pellet every time the rat presses the lever. One of the biggest dangers when using this type of reinforcement is saturation (the organism basically gets full - you keep feeding it and it no longer wants the reinforcement because it is stuffed), so the idea that giving reinforcement all the time is the best way to teach/learn is not necessarily true.
law of effect
This law is based on the observation of the effects that rewards have on animal behavior in test conditions.
Robert Rescorla
cognitive processes in classical conditioning
fixed-interval schedule
This type of schedule is called fixed because the amount time the organism must wait remains constant. In addition, the investigator can determine what NOT waiting will do. If the rat presses the lever before the interval has elapsed, it can either make the interval start all over again (so if the rat waits 15 seconds and then presses the lever, it starts the 30 seconds all over again), or do nothing so that the rat can press the lever constantly for 30 seconds, and then the next one will produce reinforcement.
Law of Effect
Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely
True or false: A fixed-ratio schedule reinforces a behavior after a set number of behaviors.
True
True or false: Acquisition in classical conditioning is the initial learning of the stimulus-response link.
True
True or false: Aversive conditioning is a form of conditioning that repeatedly pairs a stimulus with a very unpleasant stimulus.
True
True or false: Shaping can help teach a child who is struggling to produce language by first reinforcing the production of sounds, then by only reinforcing simple words.
True
True or false: To extinguish the conditioned response of salivating to a bell, Pavlov rang the bell but did not give the dog any meat powder.
True
Classical conditioning involves a learned association between
Two Stimuli
Concurrent Schedules
Two or more schedules are available at once
Appetitive Conditoning
US is an environmental event the organism will seek.
Aversive Conditioning
US is an environmental event the organism will typically escape from or avoid. -Occurs more rapidly -CER - conditioned emotional response
A sudden puff of air in his left eye caused Bill to blink. In terms of classical conditioning, the air puff was a/an ______________ and the blink was a/an ______________.
US;UR
A(n) _____ stimulus produces a response without prior learning.
Unconditioned
What is the UR?
Unconditioned Response ex. Blink to air puff
What is the US?
Unconditioned Stimulus Ex. The food
Unconditioned stimulus produces an:
Unconditioned response
A small-town radio disc jockey frequently announces how much money is currently in a jackpot. Every day several randomly selected residents are called and asked to identify the amount, and thereby win it. Those who keep track of the jackpot amount are most likely to be reinforced on a ________ schedule.
Variable Interval
When Julie saw her brother being praised for cleaning his bedroom, she increasingly engaged in cleaning her own bedroom. This best illustrates the impact of
Vicarious reinforcement
CS Pre-exposure effect
When a CS is repeatedly presented before classical conditioning pairings, it will slow later learning to a UCS
US Pre exposure effect
When a UCS is repeatedly presented before classical conditioning pairings, it will slow later learning to a CS
Second Order Conditioning
When one stimulus is conditioned as a CS, another stimulus it was previously associated with can become a CS
insight
When the solution to a problem comes to you in an all-of-a-sudden manner, it can be considered insight. More specifically, insight can be defined as the sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem. This is the opposite type of solution to trial-and-error solutions.
Overshadowing
When two or more stimuli are presented in compound, more salient stimuli will be more likely to be associated with the UCS
internal locus of control
Who controls your behavior? Are you the master of your own domain? Is your life already predetermined and everything that happens is fated? If you believe that you control your own destiny and that your behaviors are under your control, then you have an internal locus of control. This concept has quite a bit of importance when we try to make attributions for our behaviors. For example, if you did well on a test, how would you explain it? If you said that it was because you got lucky or the teacher made an easy test, then you would be exhibiting and "external" locus of control. However, if you attribute your good performance to your hard work, good study habits, and interest in the topic, you would being exhibiting and internal locus of control.
extrinsic motivation
Why do you work or come to class or study for a test? Do you do it because you want to money, a degree, and good grades? If so, you are extrinsically motivated - motivated to perform specific behaviors to achieve promised outside rewards or to avoid punishment from others.
fixed-ratio schedule
With this type of operant conditioning reinforcement schedule, an organism must make a certain number of operant responses (whatever it may be in that experiment) in order to receive reinforcement. For example, if you are conducting a study in which you place a rat on a fixed-ratio 30 schedule (FR-30), and the operant response is pressing the lever, then the rat must press the lever 30 times before it will receive reinforcement. This type of schedule is called fixed because the number of operant responses required remains constant.
