Lecture #3 - Conditioning and Development
Describe learning without awareness
*Drug use and tolerance* - CS connects drug to CR of craving - The body can start to metabolize as if the drug was taken just by the sight of it (Conditioned drug tolerance) since more of drug needed to overcome the prep. This can lead to fatality as if not prepared and take the same dose may die. *Sexual arousal* Development of fetishes (the attraction and fixation on an object). *Paradox of diet beverages* Normally the sight and anticipation of high calorie food preps body for the calories. But in diet drinks, the body doesn't get them and keeps sending signals for more food. So diet drinks can make you more hungry.
Describe studies done at UW on baby development
*Study 1* The participants were 2 and a half year olds The experimenter hid a toy in one of several locations when the parent was both not looking and looking The child had to direct the parent to the location The child used more gestures and named the location more when the parent wasn't looking when the item was hid (they knew had to help out) *Study 2* The participants were 2 year and 3 months old Similar to Study 1 but stickers were put in containers Children used more gestures when parents weren't looking This shows that babies can understand when the parents don't know something at a super early age
Describe self awareness
18-24 months babies gain self awareness (they can recognise themselves) At 5 years individuals can be self reflective, consider feelings of others Young (<5) children are egocentric (only consider their own perspective) Theory of mind (the ability to recognize the thoughts, beliefs and expectations of others and understand they are different from their own) is a continuous process. (If she was deceived and got pencils instead of candy, would say another would also be expecting candy even if she knows she doesn't now) ^ False belief task Early children's emotions are hard to control, so by helping the child identify they are feeling upset it can help them cope. They should be related to but not mirrored.
Describe fetal brain development
2-3 weeks initial cells specialize into neurons 4 weeks, for/mid/hind brain structures form. 11 weeks, differentiation between cerebral hemispheres, the cerebellum, and brain stem are apparent. Final months is myelinization We are born with all the neurons we have, just lacking connections, so environment is extremely important. (We become the organism needed for a particular environment)
Describe the long term health effects of a premature birth
40 weeks is normal Preterm infants is earlier than 36 weeks 30 weeks is good survival rate <25 is over 50% survival NIDCAP intervention really useful for baby development, limiting stimuli the baby experiences
When a heroin user develops a routie, the needle can become the ___, whereas the body's preparation for the drug in response to the presence of the needle is the ___ A) CS; CR B) US; UR C) US; CR D CS; US
A
Your dog barks when everyone walks by but you. This is... A) Discrimination B) Generalization C) Spontaneous recovery D) Acquisition
A
What is the partial reinforcement effect?
A phenomenon where organisms undergoing partial reinforcement resist extinction longer than those with continuous reinforcement. Seen in gambling.
What is shaping?
A procedure in which a specific operant response is created by reinforcing successive approximations of that response. Like how to teach a rat to push a lever. Needs to go in a step-wise manner. E.g. Learn to stand up, stand up and face lever, stand up face lever and touch lever....until pushes lever
What is operant conditioning?
A type of learning in which behavior is influenced by consequences. Positive consequences make behavior more likely to happen (vv).
Describe sensitive periods
A window of time during which exposure to a specific type of environmental stimulation is needed for normal development of a specific ability E.g. language needs to be stimulated in first couple years, or else long-term deficits may emerge.
Describe acquisition, extinction and spontaneous recovery
A: The initial phase of learning in which a response is established. Conditioned response that occurs between pairing of CS and US. Needs to be done consistently E: Loss or weakening of a CR when the CS and US are no longer paired together. SR: The reoccurrence of a previously extinguished CR, typically after some time has passed since E. This is as some conditioning has been preserved in the brain. (Also maybe they learned that one does NOT produce the other during extinction) Shows flexibility in the CR
Where is emotional processing and fear processed?
Amygdala
Consequences of viewing aggression?
Associated with increase aggression and sensitization to violence Music can also affect emotions, thoughts and even behavior
Effects of attachment?
