Lifespan

Sensorimotor (Piaget)

Birth-2: Infants Use senses and motor abilities to understand the world. Learn object permanence and to think thru mental activities.

Age when emotions emerge

Birth: Crying, contentment 6 weeks: Social Smile 3 months: Laughter, curiosity 4 months: full, responsive smiles 4-8 months: Anger 9-14 months: Fear of social events (stranger, separation from caregiver) 12 months: Fear of unexpected sights and sounds 18 months: Self-awarness, pride, shame, embarrassment

Hemophilia

Blood clotting is inhibited Blood transfusions can save children's lives

experience-dependent.

Brain functions that develop in response to an infant's unique experiences can be described as:

Breast-feeding reduces the risk of:

Breast-feeding reduces the risk of all of these (diabetes, cancer, asthma)

A. cancer. B. asthma. C. diabetes.

Breast-feeding reduces the risk of:

triples.

By his or her first birthday, a newborn's weight typically:

doubles.

By the fourth month, an infant's weight typically:

1. A key finding from research on early-childhood education programs is that: a. specific curricula matter most. b. home care is always best. c. quality matters most. d. philosophy of education matters most.

C

24.The practical use of language, which includes adjusting communication according to one's audience and the context in which it occurs, is called: a. grammar. b. proxemics. c. pragmatics. d. semantics.

C

4. Which of the following is NOT one of the problems that can develop from poor oral health habits that develop before one's adult (permanent) teeth emerge? a. chewing difficulties b. jaw malformation c. wisdom tooth impaction d. speech problems

C

Family day care

Child care that includes several children of various ages and usually occurs in the home of a woman who is paid to provide it.

25. Which Vygotsky term refers to temporary support that is tailored to a learner's needs and abilities and is aimed at helping him or her master a new skill? a. apprentice in training b. zone of proximal development c. scaffolding d. social mediation

C

STUDY CHAPTER 8 - SLIDE 10

do it

STUDY CHAPTER 8 - SLIDE 24

do it

STUDY CHAPTER 9 - SLIDE 19

do it

STUDY CHAPTER 9 - SLIDE 5

do it

STUDY CHAPTER 9 - SLIDE 9

do it

What is the most prevalent cause of LBW (low birthweight)?

drug use

Selection

focus on a limited set of goals and the skills most needed to achieve them

In an experiment, tests of significance are used to:

indicate whether the results might have occurred by chance.

What is anoxia?

lack of oxygen during birth

very low birthweight (VLBW)

less than 3 pounds, 5 ounces

xy

male

perception

mental processing of sensory info when the brain interprets a sensation

Cells in an observer's brain that respond to an action performed by someone else in the same way they would if the observer had done the action are:

mirror neurons.

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid)

molecule containing chemical instructions for cells to manufacture various proteins

The distinctive characteristic of development that says that change does not always occur in a straight line is:

multidirectional.

Traits affected by many factors, both genetic and environmental, are referred to as:

multifactorial.

A sudden increase in an infant's vocabulary, especially nouns, is referred to as:

naming explosion

Neuron-

nerve cell. Billions in the central nervous system.

Nerve cells of the central nervous system that are found primarily in the brain are referred to as:

neurons

Information is carried from a sending neuron to a receiving neuron by:

neurotransmitters

correlation

number that indicates the degree of relationship between two variables (does not indicate of one caused the other to occur);exists between two variables if one variable is more (or less) likely to occur when the other does.

A game in which a father hides his face and then reveals it while saying "peek-a-boo" is fun for an 8-month-old because of the child's emerging sense of:

object permanence

Culture

patterns of behavior that are passed from one generation to the next.

Emotions that require an awareness of other people are:

pride, shame, and embarrassment

Piaget's first two stages of sensorimotor intelligence involve the demonstration of:

primary circular reaction

Scientific Observation

requires the researcher to record behavior systematically and objectively. May be done in a naturalistic setting such as a home, school, or other public place. May be done in a laboratory.

false positives

result of a lab test that falsely suggest a problem that does not exist

Which of the following is a reflex that is critical for survival?

rooting

According to Freud, each stage of development in the first six years is characterized by:

sexual pleasure.

holophrase

single word that is used to express a complete, meaningful thought

By 3 months of age, babies have enough motor control to:

sit with support

The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends that mothers exclusively breast-feed for the first:

six months

The Apgar scale measures all of the following except: a. heart rate. b. color. c. size. d. respiratory effect.

size.

REM sleep

sleep stage with flickering eyes behind closed lids, dreaming, and rapid brain waves

Quiet sleep:

slow brain waves and slow breathing

What does "socioeconomic status" refer to?

social class

IQ

spectrum ranging from giftedness to those with developmental disabilities

embryonic period

stage of prenatal development from approximately the third through the eighth week after conception. basic forms of body structure formed, internal organs develop

fetal period

stage of prenatal development from ninth week after conception to birth. fetus grows in size and matures in functioning

During which of Piaget's stages of sensorimotor development does adaptation FIRST occur?

stage two

little scientist

stage-five toddler (age 12 to 18 months) who experiments without anticipating the results, using trial and error in active and creative exploration

germinal period

the first two weeks of prenatal development after conception: rapid cell division and start of cell differentiation

child-directed speech

the high-pitched, simplified, and repetitive way adults speak to infants and children

Conservation (Children)

the idea that certain properties of an object or substance do not change when its appearance is altered in a superficial way

self-righting

the inborn drive to remedy a developmental deficit; for both emotional well and physical imbalance

synapse

the intersection between the axon of one neuron and the dendrites of other neurons

Critical period

time when a body part develops First two months for structural abnormalities Often before woman knows she is pregnant Time when most spontaneous abortions occur

Sensitive period:

time when teratogens can interfere with recent growth

Which of Erikson's stages occurs at the same time as Freud's oral stage?

trust versus mistrust

dizygotic twins

twins formed when two separate ova are fertilized by two separate sperm at roughly the same time (aka fraternal twins)

dizygotic twins

twins who develop from different eggs fertilized by different sperm; they are not identical in their genetic makeup.

monozygotic twins

twins who originate from one zygote that splits apart very early in development (aka identical twins)

Sensory development

typically precedes intellectual and motor development

implicit memory

unconscious or automatic memory that is usually stored via habits, emotional responses, routine procedures, and various sensations

Relativistic thinking

understanding that knowledge depends on its context and the subjective perspective of the knower (answers to problems are not always black and white, but shades of gray)

Underextension

using a word to refer to too narrow a range (e.g., only house pet is "doggie")

Overextension

using a word to refer to too wide a range (e.g., "doggie" = all furry animals)

Schizophrenia results from:

various combinations of many genes that are influenced by environment.