Professor McCready wants to study animal learning by putting birds in a cage where they have to figure out how to peck a button to receive food. Professor McCready is using _______ to modify animal behavior.
a Skinner box
Courtney was bitten by her brother's pet white rat. Since then, Courtney has developed a fear of all white animals that is out of proportion with the threat. She even feels fearful when she sees a photo of a while animal. Courtney's reaction to white animals is best explained by
a classically conditioned phobia
Bri is a new student at a community college. This term, she has classes in the A Wing, C Wing, and D Wing, but not in the B Wing. However, she has to walk through the B Wing all the time to get to her classes. Next term, Bri has a class in the B Wing, and she knows exactly where the room is, which is best explained by
a cognitive map
George is traveling to visit his friend Ryan in a neighboring town but has to take a detour due to road construction. At first George feels lost, but then he notices a sign for Madison Street and immediately knows where he is and how to navigate to Ryan's house. In this situation, George has reached Ryan's by using
a cognitive map
Kathy goes to a boarding school. When she is in the shower and someone flushes the toilet, the water turns hot and she gets burned. So, Kathy becomes classically conditioned to fear the toilet flushing when she is in the shower. Over the summer, Kathy returns home, and if someone flushes the toilet while she is in the shower, she does not get burned. But in August when she returns to school, she is once again in the shower and hears the toilet flush and immediately feels a surge of fear. This example best illustrates the fact that extinction is
a form of learning that inhibits, not deletes, what is learned
Vaughn grew up the 1970s and always wears bell-bottom pants because he feels most comfortable in them. Vaughn works for a fashion magazine and constantly tries to influence his magazine's readers to bring bell-bottoms back into style. If successful, Vaughn will have influenced fashion by sharing knowledge about a culture, which is called
a meme
serotonin
a neurotransmitter
Dante was sitting on a rock to rest during a hike. Suddenly, he felt immense pain and looked down to see a snake had bitten him in the leg. Because of this, Dante has learned to fear snakes. If his fear is out of proportion with the danger posed by snakes, then Dante has developed
a phobia
A rehabilitation center reinforces patients' good behaviors with Monopoly money, which they can then trade in for food, movies, or other privileges. When they behave badly, however, the patients lose Monopoly money. To modify the patients' behavior, the center is using
a token economy
Classical Conditioning
a type of learning in which one learns to link 2 or more stimuli and anticipate events
Operant Conditioning
a. Response b. Consequence c. Behavior strengthened Example: Being polite, Getting a treat, Behavior Strengthened
When explaining to his wife how positive reinforcement and positive punishment are similar, Jackson correctly says that both
add a stimulus
You learned about classical conditioning in your introductory psychology class and are explaining it to your roommate. You tell him that a main outcome of Pavlov's research is that a neutral stimulus can become a conditioned stimulus
after pairing it with a stimulus that triggers a reflexive response
gonads
an organ that produces gametes; a testis or ovary
Ralph ate sushi for lunch, and an hour later he felt sick to his stomach. In this situation, classical conditioning might occur. In other words, Ralph might learn an association between sushi and feeling sick because the two events
are paired closely in timing
Learning that occurs when we make connections, or as association, between two events is known as ___ learning
associative
Although latent learning is unreinforced, it is stored ______ in the observer's memories.
cognitively
Tammy is visiting the eye doctor. During her exam, a buzzer rings and a puff of air is blown into her eye, which makes her blink. This happens several times. Then Tammy blinks when she hears the buzzer because she expects that a puff of air will be blown into her eye. In this example, Tammy is showing _______ learning.
associative
Respondent behavior is aNo ________ response, whereas operant behavior is aNo ________ response.
automatic; voluntary
The unconditioned stimulus _____.
automatically causes a response, each time it is presented
____ conditioning refers to a form of treatment that involves repeated pairings of a stimulus with a very unpleasant stimulus to change an association.