Attachment we develop as infants is also present when we have romantic relationships, health attachment is associated with finding a long term relationship and having kids Over or under involvement can lead to insecurities in children
For most teens, the most devastating experience would be one of A) Failing at an important competition B) Being rejected by friends C) Being rejected on a first date D) Having a physical injury
B
Pete always checks the slots of vending machines for money. Occasionally he finds a quarter. Despite low levels of reinforcement, this behavior is likely to persist due to ____ A) Escape learning B) The partial reinforcement effect C) Positive punishment D) Generalization
B
Sylvia had a balloon pop in her face and now she wont blow up anymore because shes scared. The pop is a(n) ___ and the balloon is a(n) ___ A) Conditioned stimulis; unconditioned stimulus B) Unconditioned stimulus; conditioned stimulus C) Unconditioned response; conditioned response D) Conditioned response; unconditioned response
B
To discourage bad behavior and encourage good behavior in kids is guided by? A) Piaget's theory of cognitive development B) Behaviorism C) Cognitive psych D) Humanistic psych
B
What best describes the effects of aging on intelligence? A) Fluid intelligence tends to decrease, but working memory tends to increase B) Fluid intelligence tends to decrease, but crystallized intelligence tends to increase C) Crystallized intelligence tends to increase, but the ability to skillfully use ones abilities decreases D) Aging is unrelated to intelligence, except in the case of brain disorders and diseases such as dementia or Alzheimers
B
Describe Pavlov and his dogs
Behaviorism was a very important movement. It started in biology started by Pavlov, a biologist who studied dog saliva. He was important in understanding the first wave of behaviorism He connected the salivary glands of dogs to test tubes to be able to measure the amount they were salivating. Noticed food increased salivation. He noticed that hit feet sounds actually also caused them to salivate. He thought this was because of smell. Maybe if he just walked without bowl; they salivated. They learned that his footsteps meant that they would get food (the dogs). They would associate the bell to food and salivate just from bell (just look at the picture) Stimuli create responses. Behaviorists were interested in the cause and effect relationship Unconditioned response is what happens normally to the organism (doesn't need to be taught to salivate) When pair US and NS can become CS to produce the CR Behaviorists learned that this applies to the real world. E.g. With money first we don't react cause its just paper then through experience and associated we react to money and learn it has value James Watson also did this, said that through classical conditioning you can make the child be scared/happy/any emotion towards any stimuli.
Song of the week?
Brian Wilson by Barenaked Ladies One line from this song has "Just like Pavlov's dog" which connects to this lesson
A basic need such as food may be used as a ___ reinforcer, wheras a stimulus whose value must be learned is a ___ reinforcer A) Primary; continuous B) Secondary; shaping C) Primary; secondary D) Continuous; secondary
C
The development of infant motor skills is best described as A) A genetic process with no environmental influence B) Completely due to the effects of encouragement C) A mixture of biological maturation and learning D) Progressing in continuous, rather than stage fashion
C
Which of the following is not a symptom of Alzheimers disease? A) Memory problems B) Disorientation C) Obsessive behaviors D) Personality changes
C
Distinguish between classical and operant conditioning
CC: Target response is automatic, reinforcement is present regardless of response, behavior mostly depends on reflexive and physiological responses OC: Target response is voluntary, reinforcement is a consequence of the behavior, behavior mostly depends on skeletal muscles
What is observational learning?
Changing behavior and knowledge as the result of watching others Surgeon learning by watching other surgeons Baby will not eat food if see parent eat with disgust Requires: Attention Memory Ability to reproduce Motivation
What type of conditioning did Pavlov show?
Classical conditioning - Learning that occurs when a neutral stimulus elicits a response that was originally caused by another stimulus. E.g The metronome could elicit salvation that the meat powder does. The neutral stimulus was the metronome sound since it did not cause any response. But when paired with the meat powder caused it to become not neutral. This was a foundation for behaviourism research
What is contingency?
Consequence depends on action. E.g. Getting good grades is contingent upon studying effectively
What are conditioned emotional responses?
Consist of emotional and physiological responses that develop to a specific object or situation. Baby with rat. Sound US, fear UR. Rat CS fear became CR Boy plays with cat, it scratches him so cat CS for fear CR. May generalize to fear of all cats. May lead to
What are the different ways to measure trends? Strengths and weaknesses of each?
