Learning Psychology
Noncontingent Reinforcement
Delivered w/out regard to behavior. Often involves extinction component wherin reinforcers are not given after unwanted behavior
Retentional Processes
Information retained in 2 ways - Imaginal internal representation: Visual image Ex: Forming a mental picture - Verbal system: Verbal description of behavior Ex: Silently rehearsing steps in behavior
Shaping Behaviors
The reinforcement of successive approximations of a desired behavior
Neutral Contingency
p(US|CS) = p(US|no CS) Here, the US is no more likely when the CS occurs than when it does not. This procedure fails to produce conditioning to the CS, even though, during the course of trials, the CS and US may be paired hundreds of times.
Positive Contingency
p(US|CS) is greater than p(US|no CS) In this case, the US is more likely when the CS occurs than when it does not. This procedure produces excitatory conditioning to the CS, as in ordinary delay conditioning.
Reinstatement Effect
• After extinction, if a US is presented again-will often reinstate the conditioned relationship
Conditioned Compensatory Response example
• Siegel (1972) gave rats repeated injections (CS) of Insulin (UCS) (Insulin's effects are to reduce the level of glucose in the blood) - UCR-rapid drop in blood glucose levels - Tested by giving the rats an injection of saline (instead of insulin). Injection is the CS. - Measured the CR (change in blood glucose levels) • The CR did indeed occur, but it was an INCREASE in blood glucose levels...even though no drugs were given! - (CR was the opposite of Insulin's direct effect) - Body preparing or bracing for the onset of the insulin • Ties to a clinical phenomena----tolerance.
Counter-Conditioning
• Technique for eliminating a conditioned reaction. Adds something to the tradition extinction by pairing with something that is not aversive, but rather appetitive
S-S Learning
• The CS becomes directly associated with the US - Tone with Food
Stimulus Generalization
• The tendency for a CR to occur in the presence of a stimulus that is similar to the CS • The greater the similarity, the stronger the response
Stimulus Discrimination
• The tendency for a response to be elicited more by one stimulus than another • This can be deliberately trained through discrimination training-reinforce only the exact CS
Secondary Reinforcer
-Dependent on their association with other (often primary) reinforcers: Praise/positive feedback, Money, Token economies
Task analysis
Break the chain down into behavioral components
Secondary reinforcers
Conditioned reinforcers: dependent on their association with other reinforcers: praise/positive feedback, money and token economies
Chaining
Connected sequence of behaviors
Opponent Process Theory of Emotion
Emotional events elicit two competing processes: - The primary- or A-process that is immediately elicited by the event • e.g., taking an exam elicits an unpleasant Astate - An opponent- or B-process that is the opposite of the A-process and counteracts it • e.g., the pain during the exam (A-state) creates a pleasant relief response (B-state) following the exam
Conditioned Stimulus
Formerly the neutral stimulus, having been paired with the unconditioned stimulus, elicits the same response.
Conditioned taste aversion reference article
Garcia & Koelling, 1966 Bright noisy water studies
Motivational Processes
Goal oriented activities
Drive Reduction
Humans are motivated to reduce the state of tension caused when certain biological needs are not satisfied.
Thorndike Law of Effect
Response leads to positive event, it is repeated Response leads to negative event, not repeated
Associated Phenomena w/Extinction
Spontaneous recovery, rapid reacquisition, renewal, reinstatement
COnditioned Inhibition
Stimuli can become conditioned to signal the absence of a US
Methods of Detecting Inhibition Conditioning
Summation test Retardation of Acquisition Test
Retardation of Acquisition
Test for inhibitory properties of a CS by training with it as an excitatory CS.
Summation Test
Test for inhibitory properties of a CS by presenting it in compound with a known excitatory CS. Like adding a positive number to a negative.
S-R Learning
The CS becomes directly associated with the UR - Tone with Salivation
Long delay conditioning
The CS comes on but there is a long interval before the US is delivered. The CS essentially signals a period when the US is absent
Backward Pairings
The US comes and is followed by the CS. The CS essentially signals a period when the US is absent. Analogous to Negative CS-US contingency
Acquisition
The process of developing and strengthening a conditioned response through repeated pairings of CS with US - Magnitude of CR increases over repeated pairings, with more learning occurring in earlier trials - The asymptote is the maximum amount of conditioning that can take place in a particular situation
Conditioned Response
The response elicited by the conditioned stimulus due to the training. Usually it closely resembles the UCR.
Appetitive Conditoning
US is an environmental event the organism will seek.
Aversive Conditioning
US is an environmental event the organism will typically escape from or avoid. -Occurs more rapidly -CER - conditioned emotional response
CS Pre-exposure effect
When a CS is repeatedly presented before classical conditioning pairings, it will slow later learning to a UCS
US Pre exposure effect
When a UCS is repeatedly presented before classical conditioning pairings, it will slow later learning to a CS
Second Order Conditioning
When one stimulus is conditioned as a CS, another stimulus it was previously associated with can become a CS
Sensory pre-conditioning
When one stimulus is conditioned as a CS, another stimulus it was previously associated with can become a CS
Positive punishment
When the behavior occurs an unpleasant event follows and subsequent behavior decreases
Negative Punishment
When the behavior occurs, a pleasant event is removed, subsequent behavior decreases
Overshadowing
When two or more stimuli are presented in compound, more salient stimuli will be more likely to be associated with the UCS
Auto-shaping
• For unknown reasons, animals in some experiments approach and interact with the CS, even though its not necessary for UCS delivery. - CS=Sign, Tracking=Approach and interact • Pidgeon will approach and peck indicator light which signals either food or water delivery. Pecking key does nothing, food pellet delivered regardless of activity.