The experimental apparatus that gives the illusion of a sudden dropoff is referred to as a:

visual cliff.

scientific method

way to answer questions that requires empirical research and data-based questions

Babinski

which of the following reflexes is seen when an infant's foot is stroked?

Lack of immunization is blamed for a spike in _____ in California in 2010.

whooping cough

doula

woman who helps with the birth process. trained to support new mothers with massage and suggestions for breast-feeding positions

Center day care

Child care that occurs in a place especially designed for the purpose, where several paid adults care for many children. Usually the children are grouped by age, the day-care center is licensed, and providers are trained and certified in child development.

Genetic Counseling

Consultation and testing by trained professionals Enables prospective parents to learn about their genetic heritage, including harmful conditions that may be passed on to their offspring

xx

Female

superego.

Our morals and values learned from our parents are driven by the:

decreases.

Over the first few months of infancy, the amount of time spent in REM (dreaming) sleep:

Anal personality:

Overly strict or premature toilet training may result in an adult with an unusually strong need for control, regularity and cleanliness

above average height.

Parents are told that their newborn is in the 90th percentile for height. This means that their child is:

BEHAVIORISM

Parents mold an infant's emotions and personality through reinforcement and punishment

ethnic group

People whose ancestors were born in the same region and who often share a language, culture, and religion.

Gross motor skills

Physical abilities involving large body movements, such as walking and jumping.

sensorimotor intelligence

Piaget's term for the way infants think - by using their senses and motor skills - during the first period of cognitive development

_____ occurs when a person does NOT consume enough food of any kind. It can lead to illness, weight loss, and death.

Protein-calorie malnutrition

_____ theory examines development by connecting biological and social growth.

Psychoanalytic

scaffolding

Which Vygotsky term refers to temporary support that is tailored to a learner's needs and abilities and is aimed at helping him or her master a new skill?

hippocampus

Which of the following is a central processor of memory, especially of memory for locations?

stunting

Which term refers to the consequence of severe and chronic malnutrition in which children fail to grow to a normal height?

correlation

a number that indicates the degree of relationship between two variables, expressed in terms of the likelihood that one variable will or will not occur when the other variable does.

insecure-avoidant attachment

a pattern of attachment in which an infant avoids connection with the caregiver, as when the infant seems not to care about the caregivers presence, departure, or return

insecure-resistant/ambivalent attachment

a pattern of attachment in which an infant's anxiety and uncertainty are evident, as when the infant becomes very upset at separation from the caregiver and both resists and seeks contact on reunion

reminder session

a perceptual experience that helps a person recollect an idea, a thing, or an experience

carrier

a person whose genotype includes a gene that is not expressed in the phenotype

Consequences of early attachment

Quality of primary attachments predicts functioning across the lifespan Internal working models Infants form internal representations that affect all future relationships Schema for how intimate relationships work

Which sleep stage is characterized primarily by dreaming and rapid brain waves?

REM sleep

Skill

a person's ability to perform on a particular task in a particular context

classical conditioning

a personal or animals learns to associate a neutral stimulus with a meaningful stimulus, gradually responding to the neutral stimulus in the same way as the meaningful one

socioeconomic status

a persons position in society as determined by income, wealth, occupation, education, and place of residence

percentile

a ranking from 0 - 100 that indicate where an individual ranks in a population

secure attachment

a relationship in which an infant obtains both comfort and confidence from the presence of his or her caregiver

cross-sectional research

a research design that compares groups of people who differ in age but are similar in other important characteristics

experiment

a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable)

survey

a research method in which information is collected from a large number of people by interviews, written questionnaires, or some other means

Ethnic Identity

a sense of personal identification with an ethnic group and its values and cultural traditions

culture

a system of shared beliefs, norms, behaviors, and expectations that persist over time and prescribe social behavior and assumptions

polygenic

a trait that is influenced by many genes

Breast-feeding reduces the risk of:

a. cancer. b. asthma. c. diabetes. d. Breast-feeding reduces the risk of all of these.

norm

an average or usual event or experience

social construction

an idea that is based on shared perceptions, not on objective reality

language acquisition device

chomsky's term for a hypothesized mental structure that enables humans to learn language, including the basic aspects of grammar, vocabulary, and intonation

language acquisition device (LAD)

chromsky's term for a hypothesized mental structure that enables humans to learn language, including the basic aspects of grammar, vocab, and intonation

Which of the following is an example of an exosystem?

church

apprenticeship in thinking

cognition is stimulated and developed in people by more skilled members of society

Jada, age 5, is learning to speak Dutch. What is the primary domain of development?

cognitive

The idea of a working model is from:

cognitive theory.

Foreclosure Status (Marcia)

committed to an identity, without much self-examination

Language

communication system in which limited numbers and signals can be combined, according to agreed-upon rules, to produce an infinite number of messages

protein-calorie malnutrition

condition where person doesnt consume sufficient food of any kind; this deprivation can result in several illnesses, severe weight loss, and even death

qualitative research

considers qualities instead of quantities. descriptions of particular conditions and participant's expressed ideas

One-year-old Danielle watches her sister talk on a cell phone. The next day Danielle holds the cell phone to her ear as if she is using the phone. Danielle is demonstrating:

deferred imitation.

Chromosomes are molecules of:

deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).

fetus

developing human organism from the start of the ninth week after conception through birth

Plasticity highlights the fact that a person's:

developmental traits can change over time.

Memory and Brain

different parts of the brain are involved with different forms of memory

The DTaP vaccine protects against:

diphtheria, tetanus, and pertussis.

At birth, the average infant weighs:

7½ pounds.

Babinski reflex

When infants' feet are stroked, their toes fan upward.

social referencing.

When 12-month-old Nicholas looked at his mother to see her expression as a stranger entered the room, he was demonstrating:

child-directed speech

"baby talk" or "motherese"; high-pitched, simplified, and repetitive way adults speak to infants

*CHAPTER 4*

*CHAPTER 4*

Maslow.