Cross sectional study: Used to measure and compare samples of people at different ages at a given point in time. E.g compare memory retention at 1,2,5,10 years old (+) Cheap, quick and easy to do (-) Cohort effects (difference in people can be due to environmental differences in each birth year) Longitudinal study: Follows the development of the same set of individuals over time. (+) Accurate, awesome (-) Expensive, attrition (people drop out, die, leave study)
A dental drill can become an unpleasant stimulus especially for people who may have experienced pain while one as used on their teeth. In this case, the pain elicited by the drill is a(n): A) Conditioned response B) Unconditioned stimulus C) Conditioned stimulus D) Unconditioned response
D
A researcher has only one year to complete a study on a topic that spans the entire range of childhood. To complete the study she should use a ___ design. A) Cohort B) Longitudinal C) Correlational D) Cross-sectional
D
Frank trained his Parrot to open the door to his cage by pecking at a level three times. Frank used a ___ schedule of reinforcement to encourage the desired behavior A) Variable-interval B) Variable-ratio C) Fixed- interval D) Fixed-ratio
D
___ removes the immediate effects of an aversive stimulus, whereas ___ removes the possibility of an aversive stimulus from occuring in the first place. A) Avoidance learning; escape learning B) Positive reinforcement; positive punishment C) Negative reinforcement; negative punishment D) Escape learning; avoidance learning
D
Describe operative discrimination, generalization and extinction
D: There is no response to a stimulus that resembles the original discriminative stimulus used during learning - Learn that asking dad for car works and asking mom does not. G: Responding occurs to a stimulus that resembles the original discriminative stimulus used during learning - Petting a specific dog is fun, may try petting other dogs too. D and G are associated with dopamine more than neuron firing in operative. E: Responding gradually ceases if reinforcement is no longer available. (Dad and mom stop giving car so you stop asking) - Delayed reinforcement. Things that have effect immediately after are more effective than with a delay. - Reward devaluation. After exposure to a reward or external change makes you less likely to seek the reward. Just had pizza do I want to effort into getting another one?
What is a discriminative stimulus?
DS: A cue/event that indicates that a response, if made, will be reinforced. E.g. Asking your parents when you see they are in a good mood.
What did Bandura do?
Describes observational learning Bandura thought that perhaps we can learn just by watching. Note how this requires thought to intervene. Let's look at the Bobo Doll study. Implications for violence on TV and in the movies. Skinner thinks the only way to learn is with rewards to create behavior (operant) Behaviorists didn't think that observation played ANY role into behavior, therefore thoughts did not matter Bandura: Need to think "they did ___ and got ___, so I can do __ and get ___ too" << Thoughts are therefore neccesary Bobo Doll study: - Control group of kids saw someone just build a tower Experimental group saw an adult beat up a Bobo doll When both groups were exposed to the bobo doll wanted to see the difference how each kid beat up the doll Control group only hit it once, Experimental group hit on average 51 times This showed you can learn by watching, and watching can influence behavior
Describe decision making in adolescence
Developed reward limbic areas say "do it" Underdeveloped prefrontal areas struggle to say "dont". Often resort to strong impulses regardless of risk. The presence of peers also plays a role in risky behavior, extroversion, personality etc.
Describe the emotional challenges in adolescence
Different cultures have adolescents experience the transition with varying levels of smoothness Healthy transitions have adolescents leave with a positive self identity and identifying goals, passions and interests They are prone to extreme anxiety and depression. Controlling these is extremely important. Need to be flexible with coping mechanisms, often cognitive reframing (looking at an experience through a different frame) can help see it as a learning experience The ability to delay gratification - Party or study for a test next week? Important skill for success. YOLO attitudes are risky. Kids who tend to wait longer (better self control) for a marshmallow tend to do better academically as teens
How to reduce the decay of neurons?
Do enjoyable hobbies Exercise Have a proper diet
Describe parenting for adults
Empty nest is a myth Well only if mom doesn't identify herself as the mom
What are Erikson's stages of development?
Erikson was a psychoanalyst, he was Freud's car driver, then he became a Doctor Part of the new egopsychologist movement Interested in consciousness You only need to recognise is that two relationships persist in all stages: Attachment or Accomplishment Trust vs Mistrust is analagous to attachment At some point kids realize that they actually have intentions and emotions and ideas At 18 months kids can recognise themselves Early ones relate to attachment, later ones are about accomplishment (except in adulthood attachment and forming intimate relationships) Middle adulthood essentially do you have a mid-life crisis? Late adulthood, reflect on if you lived your life properly Remember this theory is a fluid movement, this one too isn't progressive stages that can have overlap,
What is the evolutionary role of fear?
Fear is learned since babies are always curious, but they are a sort of survival mechanism for us to not interact or avoid certain stimuli Did CS experiment with shock +snakes/flowers/guns and CR was stronger for snakes than flowers so there is a difference. Guns were in the middle This is explained by preparedness, the biological predisposition to rapidly learn a response to a particular class of stimuli.
Describe the combinations of schedules
Fixed ratio: Reinforcement is delivered after a specific number of responses has been given. Rat pressing 10 times ti receive food. Variable ratio: The number of responses required to receive reinforcement varies according to an average. Like a slot machine can give nothing, or little, or jackpot.Highest rate of responses Fixed interval reinforces the first response occurring after a set amount of time passes. Like exams every 3 weeks cause studying on a fixed routine. Variable interval: In which the first response is reinforced following a variable amount of time. Looking up at a meteor shower at irregular times to be reinforced.