aversive
Pairing an alcoholic beverage with something that induces nausea to reduce drinking is a form of
aversive conditioning
After receiving her first low grade on a geography exam, Dora changed her study habits so that she would never score below an 80 again. Dora's change in behavior illustrates ____
avoidance learning
To prevent a headache, Mariah takes her medication as soon as she feels pressure near her eyes. This is an example of _____.
avoidance learning
Tina believes in John Locke's idea of tabula rasa. When Tina's baby is born, she expects the child will most likely
be ready to learn new information based on sensory experiences
Riley ate too much chocolate cake during his birthday party and was sick all night. If classical conditioning occurred and he associated the cake with being sick, then when Riley sees cake today, he will most likely
be turned off by the smell and the memory of the taste of cake
Applied behavior analysis or _____ modification is the use of operant conditioning principles to change human behavior.
behavior
___ modification is the use of operant conditioning to change human behavior by analyzing and adjusting the rewards and punishments in a particular setting.
behavior
John B. Watson
behaviorism
Which theory of learning discounts the importance of such mental activities as thinking, wishing, and hoping and focuses solely on observable actions?
behaviorism
In Pavlov's original experiment, the conditioned stimulus (CS) was the _____.
bell.
Albert Bandura
best known for his Social Learning Theory, which states learning happens by observing others and modeling their behaviors.
The speed with which people learn associations between the color red and sexuality suggests that classical conditioning is influenced by
biological predispositions.
The little Albert study would raise ethical concerns today because it _____.
caused fears in a child
A learned association between a particular taste and nausea is a special kind of _____ con
classical
A learned association between a particular taste and nausea is a special kind of _____ conditioning.
classical
Sometimes real estate agents will provide freshly baked chocolate chip cookies at open houses in hopes that potential buyers will associate the smell of the cookies with positive feelings about the house. In this case, they are applying _____ conditioning affects
classical
____ conditioning can produce immunosuppression, a decrease in the production of antibodies.
classical
Dave observed that after returning from the vet, whenever he took his dog Smooches near his car, she began to shake and whine. Which of the following types of learned response was Smooches exhibiting?
classical conditioning
Fallon is afraid of loud sounds, like thunder. He associates lightning with thunder because it regularly precedes thunder. Thus, when Fallon sees lightning, he braces himself for hearing a big boom several seconds later. Fallon has experienced learning by associating two stimuli, which is called
classical conditioning
In Watson and Rayner's study of an infant named Albert, the fear was developed through
classical conditioning
Ivan Pavlov was the researcher who originally described ____
classical conditioning
The form of associative learning in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a stimulus to which the subject has an automatic inborn response is called
classical conditioning
classical conditioning
classical conditioning is biologically adaptive because it helps humans and other animals prepare for good or bad events
Learning involves observable behaviors; however, it also involves _____ factors, which involve understanding the thoughts of the learners.
cognitive
You are having a great time at a work picnic. Then, a spider walks onto your picnic blanket. It looks just like the one that bit you last year and made you very sick. You immediately start to feel panic, which in this situation is most likely a(n)
conditioned response
In Pavlov's work on classical conditioning with dogs, the bell became a(n) _____ because it was originally neutral but it became paired with the UC (food).
conditioned stimulus
Professor Kraig is known for his difficult pop quizzes, which naturally make the students feel anxious. Immediately before he springs a quiz on his students and they start to feel anxious, he always shuts down his laptop to remove his lecture slides from the overhead screen. Students soon notice that they start to feel anxious when Professor Kraig reaches for his laptop and shuts it down. In terms of classical conditioning, Professor Kraig closing his laptop is a(n)
conditioned stimulus
A conditioned stimulus is
conditioned stimulus is
A child has learned to avoid his father in the morning because his father is always grouchy at that time. Generally, being able to learn what stimuli predict pleasure or pain is consistent with Pavlov's belief that
conditioning is how we adapt to our environments
In classical conditioning, _____ means that the CS and US are presented closely together, whereas _____ means that the CS is a good predictor that the US will occur soon.
contiguity, contigency
In classical conditioning, _____ means that the CS and US are presented closely together, whereas _____ means that the CS is a good predictor that the US will occur soon.