Compensatory Response Model
• In this example of classical conditioning, the CS actually evokes an opposite of the UCR within the organism. - Idea is that it helps prepare the animal for the onset of the UCS - Most often seen in responses to drugs • Based on the opponent-process theory of emotion / motivation
Rapid Reacquisition
After being extinguished, a CS can be associated with a US more rapidly than before
Unconditioned Response
An action that the unconditioned stimulus automatically elicits.
Extinction
An active learning process where after a conditioned association is formed between a CS and US, repeated exposure of CS w/out the US eliminates the CR
Unconditioned Stimulus
An event that consistently and automatically elicits an unconditioned response.
Punishment
An event that decreases the frequency of behaviors that preceded it.
Reinforcement
An event that increases the frequency of behaviors that preceded it
Premack Principle
An individual will be more motivated to perform a particular activity if they know that they will be able to partake of a more desirable activity as a consequence. If high-probability behaviors (more desirable behaviors) are made contingent upon lower-probability behaviors (less desirable behaviors), then the lower-probability behaviors are more likely to occur.
B Process properties
- dynamic; changes with repeated exposure - with repeated exposure the Bstate begins earlier, has greater magnitude, & lasts longer - if time passes without exposure, the changes in the Bstate reverse
A process properties
- magnitude & duration of the A-state are determined by the stimulus event - magnitude & duration are fixed (no change with experience)
Factors affecting CC Association
- US Intensity - US Duration - CS Intensity and Duration - CS-UCS relevance or belongingness - Consistency of Pairing - Novelty of CS and UCS
Classical Conditioning Major Terms (5)
- Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) - Conditioned Stimulus - Unconditioned Response - Conditioned Response - Conditioned Emotional Response
Negative Contingency
The US is less likely when the CS occurs than when it does not. This procedure produces inhibitory conditioning to the CS, as in backward conditioning.
Behavior Order for CC
- CS must come before the UCS
Extinction
- Identify the reinforcer for a behavior - Remove reinforcer and any alternative reinforcement - May provoke emotional oubursts
Two kinds of consequences
1. Reinforcement 2. Punishment
Forward chaining
Reinforce first link
Positive Reinforcement
- Adds pleasant consequences - Behavior increases - Reward training
Operant conditioning definition
A form of learning in which behavioral frequency is altered through application of positive and negative consequences Consequences produce changes in the probability of the behavior's future occurrence
Response Deprivation
- Behavior becomes reinforcing when an organism is prevented from engaging in it at a normal frequency
Observation Learning
- Can one individual learn by observing the experienc of another individual
Vicarious Learning
- Change in behavior due to the experience of observing a model
Variables affecting observational learning
- Consequences of model's behavior - Consequences of observers behavior - Characteristics of the model - Observer's age - Complexity of the task
Variables affecting reifnorcement
- Contingency - Contiguity - Reinforcer characteristics (magnitiude/qualitative) - Deprivation level
Pioneers of OC
- Edward Thorndike - B.F. Skinner
Problems with punishment
- Escape - Aggression - Apathy - Abuse - Imitation of punisher
Shared Terms between CC and OC
- Extinction - Spontaneous Recovery - Generalization - Discrimination
Observational Learning vs. Imitation
- Imitation of a model does not imply observational learning has occurred
Operant conditioning names
- Instrumental Conditioning - Law of Effect - Skinnerian Conditioning
Major component in Classical Conditioning
- Involuntary (subject is passive)
Pioneers of CC
- Ivan Pavlov - John Watson
Differential Reinforcement
- Low rate - Zero Responding - Incompatible Behavior - Alternative Behavior
Primary Reinforcer
- Naturally or Innately reinforcing such as: Food/Water, Sexual stimulation, Relief from heat/cold/pain
Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory
- Observational learning accounted for by 4 processes - Attentional processes - Retentional Processes - Motor preproductive processes - Motivational processes
Spontaneous recoery
- Re-emergence of an extinguished conditioned response after a rest period
Attentional Processes
- Refers to the processes that determine what is attended to and therefore what is learned through observation.
Behavior order for OC
- Reinforcement comes after the behavior
Major terms in OC
- Reinforcers - Reinforcement positive and negative - Punishment - Shaping - Reinforcement schedules (continuous and partial)
Negative Reinforcement
- Removes unpleasant feeling/situation - Behavior increases - Escape training
Other names for classical conditioning
- Respondent conditioning - Pavlovian Conditioning
Alternatives to punishment
- Response Prevention - Extinction - Differential Reinforcement - Noncontingent Reinforcement
Major component in operant conditioning
- Subject is active
Inhibitory Conditioning
NS is associated with absence of US
Excitatory Conditioning
NS is associated with presentation of US
Primary reinforcers
Naturally or innately reinforcing: food, water, sexual stimulation, relief from heat/cold pain
Blocking Effect
Occurs when learning to a new stimuli is impaired because it is presented in compound with another, already established CS
Hall-Pearce Effect
Occurs when organisms have a history of being exposed to a stimulus followed by a very weak UCS which interferes with the ability to form a fear association to the stimulus later - Example: Two groups of animals are exposed to a tone, then a shock. One group had previously been exposed to the tone multiple times with a weak shock
One process theory
Only operant conditioning is involved, punishment is the opposite of reinforcement
Response Prevention
Prevent the behavior from occurring by altering the environment Goal: Weaken the contingency between obsessions and compulsions
Two process theory of punishment
Punishment involves 1. pavlovian conditioning - association of a stimulus w/the negative effects of a punishment 2. Operant conditioning - escaping the negative stimulus is reinforcing
Motor reproductive processes
Putting to use the information your mind has taken in
Backward chaining
Reinforce the last link
Shaping behaviors
Reinforcement of successive approximations of a desired behavior
Renewal Effect
Renewal effect occurs when extinguished CR re-occurs when context is changed *Requires no additional conditioning