Describe generalizations and discrimination stimuli
G: The CR is produced with similar variations of similar stimuli. Flexible D: The CR is not effectively produced with similar variation of similar stimuli. (Pavlovs dogs), not flexible
Describe career for adults
Generativity is being engaged in meaningful and productive work, as well as making contributions to future generations Most identify self with career Autonomy and salary and work environment are important
Describe the physical changes in adulthood
Hair thinning, baldness, weight gain Menopause Sensory and sexual drive decreases Loss of grey and white matter in the cerebral cortex, memory impairment Neurodegenerative diseases are caused by loss of nerve cells and nerve system functioning Dementia is a mild to severe disruption of mental functioning, memory loss, disorientation, poor judgement and decision making Alzheimers is a form of dementia, a degenerative and terminal condition resulting in severe damage of the entire brain. Plaques form disruption neuron connections, proteins cause neurons to tangle, Early onset ALZ is genetic late onset is more environmental
What are the theories in gender development?
He doesn't think that parents really effect it Social learning theory; - Child sees that be acting girly are rewarded so will act like that Gender scheme theory: Culture creates gender thinking in dictating what is appropriate for each gender Its not just one thing, its influenced by so many things, Kids learn accent of area they are in not their parents (same thing with gender where your exposure to community and culture influences you)
Describe prosocial behavior
Humans are inherently social Babies cry when hear another cry (empathy) and have moral motivation Measured by the motivation to which there is to reduce suffering, not just the experience of it At 5 months can prefer people who help others At 8 months make complex moral decisions and like kindness to prosocial people and unkind to antisocial At first birthday can help do tasks for others (retrieve things) Second birthday can help make someone feel better Attachment behavior - Primary system focused on meeting needs for security. Inhibits caregiving behavior. Caregiving behavior - Secondary system focused on the needs of others. If secure then this system may predominate.
Describe identity formation during adolescence
Identity: A clear sense of what kind of person you are, the people you belong with, and what roles you should play in society. Often they face identity crisis, where are curious or unsure, which puts them at risk for conflict with parents who can see from a different perspective.
Describe peer groups during adolescence
Important in feeling accepted and forming strong relationships If this does not happen many risks of social exclusion, antisocial behavior, shame-prone and may exhibit unhealthy thoughts and behaviors
What Piaget's stages?
Imported two things into his theory: A scheme ( a way of thinking about the world), when use the scheme you assimilate information with that way of thinking. When you change way you think (maybe because there is so much new information outdating old scheme) the scheme adapts and you have a new scheme. *Sensorimotor scheme* (pronounded SKEE-MAH) Accomodation of a scheme occurs when you learn something new. For this stage it is object permanence (when something cant be sensed it still exists. E.g hide something its gone it does not exist to a baby (like peek-a-boo) Stranger anxiety: Leave child with someone else and they go flippin crazy m8, When parents are gone the baby knows they are there and exist just arent there so they scream for them (using object permanence). Once can do object permanence moves them to Preoperational stage When babies can crawl for a couple months they get scared of heights, before that they arent scared (they must have learned or experienced something that changes their scheme) *Preoperational scheme:* Can use words and symbols like numbers, just cant organize them into a logical manner Kids love to pretend play (be a cook or push a doll in a stroller etc) in this stage Egocentrism is when you think other people see the world the same way you do exclusively (kids assume that other people see what you see and everyone sees the world through your eyes) Opposite is theory of mind: When you realize other people see the world in different ways than you do. Piaget got some things a little off (egocentrism and object permanence actually change earlier than in his stages) *Concrete operational:* Conservation is like if have two same cups filled the same, then swap one and pour the contents of one into a shorter and wider cup, little kids think there is less in this cup than in the one that was unchanged! Even though it's the same! At a young age don't have this ability to tell. Some adults cant even get to formal operational
Describe the variations of learning
In classical conditioning learning is the association of a CS with a UCS to the extent that the CS produces the UCR (now it is a CR) Generalization occurs when the CS is changed slightly and the CR still happens. If pavlov's dogs still salivated to different tones of a bell then its generalized Discrimination occurs when the CS is changed and the CR does not happen. If pavlovs dogs would salivate with high tones and not low tones they can discriminate between stimuli Extinction occurs when the CS no longer produces the UCR. If just rang the bell with no food for a while, the dog will stop salivating when just bell because they don't believe you
Why was there a natural progression towards the operant from classical?
In order to get organisms to do new and unnatural behavior, there is no natural stimuli to do this (no natural reason to sit in a 3 hour lecture so must be explained by something else)
What is the core knowledge hypothesis?
Infants have inborn abilities for understanding some key aspects of their environment. Understood via: Habituation: A decrease in responding with a repeated stimulus. Stops looking at the same thing Dishabituation: An increase in responsiveness with the presentation of a new stimulus.