contiguity; contingency
Sam wants her cat, Mr. Whiskers, to run into the kitchen for tuna when he hears the electric can opener. However, sometimes Sam opens canned vegetables for herself instead of tuna. ______ would explain the most likely reason Mr. Whiskers would not associate the sound of the can opener with the tuna.
contingency
Lenny needs to quickly train his cows to use one specific field when they graze. The reinforcement that will allow the cows to learn most quickly is _______ reinforcement
continuous
In _____ reinforcement, the reinforcer is presented every time; whereas in _____ reinforcement, the reinforcer is presented some of the time.
continuous; partial
Dr. Shaw has a patient who has a phobia of spiders and also loves doing puzzles. Dr. Shaw exposes the patient to spiders briefly while having the patient complete a fun puzzle. Dr. Shaw is using _______ to treat his patient's phobia.
counterconditioning
In _____, pleasant feelings from eating chocolate chip cookies are incompatible with the fear produced by being in an elevator, allowing the fear to be weakened or extinguished.
counterconditioning
Thomas is a 10 year old in treatment for his phobia of dogs. His therapist gives Thomas his favorite treats whenever he can be near a dog without crying. Now Thomas can be in the same room with a dog without being afraid. The therapist successfully treated Thomas's phobia through the use of
counterconditioning
Luana edits manuscripts for a publisher and is paid $25 for every three pages she edits. Luana is reinforced on a ________ schedule.
fixed-ratio
Putting off the pleasure of an immediate reward in order to gain a valuable reward later is called
delay of gratification.
Choosing to not go out on Saturday nights with friends and instead spend the time studying in order to get into a top professional school is an example of
delayed reinforcement.
When the red light is on, the pigeon does not peck on the disk because it has learned that food will only be presented when the green light is on. This is due to _____.
discrimination
____ in operant conditioning means responding appropriately to stimuli that signal that a behavior will or will not be reinforced.
discrimination
______ in operant conditioning means responding appropriately to stimuli that signal that a behavior will or will not be reinforced.
discrimination
The pattern of partial reinforcement in which reinforcement requires a set number of responses is called a(n) _____ schedule.
fixed-ratio (FR)
Research on the placebo effect shows that the secretion of hormones from the ___ system can be influenced by classical conditioning.
endocrine
Research on the placebo effect shows that the secretion of hormones from the ____ system can be influenced by classical conditioning
endocrine
Generalization occurs when learning that occurred in one setting is _____ in other similar settings.
exhibited
____ learning occurs, for example, when a patient anticipates feeling the pain of injections based on past experiences.
expectancy
In classical conditioning, the weakening of the conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus is absent is known as
extinction
Katie attached a bell to the lid of her dog's food container so it rang every time the lid was lifted, which alerted her dog to come to eat. One day, Katie removed the bell from the container and hung it on a closet door. After a month, during which her dog ran to the closet door and wasn't fed, he stopped responding to the sound of the bell. Not responding to the bell anymore is an example of
extinction
Lori used to rush to her infant son and pick him up every time he cried. Lately, she has stopped rushing to him, and he has decreased his crying. According to the principles of operant conditioning, this is due to _____.
extinction
When a previously conditioned response decreases and eventually disappears, ___ has occured
extinction
___ interval schedule of reinforcement is a schedule that provides reinforcement for a response only if a fixed time period has elapsed.
fixed
Albert has a beautiful garden in his backyard and notices that hummingbirds come to feed on the flowers at the same time each day in order to get the sweetest nectar. The hummingbirds are being rewarded for their feeding behavior on a _______ schedule of reinforcement.
fixed interval
Reinforcement that comes after a predetermined amount of time is called
fixed interval
Lorraine just got a new puppy, and she wants to train it to go through the flap in the back door. Every third time the puppy goes through the flap, Lorraine gives him a doggie treat. Lorraine is using a __________ schedule of reinforcement to train the puppy
fixed ratio
The pattern of partial reinforcement in which responses are regularly reinforced after a set period of time has passed is called a _____ schedule.
fixed-interval (FI)
structuralism
heory of consciousness developed by Wilhelm Wundt and his mentee Edward B. Titchener, who brought Wundt's idea to the United States. This theory was challenged in the 19th century.