A prominent figure in the development of the humanistic theory was:

brain functioning

Advances in which area are CRITICAL in attaining the age of viability?

What are the concepts of his cultural and thought perspectives?

-Intelligence is held by the group, not the individual and is tied to language system and cultural tools that group has developed over time -Knowledge depends on social experiences and values -Children acquire society's mental tools by interacting with parents and other more experienced members of the culture

What are the limitations in adult cognition?

-Many adults with less education, or in societies with little formal education have difficulty with tests of formal operations -Seems to be a measure of formal education more than basic intelligence -Adults are more likely to use formal operations in their area of expertise, but concrete operations in less familiar areas -As Fischer predicted, each person has an optimal level of cognitive performance that will show itself in familiar and well- trained content domains

How does Piaget's belief of formal operations differ from reality?

-Piaget believed that formal operations, was mastered by most people between ages 15-18 -Only about 1/2 of all college students show firm and consistent mastery of formal operations

Pax6 gene

"High" (more severe) and "low" (less severe) nearsightedness Low nearsightedness runs in families and is associated with minor variations in the Pax6 gene Environment also plays a role Increase in nearsightedness among East Asian schoolchildren Increased schoolwork may have caused nearsightedness in children with a Pax6 allelle

Babbling

(4-6 months): repeating consonant- vowel combinations (e.g., baba)

Cooing

(6-8 weeks) repeated vowel-like sounds (e.g., ooooh or aaaah)

comparison group

(also called a control group), which does not get the treatment

What are the steps of retrieval?

(in order of difficulty) 1. Recognition Memory: you need to recognize it among the options 2. Cued Recall Memory: given a hint or cue to facilitate retrieval 3. Recall Memory: requires active retrieval without the aid of cues

chronosystem

(literally, "time system"), which affects the other three systems, In Bronfenbrenner's bioecological approach, the system that captures the way changes in environmental systems, such as social trends and life events, are patterned over a person's lifetime.

When do infants remember best?

(same as adults) when they are given... -Repeated exposures to what they are to remember -Plenty of cues -When events to remember occur in logical and meaningful order

*Academic Skills*

*Academic Skills* A. Reading 1. The foundations of reading include *letter recognition* and *phonological awareness*, which is the ability to distinguish the sounds in spoken words. 2. *Reading* to children helps children develop phonological awareness. 3. Recognizing words a) The first step in actual reading is *identifying individual words*. b) Words are recognized through *direct retrieval* from *long-term memory.* 4. Comprehension a) Once individual words are recognized, reading begins to have a lot in common with *understanding speech.* b) Several factors contribute to improved comprehension (1) Children become more skilled at *recognizing words*, allowing effort to be devoted to comprehension. (2) Children acquire more *general knowledge of their physical, social, and psychological worlds.* (3) With experience, children use more *appropriate reading strategies.* (4) With experience, children better *monitor their comprehension.* B. Writing 1. Knowledge about topics a) With age, children have more to tell as they gain *more knowledge about the world* and *incorporate this knowledge into their writing.* 2. Organizing writing a) Young writers often use a *knowledge-telling strategy,* which involves writing down information on the topic as they retrieve it from memory. b) *Knowledge-transforming strategy* involves deciding what information to include and how best to organize it for the point they wish to convey to their reader. 3. The mechanical requirements of writing a) The language mechanics of writing is *difficult to master.* b) Effective revising requires being able to *detect problems* and *knowing how to correct them*, skills that improve with age and experience. C. Math Skills 1. By kindergarten, children have *mastered counting*, and they use this skill as the starting point for learning to *add.* 2. When children begin to receive formal instruction in arithmetic, they are able to *add and subtract mentally.*

*Aptitudes for School*

*Aptitudes for School* A. Theories of Intelligence 1. Initial theories of intelligence (*Spearman*) proposed that a general factor for intelligence exists. 2. Next *Thurstone and Thurstone* emphasized the specific components of intelligence. 3. *John Carroll* proposed a hierarchal theory with three levels, which is a compromise between the two views of intelligence—general vs. distinct abilities. 4. *Howard Gardner* identified nine distinct intelligences. 5. Prompted by *Gardner's theory*, researchers have begun to look at other nontraditional aspects of intelligence a) *Emotional intelligence* is the ability to use one's own and others' emotions to solve problems and live happily. b) People who are emotionally intelligent tend to have more *satisfying interpersonal relationships*, have *greater self-esteem*, and be *more effective in the workplace.* 6. *Robert Sternberg's theory of successful intelligence* says that people use three different kinds of abilities a) *Analytic ability* involves analyzing problems and generating different solutions. b) *Creative ability* involves dealing adaptively with novel situations and problems. c) *Practical ability* involves knowing which solution or plan will actually work. 7. Each culture defines what it means to be intelligent. B. The Development of Intelligence Testing 1. *Alfred Binet and Theophile Simon* developed a way to determine which children needed special instruction by first identifying problems that typical age children could solve. 2. *Mental age (MA)* is a measure of children's performance corresponding to the chronological age of those whose performance equals the child's. 3. Binet and Simon used MA to distinguish *"bright"* from *"dull"* children. C. The Stanford-Binet 1. Using *Binet's work*, *Lewis Terman* created the Stanford-Binet in 1916. 2. Terman introduced the concept of the *intelligence quotient (IQ),* which was the ratio of mental age to chronological age (CA), multiplied by 100. 3. IQ scores are now determined by *comparing the child's test performance* to *others of their same age* who have taken the test. 4. The *Stanford-Binet*, the *Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-IV*, and the *Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children-II* are currently the popular intelligence tests. D. Do Tests Work? 1. IQ tests do a reasonable job of predicting *school success* and *occupational success.* E. Heredity and Environmental Factors 1. Fraternal twins' IQ scores are *less similar* than scores for identical twins. 2. Children with high test scores tend to come from homes that are *well organized* and have plenty of *appropriate play materials.* 3. The impact of the *environment* on intelligence is also implicated by research on historical changes in IQ scores. 4. The importance of a stimulating environment for intelligence is demonstrated by *intervention programs* that prepare *economically disadvantaged* children for school. F. The Impact of Ethnicity and Socioeconomic Status 1. Ethnic groups differ in their average scores on intelligence tests. *Asian Americans* tend to score the highest, followed by *European Americans*, *Latino Americans*, and *African Americans.* 2. Children from *economically advantaged* homes, more likely to be European or Asian American, tend to have *higher* test scores than children from economically disadvantaged homes. 3. Group differences in IQ test scores are reduced but not eliminated when children from *comparable socioeconomic status* are compared. 4. Group differences in test scores seem to arise form experience with *test contents*, *test-taking skills*, and the *impact of stereotypes.* G. Interpreting Test Scores 1. The average difference in IQ scores between various ethnic groups is *relatively small* compared to the entire range of scores for these groups.