Relationship between operant conditioning and classical conditioning?
Interrellated. For gambling has the operant based on rewards, but the sights, sounds, experience has classic as it leads to excitement
What are superstitions? Flaws?
Irrational beliefs that can improve chances of success or survival. Prone to confirmation bias. Where notice when things go your way but ignore or put excuses when they don't.
What is learning? Different types?
Learning is a process by which behavior or knowledge changes as a result of experience. Cognitive learning is how we take in new information from reading, listening and taking tests (like students do) Association learning is learning how to act based on the relationship to another variable.
What is latent learning?
Learning that is not immediately expressed by a resopnse until the organism is reinforced to do so. E.g walking past bubble tea place everyday never going to it, but then bae wants bubble tea so then you know exactly where to go
Describe physical development in infancy
Look at physical cause its easy to see (unlike cognitive at this age) Lots of reflexes that protect the baby (grasping,sucking reflexes) Stable progression of motor development Takes 2 years for a kid to be useful, until then are extremely vulnerable White line in the bar shows the average, black bar is the range Sitting and standing happen at the same time Each child goes through this differently Cognitive development goes faster than motor development
What experiment did Watson do?
Made baby Albert scared of mouse Experiment by Watson making a baby scared of a stimulus: Normally baby isnt scared of mouse US of loud clap leads to UR of fear in the baby Only did this when baby had a rat infront of them (pairing NS and US) So baby associated rat with fear So just the rat made the baby scared! The fear generalized to other things too like coats
Describe the sensory development of babies in infancy
Month 4 they start to receive sight and sound stimuli Month 7/8 they can actively listen They even cry and recognise speaking patterns based off of the accent they are exposed to. Visual systems are slower to develop. Fully done at around 8 months. Relies on exposure to stimuli. At a few days of age they will mimic the faces of others. Taste and smell systems are well developed and can differentiate and show preference to certain stimuli.
Emotional changes in adulthood?
More calm and happy Must face more of lifes challenges like coping with death and body decay
Is a child's development consistent?
No has stages of slow and rapid growth/development These stages are caused by interactions between the environment and genetics
Should children under the age of two watch television?
No. May have memory and language skills slow down, TV has no impact on vocabulary development.
Describe nutrition, teratogens and fetal development
Nutrition is the most important non-genetic factor affecting fetal development. Mothers need much more than regular. If these are not met may lead to serious conditions like low birth weight, cognitive issues, health susceptibilities. Teratogens are substances like toxins or drugs that impair the process of development. E.g. thalidomide on children. Alcohol and tobacco Fetal alcohol syndrome involves abnormalities in mental functioning, growth and facial development in the offspring of women who use alcohol during pregnancy. Smoking increases risk of miscarriage or death during infancy with emotional and cognitive impairments. Factors include dosage of teratogen and when taken.
Is Piaget's theory perfect?
Object permanence can actually develop at 2 and 2.5 months its just a little unclear at this point For picture if egocentric then since you know its in blue you think Sally will think its in blue too! Egocentrism breaks down at 2/3 years old Development is more continuous and happens earlier than Piaget proposed
How was attachment categorized by the strange situation?
Observing how infants behave when exposed to different experiences of anxiety and comfort. 1. Secure attachment. Caregiver is a base the child checks in on consistently as they explore. Some distress when alone with stranger. Child seeks comfort when CG returns. 2. Insecure attachment. - Anxious/Resistant: Clingy behaviour (Sophia). Very distressed when CG leaves. Seeks comfort but resists it, so distress not alleviated. - Avoidant: The child acts completely independent of CG for all circumstances. 3. Disorganized. The child oscillates between seeking comfort and resisting due to fear.
What did B.F Skinner do?
Operant Conditioning has an answer - Behaviour that is rewarded will occur more often in the future; behaviour that is not rewarded will occur less often Complex behaviours can be shaped through rewards Learning is the acquisition of new behaviours Leads to active learning (instead of passive instinct is in classical conditioning) Ignoring behavior does not equal punishing behavior! Punishments cause the organism to engage in fewer behaviors, ignoring allows them to continue to do random things Punishment reduces frequenies of responses (makes learning slower) He studied pidgeons. Easy to give them a reward. He taught pidgeons to turn around and other things by rewarding them when they did the correct behavior (like turning) Therefore organisms know to expect certain rewards for certain behaviors
Distinguish between primary and secondary reinforcers.
PR: Directly influence an individuals ability to survive. Hunger, thirst, sexual contact, shelter SR: Stimuli that acquire their effects only after we learn they have value. Money, praise.