Ratio schedules of reinforcement tend to create a _____ response rate compared to interval schedules.
higher
Primary reinforcers are _____, whereas secondary reinforcers are learned.
innate (instinct)
Which of the following behaviors is typically reinforced on a variable-ratio schedule?
inserting coins into a slot machine
After struggling with a complex math problem, Stacey takes a short break. While making herself a cup of tea, she suddenly comes up with a solution. "Aha!" moments such as this are a form of ______________ learning that occurs in the apparent absence of reinforcement
insight
After struggling with a complex math problem, Stacey takes a short break. While making herself a cup of tea, she suddenly comes up with a solution. "Aha!" moments such as this are a form of ______________ learning that occurs in the apparent absence of reinforcement.
insight
A chimpanzee cannot reach honey inside a hive. After sitting and appearing to think about it for a minute, the animal picks up a stick and dips it into the hive to extract the honey. This is an example of _____.
insight learning
The desire to engage in an activity for the sake of its own enjoyment involves
intrinsic motivation
Unlike positive punishment, negative punishment _____.
involves removing a stimulus
variable-interval schedule
is a schedule of reinforcement where a response is rewarded after an unpredictable amount of time has passed. Checking Your Email: Typically, you check your email at random times throughout the day instead of checking every time a single message is delivered.
punishment
is any stimulus that represses a behavior.
Ivan Pavlov
is best known for his work describing the psychological phenomenon of Classical Conditioning. From his work studying digestion in dogs, he observed that the dogs would salivate at the mere sight of food.
Sunil wants to classically condition his dog to fear skunks so he does not get sprayed again. This task should be much easier than teaching him to fear a house plant because a dog
is biologically prepared to fear animals that might cause it harm
Neural Plasticity
is the changing of the structure, function and organization of neurons, or nerve cells, in response to new experiences. It specifically refers to strengthening or weakening nerve connections or adding new nerve cells based on outside stimuli. These processes are responsible for learning, the formation of appropriate responses to external events and, in some cases, recovery from brain injury.
AcH
is the most common type of neurotransmitter, and the most well understood. It's found in parts of the peripheral nervous system, spinal cord, and areas of the brain. In the peripheral nervous system, ACh activates muscles that help the body move. When Ach is released to the muscle cells, the muscle contracts. In the brain, ACh is involved in breathing, attention, arousal, motivation, etc. Obviously there are many problems that can occur if ACh is blocked (muscles can't contract). One example is the black widow spider uses venom that causes a flood of ACh into muscle cells and results in violent, uncontrollable muscle contractions, paralysis, and death for it's prey.
Neurogenesis
is the process by which neurons are generated from neural stem cells and progenitor cells.[2] Neurogenesis is most active during pre-natal development, and is responsible for populating the growing brain with neurons.
Which of the following is an unconditioned response?
jerking your hand off a very hot stove
Learned information stored cognitively in an individuals memory but not expressed behaviorally is called _____ learning.
latent
Marie eats at the Downtowner Diner and frequently reads the entire menu, but she always orders the chicken quesadilla. When she is hired to work at the Downtowner, she finds that she already knows all of the menu items and how much each one costs, which is likely the result of __________ learning
latent
The term used to describe learning that is not reinforced and is not reflective immediately in behavior is
latent learning
You carpool with a friend to school every morning and he always drives. One day, your friend is sick and you have to drive yourself. Even though you have never actually driven to school, you know the exact route to take in order to get there from your house, which is most likely the result of
latent learning
Edward Thorndike
law of effect and operant conditioning
Unlike primary reinforcers, secondary reinforcers are _____.
learned
Simone's desk at her new job is right next to an air conditioner. After a week of being chilly, she brings a sweater to work. Simone's change in behavior, which is based on her prior experience, is an example of
learning
John B. Watson emphasized that
learning should be explained without any reference to mental processes
Mason can recite the first 100 digits of the number pi. He spent many hours studying to learn the exact order of the numbers, which has resulted in strengthened synaptic connections in his brain. Mason's ability to learn the numbers is most likely a result of
long-term potentiation
Olivia takes a drug that is supposed to help her be able to memorize material for her class more easily. The drug works by increasing neural communication in the hippocampus, and when taken repeatedly, it may also support
long-term potentiation
Seven-year-old Michelle used to use her mother's perfume all the time, but Michelle's mother would yell at her when she found out. Based on these experiences, Michelle has learned to not use the perfume. Michelle's learning is most likely the result of __________ in the brain.