*Beginnings: Trust and Attachment*

*Beginnings: Trust and Attachment* A. *Erikson's Stages of Early Psychosocial Development* 1. The *crisis of infancy* is to establish a balance between trust and mistrust of the world, through which infants develop *hope*, an openness to experience tempered by wariness that discomfort or danger may arise. 2. Between 1 and 3 years of age, youngsters must *blend autonomy, shame, and doubt* to *produce will, the knowledge that, within limits,* they can act on their world intentionally. 3. Between 3 and 5 years of age, *initiative* and a *willingness to cooperate* with others must be balanced to produce *purpose.* B. The Growth of Attachment 1. Steps toward Attachment a) According to Bowlby, children who form an *attachment* to an adult - an enduring socioemotional relationship - are more likely to survive. b) There are *four phases* in the growth of attachment: *preattachment, attachment in the making, true attachment, and reciprocal relationships.* 2. Father-Infant Relationships a) Fathers typically spend more time *playing* with their babies than *taking care* of them. b) Fathers emphasize *physical play.* 3. Forms of Attachment a) Mary Ainsworth pioneered the study of attachment relationships using a procedure known as the *Strange Situation.* b) There are four primary types of attachment relationships: 1) *Secure attachment:* a relationship in which infants have come to trust and depend on their mothers 2) *Avoidant attachment:* a relationship in which infants turn from their mothers when they are reunited following a brief separation. 3) *Resistant attachment:* a relationship in which, after a brief separation, infants want to e held but are difficult to console 4) *Disorganized (disoriented) attachment:* a relationship in which infants don't seem to understand what's happening when they are separated and later reunited with their mothers. 4. Consequences of Attachment a) Infant-parent attachment lays the foundation for all the infant's later *social relationships.* C. What Determines Quality of Attachment? 1. The most important factor in determining the quality of attachment is the *interaction between parents* and their *babies.* 2. *Secure attachment* is most likely to occur when caregivers respond sensitively and consistently to their infant's needs. 3. *Predictable and responsive parenting* promotes *secure attachment* relationships because infants develop an *internal working model*, a set of expectations about parents' availability and responsiveness, generally and in times of stress. 4. Babies with difficult temperaments are somewhat less likely to form *secure attachments.*

*CHAPTER 5*

*CHAPTER 5*

*CHAPTER 6*

*CHAPTER 6*

*CHAPTER 7*

*CHAPTER 7*

*Cognitive Development*

*Cognitive Development* A. More Sophisticated Thinking: Piaget's Version 1. The *Concrete-Operational Period (7-11 years of age)* a) Children become *less egocentric.* b) Children are able to reverse their thinking because they have acquired *mental operations,* which are actions that can be performed on objects or ideas, and that consistently yield a result. c) Thinking is limited to the *tangible and real.* 2. The *Formal-Operational Period (ages 11 to adulthood)* a) Adolescents are able to apply *psychological operations* to *abstract entities.* b) Using *deductive reasoning,* adolescents understand that conclusions are based on facts. 3. Comments on Piaget's View a) Piaget *overestimated* cognitive competence in adolescents. B. Information-Processing Strategies for Learning and Remembering 1. *Information-processing psychologists* focus on the means by which children store information in permanent memory and retrieve it when needed later. 2. We use a *number of memory strategies* to learn new information a) *Organization* involves structuring information so that related information is together. b) *Elaboration* involves embellishing information to make it more memorable. 3. Metacognition a) Effective use of strategies for learning and remembering begins with an *analysis of the goals* of any learning task and includes monitoring one's performance. b) *Metamemory* refers to an intuitive understanding of memory. c) *Metacognitive knowledge* is the growing knowledge and awareness of cognitive processes.

*Effective Schools, Effective Teachers*

*Effective Schools, Effective Teachers* A. School-Based Influences on Student Achievement 1. There are a number of characteristics of schools where students typically succeed a) *Academic excellence* is the primary goal of the school and of every student in it. b) The school climate is *safe and nurturing.* c) *Parents are involved.* d) Progress of *students, teachers, and programs are monitored.* B. Teacher-Based Influences on Student Achievement 1. Students tend to learn the most when teachers a) *manage the classroom effectively* so they can devote most of their *time to instruction*; b) *believe they are responsible for their students' learning* and that their *students will learn when taught well*; c) *emphasize mastery of topics*; d) *teach actively*; e) *pay careful attention to pacing;* f) *value tutoring*; and g) *teach children techniques for monitoring and managing their own learning.*

*Electronic Media*

*Electronic Media* A. Television 1. Watching violent television leads to more *aggressive behavior*, whereas prosocial TV leads to more *socially skilled behavior.* 2. The biggest positive influence of TV on American children has been *Sesame Street.* 3. Increased TV viewing does not lead to *reduced attention, greater impulsivity, reduced task persistence, or increased activity levels.* 4. Research on the impact of TV on creativity is *mixed.* 5. The biggest impact of TV is the *content* of the programs. B. Computers 1. Children mostly use computers to access the *Internet, play games, and socialize.* 2. As with TV, the *content* is what affects children most. 3. Online communication promotes *self-disclosure, which produces friendship and well-being.*