Describe the physical changes that occur during adolescence
Puberty is initially stimulated hormonally by the hypothalamus stimulating the pituitary gland to release testosterone and estrogen Primary sex traits: Changes in the body that are part of reproduction (genital enlargement, ability to ejaculate (spermarche), menstruation (menarche) Secondary sex traits: Changes in the body that are not part of reproduction (pubic hair growth, breast enlargement, increased muscle mass Puberty is occuring earlier now than before possibly due to the increase in body fat from behaviors, environmental stresses and everyday stresses. Early puberty high risk for girls of being teased, and going through mental stresses Increase in self control as myelination prunes weak connections to make brain more focused
Describe reinforcement and punishment
R: A process in which an event or reward that follows a response increase the likelihood of that response occurring again. Vv is punishment A reinforcer is a stimulus that is contingent upon a response, and that increases the probability of that response occurring again/increased responding (like cat food to a cat). (vv is punisher like yelling, losing money etc)
Describe physical declines in old age
RED: Early rise because at young ages people don't know their vision is bad since cant compare, then later get glasses when they realized Drop at 75. This is because of cataracts BLUE: Pretty good until 70 range. GREEN: Hearing decays really early! Problematic as hearing aids are far from perfect. BOTTOM: Young people cause more accidents. Old people more accidents less deaths since they quit
What is imitation?
Recreating someone else's motor behavior or expression, often to accomplish a specific goal.
Describe the types of reinforcers
Reinforcer = Reward Positive reinforcer - getting good things Negative reinforcer - removing bad things. Note a negative reinforcer is not a punishment. Negative reinforcer is like pain removal, alcohol is too since it makes troubles go away When scared and run away of something, its actually a negative reinforcer since removing stimuli! Primary reinforcers - pleasant in their own right. Unconditioned stimuli that crease unconditioned response of pleasure (like food). Conditioned reinforcers - pleasant through their association (note the classical conditioning here). Conditioned reinforcers - Like money, the loss of it is indirect, not the money loss that sucks but the value it has that is lost that sucks Reinforcers make behavior more likely and frequent Punishments really suck since it decreases behavior, hard to teach if they are too scared to do anything Behaviorism can explain lots of things! Can explain via operant and classical conditioning (like fears and reading behaviors)
Describe love and marriage in adulthood
Relationships bring positive mental and physical benefits, as they drive each other to be better. Possible stigma towards non socially accepted relationships, leading to stress Four Horsemen: 1) Criticism. Complaining on what is wrong is okay as long as focus on what you want to change. 2) Defensiveness. Not taking responsibility and pointing out flaws in the other person. 3) Contempt. Joking but saying rude things, should focus on the positive. Empathize, consider their opinion. 4) Stonewalling. Acting like you don't care. One word answers. Cold shoulder.
What are the schedules of reinforcement?
Rules that determine when reinforcement is available Continuous reinforcement: Every response made results in reinforcement. (Vending machines always give product from money). Learning occurs rapidly. Partial(intermittent) reinforcement: Only a certain number of responses are rewarded. Or after certain duration of time. Ratio schedules: Based on amount of responding Interval schedules: Based on time between reinforcements. Fixed schedules: Consistent reinforcements over time. (vv) for variable.
What are Piaget's four stages of cognitive development?
Sensorimotor (0-2): Cognitive experience is based on direct, sensory experience (seeing, feeling) with the world as well as motor movements (grabbing, mouthing) that allow infants o interact with the world. Object permanence is the significant developmental milestone. (The ability to understand that objects exist even when they cannot be directly perceived). Preoperational (2-7): Thinking moves beyond the immediate appearance of objects. The child understands physical conservation and that symbols, language, and drawings can be used to represent ideas. Can count numbers but cant manipulate them. Conservation is the knowledge that the quantity or amount of an object is not the same as the physical arrangement and appearance of an object. Concrete operational (7-11): The ability to perform mental transformations on objects that are physically present emerges. Thinking becomes logical and organized. Can think logically about abstractions (X>Y, Y>Z, X>Z) Formal operational (11+): The capacity for abstract and hypothetical thinking develops. Scientific reasoning becomes possible.
Principles that allow punishment to be the most effective?
Severity: Should be proportional to offence. A small fine is suitable for parking illegally or littering, but not for someone who commits assault. Initial punishment level: The initial level of punishment needs to be sufficiently strong to reduce the likelihood of the offence occurring again. Contiguity: Punishment is most effective when it occurs immediately after the behaviour. Delay reduces effectiveness. Consistency: Punishment should be administered consistently. Cant punish for curfew sometimes but other times let it go. Show alternatives: Punishment is more successful, and side effects are reduced, if the individual is clear on how reinforcement can be obtained by engaging in appropriate behaviours.