long-term potentiation
Tracy learned to keep her tent from sagging by strengthening connections between its support poles. For Tracy to learn, changes in her brain that involved the strengthening of connections between neurons likely occurred. This process is known as
long-term potentiation
It is generally considered to be a bad idea to text while driving. A bit of knowledge such as this that can be passed from one person to another is known as a
meme
Dr. López believes that he may have discovered how observational learning happens in the brain. His research showed that when one person watches someone else reach into a box to retrieve an object, specific neurons become active. Dr. López has probably found
mirror neurons
During the winter Olympics, a skier had a terrible fall. The observers all cringed. It was as if they had fallen themselves and were able to feel the pain of the fallen athlete. According to the biological basis of observational learning, the action of ______________ might underpin the observers' behavior.
mirror neurons
Observational learning is learning that occurs when we _____.
model others
Thayer is holding her infant cousin and she smiles at the baby. The baby observes Thayer smiling and imitates the smile by smiling back. The baby most likely learned to smile in this situation based on
modeling
The imitation of behaviors performed by others is called _____.
modeling
Which of the following is likely to be a conditioned (secondary) reinforcement?
money
In operant conditioning, when the interval between a behavior and its consequences is relatively immediate, learning is
more efficient.
___ punishment is when a behavior decreases when a stimulus is removed.
negative
A child learns to stop fighting with his brother after the fight leads to suspension of the child's TV-viewing privileges. In this case, the suspension of TV-viewing privileges is a
negative punishment
A month ago, Jenny was pulled over for speeding, and because it was her third ticket this year, her license was suspended. Jenny just received her license back and vows never to speed again. In this situation, having her license suspended has served as
negative punishment
Tripp is serving a 10-year prison sentence when he is informed by his parole board that he is getting out of jail early for good behavior. If the early release has the effect of increasing Tripp's good behavior in the future, then early release is an example of
negative reinforcement
When removal of a stimulus in response to a behavior increases the frequency of that behavior, _____ is said to have occurred.
negative reinforcement
Withdrawing a desirable stimulus following an operant response is
negative reinforcement
An event that one of Pavlov's dogs could see or hear but did not associate with food was called a
neutral stimulus
Samuel always receives a painful shock when he turns on the lamp in his study. After a while, Samuel refuses to touch the switch on the lamp. The lamp switch was a(n) ________ that elicited a(n) _______ after a period of time.
neutral stimulus; conditioned response
Gavin is a 3-year-old who used to color on the walls with his crayons. Gavin's father told him, "We color on paper, not on walls," and gave him a time-out. Gavin does not color on the walls anymore, which is most likely a result of all of the following EXCEPT
non-associative learning
Winning on a slot machine would be considered _____ reinforcement because winning only occurs some of the time.
partial
Your psychology instructor is preparing her lecture on learning and wants to include an analogy about memes. She starts by writing "Memes are to genes as . . ." but cannot figure out how to finish the sentence. Which of the following would best complete her thought?
nurture is to nature
Poor baby Ezra was born with a very specific type of brain damages: he has no mirror neurons in his brain. The lack of mirror neurons will most likely affect Ezra's ability to learn through
observation
Learning by watching the behavior of others is called ___ __ learning in social learning theory
observational
Gustavo watched a cooking show on television demonstrating how to make chicken Parmesan. Even though he has never made chicken Parmesan, he explains to a friend how to make it. Gustavo's knowledge of cooking chicken Parmesan is best explained by
observational learning
Jonathan is traveling to Italy, and his motto for his trip is "When in Rome, do as the Romans do!" This phrase suggests that Jonathan is most likely to learn how to behave in Rome based on
observational learning
Miranda is learning how to play tennis. She has a unique way of hitting a backhand shot, but after a lesson with a professional instructor, Miranda changes her backhand technique because the technique she saw her instructor use is more efficient. Miranda has learned to improve her tennis due to
observational learning
When one monkey sees a second monkey touch four pictures in a certain order to gain a banana, the first monkey learns to imitate that sequence. This best illustrates
observational learning
Jared, a first grader, works harder in school so that he can get a prize from the teacher's treasure chest at the end of the week. In this case, the teacher is using ____ conditioning to help Jared improve
operant
___ conditioning occurs when organisms lean from the consequences of their behavior
operant
____ conditioning is a form of associative learning in which the consequences of a behavior change the probability of it occurring.