*Emerging Emotions*

*Emerging Emotions* A. Experiencing and Expressing Emotions 1. *Joy, anger, surprise, fear, interest, distress, disgust, and sadness* are basic emotions. 2. *Basic emotions* are experienced by people worldwide, and each consists of three elements: *a subjective feeling, a physiological change, and an overt behavior.* 3. By *8 or 9* months of age, infants seem to experience *all basic emotions.* 4. *Social smiles* first appear at about 2 or 3 months of age. 5. *Anger* develops between 4 and 6 months of age. 6. *Fear* develops at 6 months, along with *stranger wariness,* when infants become wary in the presence of an unfamiliar adult. 7. Emergence of Complex Emotions a) *Complex emotions* (guilt, embarrassment, and pride) emerge at 18 to 24 months of age because they require an *understanding of the self. * 8. Later Developments a) As children grow, *different situations or events* elicit complex emotions, such as guilt and shame. b) *Fear* can also be elicited in different ways depending on a child's age. 9. Cultural Differences in Emotional Expression a) *Cultures differ* in the extent to which emotional expression is encouraged, what triggers emotions, and how and when emotions are expressed. B. Recognizing and Using Others' Emotions 1. As early as 4 months, infants begin to distinguish *facial expression* associated with different emotions. 2. Infants use *social referencing,* or looking at a caregiver for cues to interpret a situation, to direct their behavior. C. Regulating Emotions 1. *Attention* is an important part of emotion regulation. 2. Emotion regulation begins by *4 to 6 months* of age. 3. *Older children* rely less on others to regulate emotions for them: they more often rely on *mental strategies* to regulate emotions, and they more accurately match the strategies for regulating emotion with the particular setting. 4. Children who don't regulate their emotions well tend to have *problems interacting with peers* and *problems adjusting to school.*

*Family Relationships*

*Family Relationships* A. Socialization: 1. *Socialization:* is defined as teaching children the values, roles, and behaviors of their culture. 2. Socialization is a major goal of *all peoples.* B. Dimensions and styles of parenting 1. Parenting can be described in terms of *general dimensions* that represent stable aspects of parental behavior. 2. The degree of warmth and responsiveness expressed by parents to their children *differs.* 3. Children *benefit* from warm and responsive parenting. 4. The amount of control parents exert over their children also differs, with an *intermediate* amount being best. 5. Parenting styles offer *different* benefits. a) Combining warmth and control yields four prototypic dimensions of parenting: (1) *Authoritarian parenting* combines high control with little warmth. (2) *Authoritative parenting* combines a fair degree of parental control with being warm and responsive to children. (3) *Permissive parenting* offers warmth and caring but little parental control. (4) *Uninvolved parenting* provides neither warmth nor control. b) *Authoritative parenting* is *best* for most children most of the time. c) Variations associated with *culture and socioeconomic status* (1) *European Americans* believe that parents should be warm and exert moderate control. In *Asian* and *Latin American countries,* individualism is less important than cooperation and collaboration. 6. *Parental behavior* has an effect on *child behavior.* a) *Direct instruction* involves telling a child what to do, when, and why. b) *Modeling* combined with young children's observational learning leads to imitation. c) *Feedback* can be used by parents to indicate whether a behavior is appropriate and should continue or is inappropriate and should stop. (1) *Reinforcement* is any action that increases the likelihood of the response. (2) *Punishment* is any action that discourages the recurrence of the response that it follows. (3) Parents often unwittingly reinforce the very behaviors they want to discourage, a situation called the *negative reinforcement trap.* d) Punishment works best when it is administered *consistently* and *directly after* the undesired behavior occurs, *accompanied by an explanation*, and *delivered by someone with whom the child has a warm relationship.* e) Punishment has drawbacks: it is primarily *suppressive* and can have *undesirable side effects.* f) One method that combines the best features of punishment while avoiding its shortcomings is *time-out,* in which a child who misbehaves must briefly sit alone in a quiet, unstimulating location. 7. The *marital system* can influence the parent-child relationships. a) *Chronic parental conflict* is harmful for children because children feel frightened, parental conflict spills over into the parent-child relationship, and constant parental conflict prevents parents from being able to invest in high-quality parenting. b) Parents' effectiveness as a *parenting team* and *work-related stress* also have indirect influences on child development. 8. Children contribute, too, through *reciprocal influence.* a) The *child's age and temperament* affect how parents treat the child. C. Siblings 1. One of the benefits of a sibling's birth is that *fathers become more involved with their older children*, as *mothers must devote more time to the newborn.* 2. The basic pattern of sibling interaction seems to be established *early in development* and *remains fairly stable.* 3. Siblings of the same sex tend to have more *warm and harmonious relationships.* 4. Birth order has an impact: a) Parents of first-born children have *high expectations* and are more *affectionate and punitive* toward their first-borns. b) First-borns tend to have *higher IQ scores*, are more likely to go to *college*, and are more willing to *conform to parents' and adults' requests.* c) Only children are, for the most part, much like children who grow up with siblings. D. Divorce and Remarriage 1. Divorce is more harmful when it occurs *during childhood* and *adolescence* than during the *preschool or college years.* 2. In *joint custody,* both parents retain legal custody of the children; everyone benefits from joint custody if the parents get along. 3. Children often adjust better when they live with the *same-sex parent.* 4. *Reducing the harm of divorce:* a) Explain together to children why they are divorcing and what the children can expect to happen to them. b) Reassure children that they will always love them and will always be their parents. c) Don't compete with each other for children's love and attention. d) Don't take out anger with each other on children or criticize the ex-spouse in front of the children. e) Don't ask children to mediate disputes. 5. *Blended families have their own issues:* a) The unit that results after remarriages, consisting of a biological parent, stepparent, and children, is known as a *blended family.* b) The blended family can be successful, but it takes effort because of the *complicated relationships, conflicting loyalties, and jealousies that usually exist.* c) Programs that emphasize *effective co-parenting* can result in fewer behavior problems in children and greater marital satisfaction. E. Parent-Child Relationships Gone Awry: Child Maltreatment 1. *Maltreatment* of children comes in many forms: a) *Physical abuse* involves assault that leads to injuries. b) *Sexual abuse* involves fondling, intercourse, or other sexual behaviors. c) *Neglect* occurs when children do not receive adequate food, clothing, or medical care. d) *Psychological abuse* involves ridicule, rejection, or humiliation. 2. The prognosis for maltreated youngsters is not very good. 3. *What children are at risk for maltreatment?* (1) *Cultural and social factors, poverty, social isolation, parental factors, and child factors* all contribute to which children are at risk for maltreatment. (2) Maltreatment becomes more likely when *cultures condone physical punishment, parents lack effective skills for dealing with children, and a child's behavior is frequently aversive.*