Describe language acquisition
Skinner's account - we learn language through reinforcement. Babies learn by progressing and combining each syllable slowely over time with parents rewarding with praise Chomsky's account - we have an inborn ability to learn language. Children are particularly able to learn language, not just reinforcement. Adults can be reinforced to learn languages and they suck, but do this to a kid and kids learn languages super well even if you try not to allow them to learn it. So children can learn massive amounts of vocabulary in a short amount of time (300 words a day!) Language acquisition happens without effort, doesn't need reinforcement (so Skinner was wrong)
Issues with punishment?
Spanking can have many side effects Punishment is perceived much more intensely than rewards Punishment alone is meh since it doesn't refer to the appropriate behavior. Should combine them
What does positive/negative refer to? What are the combinations of +/- and R/P?
Stimulus is added(or increased) / Stimulus is removed (or decreased) Positive reinforcement. Stimulus added. Increases response. Child gets allowance for doing chores, more likely to do chores. Negative reinforcement: Stimulus is removed (or decreased). Increased response. Rain no longer hits you when you use umbrella so more likely to use an umbrella. - Avoidance learning. Behaviour to avoid if a stimulus will occur. (Making preemptive detours to avoid traffic) - Escape learning. Behaviour to remove stimulus that is present. (Escaping traffic once in it via side route) Positive punishment. Stimulus added. Decrease response. Owner scolds pet for bad jumping, so dog is less likely to jump. Negative punishment. Stimulus removed. Decrease response. Parents take away TV privileges when kids fight.
Describe the S-O-R theory of learning
Stimulus-organism-responce An individual is actively processing and analyzing information SR considered thought as a behavior influenced by contingencies and history/experience SOR considered through to be associated with the interpretation of how the stimulus meant to them. E.g a joke may offend one person and make the other laugh
What are conditioned taste aversions?
The acquired dislike or disgust of food or drink because it was paired with illness. The *taste* of food is CS. US is the experience of feeling sick, aversion is the UR. Then even not feeling sick of see or taste food produces CS. The aversion is flexible as it can take place after a window of time and only one pairing may be needed. Also likely if don't have latent inhibition (were you have previous normal experience with stimulus).
Describe infant attachment
The enduring emotional bond Infants seek attachment such as crying, cooing, gurgling, smiling and screaming to develop attachment A theory is that infants seem to love mom because they fed and cared for them, creating an interdependance. Harlow thought that maybe babies just like physical dependance (monkey baby clinging to cloth) Which was supported by how the baby monkeys always went to the cloth mom even if fed by wire mom when scared. So based on physical comfort.
What area of the brain is associated with reward centres?
The nucleus accumbens
Describe the cognitive development theory
The study of changes in memory, through, and reasoning, processes that occur throughout the lifespan Knowledge accumulates and is modified by two processes: Assimilation: A conservative process, whereby people fit new information into the belief systems they already possess. E.g long hair is girls and short hair is boys, but encounter exceptions and incorporate this into knew knowledge. Accommodation: A creative process whereby people modify their belief structures based on experience. Three options to new info: accept, deny, ignore or change mind.
How do psychopaths differ from normal humans?
Their brains emotional centres dont light up when pairing pain with faces. Normal humans do
Answer these big questions: Nature vs nurture? How applicable is psychology to everyday life? Is there still a role for behaviorism?
There are certain things we naturally can do, like language, for kids to mimic adults, (Nature) but nurture and exposure to stimuli is also incredibly important. Behaviorism is super applicable to everyday life, but couldn't cover everything (like cognition) There is still a role in behaviorism in clinical psychology to help people get over things. Just because behaviorism is older and newer perspectives came about that took highlight, doesn't mean that principles in behaviorism aren't relevant (they are!) Behaviorism is old, Cognitive psychology is new.
Describe moving from adolescence to adulthood
Three pillars of adulthood are relatedness, autonomy and competence (relationships, new possibilities, personal strengths Relationships: Be able to build lasting relationships, being authentic with other people New possibilities: Freedom to do things that interest them and do what they want to do in life Personal strengths involves the confidence to take on life's challenges
Describe romantic relationships during adolescence
Time to explore physical and emotional intimacy Hard for homosexuals to come out in our society Potential risk in sexual abuse Many become sexually active
Describe attachment theory
Two mothers, one is covered in hairy cloth only, other no cloth but is the only one who has food on it. (Testing nutrition vs physical feel) Monkeys spend most time on the cloth one! (99%) This means that contact is the most important between infants and primary caregivers Early interactions allow infant to develop ideas on other and on itself in a positive way if done right. This leads on to other relationships they form later in life (social competence, and adult relationships) Strange situation: Bring 1 year old in with mom. Mom leaves. Observe how baby reacts to being left and react when baby returns 1) Secure reaction. At first cries then gets over it and explores. Mom comes back baby is super happy to say hi 2) Insecure reaction - Anxious/abilivalent: Mother leaves child cries nonstop. When come back the kid isnt soothed still cried. (negative self view) - Avoidant: Mother returns and child doesn't care and keeps crying or exploring or whatever mood they were feeling (negative view on mother) These attachment patterns can predict social confidence, adult relationships and even romantic relationship development.