operant
conditioning is a form of associative learning in which the consequences of a behavior change the probability of it occurring.
operant
Because Saleem was spanked on several occasions for biting electric cords, he no longer does so. Saleem's behavior change best illustrates the value of
operant conditioning
Dr. Brimfield believes that humans learn best when they are given the opportunity to act on their environments and make associations between their behavior and the effects it produces. Dr. Brimfield is most likely to use _______ to teach his daughter to play the violin.
operant conditioning
You want to teach your dog to stop scratching at the door when he wants to go out. You do so by swatting his nose with a newspaper each time he scratches the door. By creating consequences for your dog's behavior, you have used _______ to train him.
operant conditioning
B.F. Skinner
operant conditioning (positive and negative reinforcers)
A Skinner box is a chamber with a highly controlled environment that was used to study _____.
operant conditioning processes with laboratory animals
Seals in an aquarium will repeat behaviors, such as slapping and barking, that prompt people to toss them a herring. This best illustrates
operant conditioning.
Neutral Contingency
p(US|CS) = p(US|no CS) Here, the US is no more likely when the CS occurs than when it does not. This procedure fails to produce conditioning to the CS, even though, during the course of trials, the CS and US may be paired hundreds of times.
Positive Contingency
p(US|CS) is greater than p(US|no CS) In this case, the US is more likely when the CS occurs than when it does not. This procedure produces excitatory conditioning to the CS, as in ordinary delay conditioning.
If you are trying to use classical conditioning to train your pet mouse to be afraid of a flashing light, you will most likely be successful if you
pair the light with an electric shock
In the wild, when Arctic wolves hunt, their efforts are only sometimes reinforced because finding food is difficult. The fact that the wolves are only sometimes reinforced for hunting is an example of _______ reinforcement
partial
Winning on a slot machine would be considered ____ reinforcement because winning only occurs some of the time.
partial
Last year, Martina was in love with Robert, but they eventually broke up. Today in the mall, Martina smells someone wearing the same cologne that Robert always wore. She is immediately filled with positive feelings, which is most likely due to
spontaneous recovery
The sudden reappearance of an extinguished response is called ____
spontaneous recovery
In Pavlov's work, he found that dogs would salivate to various _____, such as seeing someone who usually brings food enter the room or a cabinet door opening.
stimuli
A bird learns to peck a red disk and not to peck a green disk. This would be an example of _____.
stimulus discrimination
Pavlov's dogs would salivate at the ring of a bell but not at the chime of a clock. What concept is this an example of?
stimulus discrimination
Jack uses classical conditioning to teach his dog Luna to sit whenever Jack says, "Sit." But now, anything that Jack says that is similar to "Sit" causes Luna to show the conditioned response of sitting. This is most likely the result of
stimulus generalization
n classical conditioning, the sight of a food dish would be considered a _____, and the dog's salivation would be considered _____.
stimulus, response
In classical conditioning, the sight of a food dish would be considered a _____, and the dog's salivation would be considered _____.
stimulus; response
After repeated studying, Cressida is able to remember all of the state capitals. Now when she hears the word Michigan, she quickly thinks of the word Lansing. Cressida's learning is most likely due to long-term potentiation, which
strengthens synaptic connections
Katie is afraid of clowns. She has been trying to overcome this fear by getting into a relaxed state and then looking at pictures of clowns. After months of this exposure, she is no longer afraid when she sees a clown. Katie has been using _______ to overcome her fear.
systematic desensitization
Timothy believes that his infant son Jamie was born as a blank slate, knowing nothing about the world. This information suggests that Timothy most likely believes in
tabula rasa
___ aversion involves learning the association between conditioned stimuli and nausea after only a single pairing
taste
In explaining prosocial behavior, B. F. Skinner would most likely have emphasized
the beneficial consequences of prosocial behavior.