*Gender Roles and Gender Identity*

*Gender Roles and Gender Identity* A. Images of Men and Women: Facts and Fantasy 1. *Social roles,* a set of cultural guidelines as to how a person should behave, are among the first that children learn. *Gender stereotypes* are beliefs about males and females that may or may not be true. 2. Learning gender stereotypes: a) 18-month-olds begin to pay more attention to toys that are *gender-stereotypical.* b) By 4 years of age, children's knowledge of gender-stereotyped activities is *extensive.* 3. Gender-related differences: a) Boys are more *active* than girls. b) Girls have a lower *mortality rate* than boys and are less susceptible to *stress and disease.* c) Girls have greater *verbal skills*, and boys have greater *spatial skills.* d) Girls and women are more readily *influenced by others* in a variety of situations. e) In virtually all cultures that have been studied, *males are more physically aggressive.* Girls are more likely to use *relational aggression* in which they try to hurt others by damaging their relationships with peers. f) Girls are better able to *express their emotions* and *interpret other's emotions.* g) Gender differences depend on a *person's experiences*, *may fluctuate over time*, and *do not apply to all boys and girls.* B. Gender Typing 1. According to social-cognitive theory, children learn *gender roles* by watching the world around them. 2. Fathers, more than mothers, *treat sons and daughters differently*, *encourage gender-related play*, and *punish their sons more but accept dependence in their daughters.* 3. Mothers tend to respond based on *each child's need.* 4. By 3 years of age, most children's play shows the impact of *gender stereotypes.* 5. As children begin to identify with one gender, they gradually develop a *gender identity,* or a sense of the self as male or female. C. Gender Identity 1. Full understanding of gender develops in *three steps:* a) Toddlers *label* themselves as boys or girls. b) During the preschool years, children understand that *sex is stable.* c) At about 5 or 6 years, a child understands that *gender does not change over situations and time* or *according to personal wishes.* 2. According to *gender-schema theory*, children first decide if an object, activity, or behavior is associated with females or males, then they use this information to decide whether they should learn more about the object, activity, or behavior. 3. Biological influences: a) Gender roles may be based in part on our *evolutionary heritage.* b) *Twin studies* point to a biological basis for gender-role learning. D. Evolving Gender Roles 1. Gender roles are *changing* and have *evolved* over time. 2. Some components of gender stereotypes are more *readily changed* than others and more *readily influenced* by experience than others.

*Information Processing during Infancy and Early Childhood*

*Information Processing during Infancy and Early Childhood* A. General Principles of Information Processing 1. *Mental hardware* refers to mental and neural structures that are built in and that allow the mind to operate. *Mental software* refers to mental programs that are the basis for performing particular tasks. B. Attention 1. *Attention* is a process that determines which sensory information receives additional cognitive processing. 2. The *orienting response* occurs when individuals see a strong or unfamiliar stimulus. They startle, fix their eyes on it, and experience changes in heart rate and brainwave activity. 3. *Preschool children* are more easily distracted than older children and adults. *habituation:* becoming unresponsive to a stimulus that is presented repeatedly C. Learning 1. In *classical conditioning,* a neutral stimulus elicits a response that was originally produced by another stimulus. 2. *Operant conditioning* focuses on the relation between the consequences of behavior and the likelihood that the behavior will recur. 3. *Imitation* involves watching how others will behave and replicating the same behavior. D. Memory 1. Experiments involving a mobile reveal that three important features of memory exist in infants: *an event from the past is remembered; over time, the event can no longer be recalled; and a cue prompts a memory that seems to have been forgotten.* 2. Memory *improves* in older infants and toddlers. 3. *Autobiographical memory,* or people's memory of the significant events and experiences of their own lives, originates in the preschool years. Language skills and a child's sense of self help this type of memory to emerge. E. Preschoolers as Eyewitnesses 1. Preschoolers are easily *misled.* 2. This can be minimized by following several guidelines when interviewing children: a) interview children as *soon as possible* after the event, b) encourage children to *tell the truth,* say "I don't know," and correct interviewers, c) ask children to describe the event in their *own words,* ask *open-ended questions,* and minimize the use of specific questions, d) start the interview by discussing a *neutral event,* and e) ask questions to consider *alternative explanations.* F. Learning Number Skills 1. Infants are able to *distinguish* small quantities and can *compare* quantities. G. Learning to Count 1. By *2 years of age*, some counting is possible, which reflects mastery of three basic principles of counting: a) *One-to-one principle:* there must be one and only one number name for each object that is counted. b) *Stable-order principle:* number names must be counted in the same order. c) *Cardinality principle:* the last number name differs from the previous ones in a counting sequence by denoting the number of objects.

*Interacting with Others*

*Interacting with Others* A. The Joys of Play 1. In *parallel play,* toddlers play alone while being interested in each other. 2. By 15-18 months, *simple social play* emerges, in which children engage in similar activities and interact with one another. 3. At about 2 years of age, *cooperative play* emerges, wherein play is organized around a theme, and children take on special roles based on the theme. 4. Make-Believe a) *Make-believe play* promotes cognitive development and allows children to explore topics that may frighten them. It also promotes more advanced language, memory, reasoning, and understanding of other people's thoughts beliefs, and feelings. 5. Solitary Play a) *Solitary play* is usually normal, but some forms of solitary play are signs that children are uneasy interacting with others (e.g., wandering aimlessly). 6. Gender Differences in Play a) Between 2 and 3 years of age, children prefer to *play with same-sex peers.* b) Boys and girls differ in their *style of play,* which may be the cause of sex segregation in play. (1) Boys prefer *rough-and-tumble play* and are more *competitive and dominating.* (2) Girls' play is *not as rough* and is *less competitive.* (3) Girls' interactions with one another are typically *enabling (actions and remarks support each other and sustain the interaction)*, whereas boys' interactions are often *constricting (effort is made to emerge as the victor by threatening or contradicting).* 7. Parental Influence a) Parents get involved in their preschool children's play in direct ways (1) *Playmates,* where they use the opportunity to scaffold their children's play. (2) *Social director,* where they arrange play/social activities for their children. (3) *Coach,* where they help their children acquire a host of skills. (4) *Mediator,* when they help young children learn how to iron out conflicts. b) Parents also influence children's play *indirectly,* via the *quality of the parent-child attachment relationships.* B. Helping Others 1. *Prosocial behavior* is any behavior that benefits another person. 2. *Altruism* is behavior driven by feelings of responsibility toward others, in which individuals do not benefit directly from their actions. 3. Skills underlying altruistic behavior a) *Perspective-taking skills* affect altruistic behavior. b) Children who feel a good deal of *empathy*, which is the actual experiencing of another's feelings, share better with others and help others more often. 4. Children act altruistically when they feel *responsible for the person in need*, *feel competent in their ability*, are in a *good mood*, and feel that the *cost of altruism entails few or modest sacrifices*. 5. *Genes* affect prosocial behavior by influencing *temperament.* 6. Parents contribute to altruistic behavior by *modeling helping behaviors*, *being warm and supportive*, *providing positive feedback*, and *giving children the opportunity to practice helping others.*