Other components of conditioning?
Unconditional stimulus is a stimulus that elicits a reflexive response without learning Unconditional response is a felexive, unlearned reaction to an unconditioned stimulus E.g. A dog is not taught to salivate (UR) with the expose to food (US). It just does. Conditioned stimulus's once a neutral stimulus that later elicits a conditioned response because it has a history of being paired with an unconditioned stimulus (Metronome , meat, salivation) Conditioned response is a learned response that occurs to the condition stimulus. So neutral stim being paired with unconditioned stim over time becomes conditioned stim producing a conditioned response (with the absence of the original unconditioned stim) Conditioned response if caused by metronome Unconditioned response if caused by food
Evidence against Piaget?
Underestimate certain abilities and importance of sociocultural influences on cognitive abilities. With 4/12 shapes accompanied by 4/12 tones 2 day old infants preferred when match. Zone of proximal development. Development is ideal when children attempt skills and activities that are just beyond what they can do alone, but they have guidance from adults who are attentive to their progress. Scaffolding is highly attentive approach to teaching in which the teacher matches guidance to the learners needs. By encouraging behavior and not just doing it for kids (scaffolding) they can be more self sufficient and useful earlier.
Describe parenting
Use operant conditioning often, but if always give rewards, they will find it hard to be motivated when there is no reward to receive. Also associates good feeling with external sources of validation (e.g attention, be the best, admiration) Introjection is the internalization of the conditional regard of significant others. The pressure to do well to be seen favourably. Very unstable. Inductive discipline. Explaining the consequences of a child's actions on other people, activating empathy for others' feelings. Do unto your child you would like to be done to you.
How is conditioning used in politics?
Uses evaluative conditioning where the experimenter pairs a stimulus with a either a positive or negative stimuli. This may lead to positive/negative feelings towards a stimuli Like in ads using techniques to be subconsciously frustrated at quality, or meh with the face of opponent. Leads to the "I will not vote for __" It does work to an extent with infleuncing behaviors
Describe motor development in the first year
Voluntary movements can be present at 5 months In last months nervous and muscle systems can demonstrate reflexes (involuntary muscular reactions to specific types of stimulation). Development of motor skills requires more practice related to environmental influences 12-18 months start to progress through crawling standing walking Myelination, synaptogenesis (forming of new synaptic connections), and synaptic pruning (killing of weak nerve connections) accelerates rapidly in infancy and childhood then progresses gradually
Kohlberg's moral development: Learning right form wrong
Wanted to understand why people supported their moral values 1) Preconventional morality Egocentric. Avoiding punishment. Basic "I would not do that cause I would get in trouble" 2) Conventional morality Regards social conventions and rules as guides for appropriate moral behavior. From parents, teachers, and law. "I would not do that because I would be killing someone and that is illegal" 3) Postconventoinal morality Considers rules and laws as relative. Right and wrong are more abstract. "Five is better than one" Moral reasoning and feeling are different, people tend to just use moral feeling Reason systems grew out of emotional systems grew out of basic physiological systems.
How does conditioning work in the brain?
When you provide a strong (US) simultaneously with a weak (CS) then the response gets stronger for the weak neural pathway.
Are kids good at learning language?
Young infants are born ready to learn any language (distinguish between subtle sounds) By a year this ability is gone. Favouring mastering one than learning many So early on little physical developent but tones of cognitive
Describe fertilisation and gestation
Zygote is the initial cell formed when the nuclei of egg and sperm fuse. This initiates the germinal stage. The first phase of prenatal development, which spans from conception to two weeks. The ZG will divide and implant into uterine wall. Then is the embryonic stage. Weeks 2-8 when embryo develops major structures and beginnings of arms and feet. Then is fetal stage from 8 till birth, when skeletal, organ, and nervous systems become more developed and specialized. Muscles develop. Fetus can be responsive to external cues.
What is developmental psychology?
the study of human physical, social and behavioral characteristics across the lifespan.