When the Zantays eat dinner, the family dog begs for food. Sometimes, but not often, the children give in to the dog's begging and pass their pet a tasty morsel. You would be most justified in predicting that
the dog is going to be quite persistent in its begging in the future
Derek is conducting research with chimpanzees and realizes that when the chimps' behaviors lead to some sort of satisfaction, they repeat those behaviors. Derek's observations are most consistent with
the law of effect
Every time second-grader Sarah raises her hand in class and gives the correct answer, her teacher gives her a sticker. Receiving a sticker increases the likelihood of Sarah's participation. This is an example of _____.
the law of effect
In classical conditioning, extinction occurs when _____.
the unconditioned stimulus is absent
Insight learning utilizes _____, whereas conditioning utilizes behaviors
thinking
True or false: A fixed-ratio schedule reinforces a behavior after a set number of behaviors.
true
True or false: In learning theory, expectancies are acquired from a person's experiences with their environment and influence a variety of human experiences.
true
An ____ response is an unlearned response that is automatically elicited by a stimulus that produces a response without prior learning.
unconditioned
When a dog salivates upon tasting food, the salivation is called the _____.
unconditioned response
Advertisers use classical conditioning in their commercials by showing ads. For example, they pair something that reflexively elicits pleasant feelings, such as the face of the actor Brad Pitt, with a product, such as the perfume Chanel No 5. If Brad Pitt elicits a response from you that is innate and does not require any prior learning, he is being used as a(n)
unconditioned stimulus
In Watson and Rayner's experiment with little Albert, they paired a loud noise with a white rat. Although Albert had not initially been afraid of the rat, after only seven pairings of the loud noise with the white rat, Albert began to fear the rat, even when the loud noise was no longer sounded. In this experiment, the loud noise is an example of a(n) _____.
unconditioned stimulus
When a dog salivates after having food placed in its mouth, the food is called the
unconditioned stimulus
In Pavlov's research, dogs learned that the sound of a metronome predicted the arrival of food, so the dogs salivated at the sound of the metronome. In this research, classical conditioning occurred in part because the _______ elicited a(n) _______.
unconditioned stimulus (food); innate, unconditioned response (salivation)
negative reinforcement
using negative rewards
Reinstatement Effect
• After extinction, if a US is presented again-will often reinstate the conditioned relationship
Auto-shaping
• For unknown reasons, animals in some experiments approach and interact with the CS, even though its not necessary for UCS delivery. - CS=Sign, Tracking=Approach and interact • Pidgeon will approach and peck indicator light which signals either food or water delivery. Pecking key does nothing, food pellet delivered regardless of activity.
Compensatory Response Model
• In this example of classical conditioning, the CS actually evokes an opposite of the UCR within the organism. - Idea is that it helps prepare the animal for the onset of the UCS - Most often seen in responses to drugs • Based on the opponent-process theory of emotion / motivation
Conditioned Compensatory Response example
• Siegel (1972) gave rats repeated injections (CS) of Insulin (UCS) (Insulin's effects are to reduce the level of glucose in the blood) - UCR-rapid drop in blood glucose levels - Tested by giving the rats an injection of saline (instead of insulin). Injection is the CS. - Measured the CR (change in blood glucose levels) • The CR did indeed occur, but it was an INCREASE in blood glucose levels...even though no drugs were given! - (CR was the opposite of Insulin's direct effect) - Body preparing or bracing for the onset of the insulin • Ties to a clinical phenomena----tolerance.
Counter-Conditioning
• Technique for eliminating a conditioned reaction. Adds something to the tradition extinction by pairing with something that is not aversive, but rather appetitive
S-S Learning
• The CS becomes directly associated with the US - Tone with Food
Stimulus Generalization
• The tendency for a CR to occur in the presence of a stimulus that is similar to the CS • The greater the similarity, the stronger the response
Stimulus Discrimination
• The tendency for a response to be elicited more by one stimulus than another • This can be deliberately trained through discrimination training-reinforce only the exact CS