*Language*

*Language* A. The Road to Speech 1. *Phonemes* are unique sounds that can be joined to create words. 2. Infants can distinguish phonemes soon after *birth.* B. The Impact of Language Exposure 1. Not all languages use the same set of *phonemes.* 2. Infants can even *perceive phonemes* that are not used in their native language, but this ability is *lost* by the first birthday. C. Identifying Words 1. 7- to 8-month-olds can *listen* to sentences and *recognize* the sound patterns that they hear repeatedly. 2. Infants identify the *beginning* of words by paying more attention to stressed *syllables* and noticing *sounds* that go together frequently. 3. *Infant-directed speech* refers to adults' speech to infants that is slower and has greater variation in pitch and loudness. D. Steps to Speech 1. At 2 months, infants begin to produce vowel-like sounds known as *cooing.* 2. After cooing comes *babbling,* speech-like sound that has no meaning. a) At 8 to 11 months, infants' babbling sounds more like *real speech.* E. First Words and Many More 1. The onset of first words is triggered by the realization that *words are symbols.* 2. Most children learn meanings of words much too rapidly for them to consider all plausible meanings systematically. This is referred to as *fast mapping.* 3. *Joint attention* simplifies word learning for children; they use many simple rules to identify word meaning. 4. Children's increased *cognitive skills* help them learn new words. 5. At any age, infants and toddlers rely on a mixture of word-learning tools, but with age, they gradually move away from *attentional cues* to *language and social cues.* 6. Rules for learning new words are not perfect, and children often make mistakes. a) *Underextension* refers to defining a word too narrowly. b) *Overextension* refers to defining a word too broadly. 7. Bilingual children reach most language milestones at *about the same age* as monolingual children. Bilingualism has many advantages. 8. Word-learning styles a) Some children have a *referential style*; their vocabularies mainly consist of words that name objects, a person, or actions. b) Other children use an *expressive style;* their vocabularies include some names but also many social phrases. 9. Actively involving children in *language-related activities* is key to language growth a) The more parents *speak* to their children, the more rapidly words are learned. b) Parents can help children learn words by *reading with them.* c) *Watching certain videos,* but not cartoons or *infant-oriented videos,* can help word learning. F. Speaking in Sentences: Grammatical Development 1. Within months of their first words, children create *two-word sentences.* 2. *Telegraphic speech* includes only words directly relevant to meaning and nothing more. 3. *Grammatical morphemes* are words or word endings such as -ing, -ed, or -s. 4. *Overregularizations* are rules that children apply to words that are exceptions to the rule. 5. How children acquire grammar a) The behaviorist answer is that children learn through *imitation and reinforcement.* b) The linguistic answer is that children are born with *brain circuits* for inferring the grammar of their native language. c) The cognitive answer is that children learn grammar through powerful *cognitive skills* that help them rapidly detect speech patterns they hear in their environment. d) According to the social interaction approach, language learning takes place in the context of interaction between *children and adults.* G. Communicating with Others 1. Parents encourage *turn-taking* even before infants talk. By age 2, children spontaneously take turns. By age 3, children will prompt another to take their turn. 2. Infants first try to initiate communication around *10 months of age.* 3. By the preschool years, children adjust their *message* to match the listener and the context. 4. By the time children are ready to enter kindergarten, they use language with *remarkable proficiency.*

*Mind and Culture: Vygotsky's Theory*

*Mind and Culture: Vygotsky's Theory* A. The difference between what children can do with assistance and what they can do alone defines the *zone of proximal development.* B. *Scaffolding* is a style in which teachers gauge the amount of assistance they offer to match the learner's needs. C. *Private speech* consists of comments that are not intended for others but are designed to help children regulate their own behavior.

*Peers*

*Peers* A. Friendships 1. *Friendship* is a voluntary relationship between two people involving mutual liking. 2. The key elements of friendships in younger children are that they *like each other* and *enjoy playing together*; for older children, that there is *trust and assistance*; and for adolescents, that there is *intimacy.* 3. Who are friends? a) Friendships are more common between children *similar in race, sex, and gender, as well as similar attitudes towards school, recreation, and the future.* 4. What are the quality and consequences of friendships? a) Some friendships are brief because children lack the *social skills to sustain them, conflicts, or a growing dissimilarity between the friends.* b) Children with good friends cope better with *life stresses, are less likely to be victimized by peers, and have greater self-worth as young adults.* c) Sometimes friends spend much of their time discussing each other's personal problems (known as *co-rumination*), which strengthens girls' friendships but also puts them at risk for greater depression and anxiety. B. Groups 1. Older children and adolescents often form *cliques*: small groups of like-minded children or adolescents who are friends and tend to be similar in age, sex, race, and attitudes. 2. A *crowd* is a larger mixed-sex group of older children or adolescents who have similar values and attitudes, and are known by a common label. 3. Group structure varies: a) Common to most groups is a *dominance hierarchy,* a well-defined structure headed by a leader to whom all other members of the group defer. Physical power and individual traits that relate to the group's main function determine hierarchy. b) *Peer pressure* is neither always powerful nor always evil. C. Popularity and Rejection 1. Most elementary-school children can be placed in one of five categories: a) *Popular children* are liked by many classmates. b) *Rejected children* are disliked by many classmates. c) *Controversial children* are both liked and disliked by classmates intensely by classmates. d) *Average children* are liked and disliked by some classmates but without the intensity found for popular, rejected, or controversial children. e) *Neglected children* are ignored by classmates. 2. Causes and consequences of rejection stem are far reaching. a) Repeated peer rejection in childhood can have *serious long-term consequences.* b) Peer rejection can be traced, at least in part, to the *influence of parents.* c) All in all, *socially awkward, aggressive children* are rejected because they rely on an aggressive interpersonal style. D. Aggressive Children and Their Victims 1. In *instrumental aggression,* a child uses aggression to achieve a goal. 2. *Hostile aggression* is unprovoked, and its primary goal is to intimidate, harass, and humiliate. 3. *Relational aggression* is when children try to hurt others by undermining their social relationships. 4. Children's tendencies to behave aggressively are *stable* over time. 5. Chronic victims of aggression are often *lonely, anxious, and depressed, tend to dislike school, and have low self-esteem.* a) Both *aggressive and withdrawn submissive children* end up as victims. 6. Victims can be *taught ways of dealing with aggression*: *they can be encouraged to not respond in kind when insulted and to not show fear when threatened.*

*Physical Development*

*Physical Development* A. Growth 1. *Physical growth* during the elementary-school years continues at the steady pace established during the preschool years. 2. Most children gain about *eight pounds* and *two to three inches* per year. 3. *Boys and girls* are about the same size for most of the elementary-school years, but *girls* are much more likely than boys to enter* puberty toward the end of this period.* 4. School-age children need to *eat more* to support their growth and provide energy for their busy lives. 5. School-age children should *eat breakfast,* which provides one-fourth the days' calories. B. Development of Motor Skills 1. Elementary-school children's greater size and strength contributes to *improved motor skills.* 2. *Fine motor skills* also improve as children move through the elementary-school years. 3. Gender differences in motor skills a) Girls tend to excel in *fine motor skills.* b) Girls also excel in *gross motor skills* that require *flexibility and balance.* c) Boys tend to have the advantage on *gross motor skills that emphasize strength.* 4. As children approach and enter puberty, girls' bodies have proportionately more *fat and less muscle* than boys' bodies, which affects some motor skills. 5. However, for *other gross motor skills,* children's *experience* is crucial. C. Physical Fitness 1. *Physical activity* helps to promote physical and mental growth and health. 2. Although most school-age children meet the current guidelines for physical activity, fewer than half of U.S. school-age children meet standards for fitness on all tasks. 3. *Obesity* has also reached epidemic proportions among American children. 4. Factors contributing to low levels of fitness include *infrequent physical education classes, low activity during physical education classes, and sedentary leisure-time activities.* 5. Strategies to improve fitness include making *physical education classes more frequent* and *more focused on activities that can be done throughout adulthood*, and *encouraging families to focus on fitness activities.* D. Participating in Sports 1. Children's greater motor skill means they are able to *participate in many team sports.* 2. Sports participation *benefits their motor skills, their self-esteem, helps them learn initiative, provides opportunity to learn important social skills, and uses emerging cognitive skills.* 3. There are also potential hazards to participating in sports. Several studies have linked youth participation in sports to *delinquent and antisocial behavior.* 4. Adults must have *realistic expectations* for children and *coach positively* to encourage youth participation in sports.

*Special Children, Special Needs*

*Special Children, Special Needs* A. Gifted Children 1. Traditionally, *gifted children* have been those with high scores on IQ tests; today, definitions of giftedness are broader and include *exceptional talent* in an assortment of areas. 2. Creativity a) Gifted children are *passionate about their subject* and have a *powerful desire to master it.* b) *Divergent thinking* occurs when thinking in novel and unusual directions, which is associated with creativity. c) Both creativity and giftedness must be *cultivated.* B. Children with Disabilities 1. Children with intellectual disability a) *Intellectual disability* refers to substantially limitations in intellectual ability (IQ score of 70 or lower) and problems adapting to an environment that emerges before the age of 18. b) Four factors place individuals at risk for intellectual disability: *biomedical, social, behavioral, and educational factors.* 2. Children with learning disability a) Children with a *learning disability* (1) have difficulty mastering one or more academic subjects; (2) exhibit normal intelligence; and (3) do not suffer from other conditions that could explain poor performance, such as sensory impairment or inadequate instruction. b) The three common disabilities are difficulties reading words (*developmental dyslexia*), difficulties understanding words that have been read (*impaired reading comprehension*), and difficulties in mathematics (*mathematical learning disability or developmental dyscalculia*). c) Children with developmental dyslexia benefit from training in *phonological awareness* along with explicit instruction on the connections between letters and their sounds. d) Children with impaired reading comprehension benefit from *extensive instruction in vocabulary* and *other language skills not specific to reading.* e) Mathematical disability reflects *poor number sense* and problems in the* basic cognitive processes that are used in doing arithmetic*, such as *working memory* and *processing speed.* 3. Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder a) Roughly *3 to 5 percent* of all school-age children are diagnosed with ADHD. *Boys* outnumber girls by a 4:1 ratio. b) Three symptoms are at the heart of ADHD (1) *Hyperactivity:* children with ADHD are unusually energetic, fidgety, and unable to keep still. (2) *Inattention:* children with ADHD do not pay attention in class and seem unable to concentrate on schoolwork. (3) *Impulsivity:* children with ADHD often act before thinking. c) ADHS *is not caused by* TV, food allergies, sugar, or poor home life. d) ADHD is a chronic condition that is *not outgrown in adolescence or young adulthood* e) Researchers have worked hard to find effective treatments (1) *Stimulants* have a calming influence for many children with ADHD and allow them to focus their attention. (2) *Psychosocial treatments* improve children's cognitive and social skills. (3) Several months of intensive treatment will not "*cure*" ADHD.

*The Onset of Thinking: Piaget's Account*

*The Onset of Thinking: Piaget's Account* A. Basic Principles of Cognitive Development 1. According to Piaget, children understand the world with *schemes,* psychological structures that organize experience. 2. *Assimilation* occurs when new experiences are readily incorporated into existing schemes, whereas *accommodation* occurs when schemes are modified based on experience. 3. Assimilation and accommodation are usually in balance, called *equilibrium,* but when the balance is upset, the scheme must return to the state through a process called *equilibration.* B. Sensorimotor Thinking (birth-2 years) *Sensorimotor period:* the first of piaget's four stages of cognitive development, which lasts from birth to approximately 2 years old. 1. Infants move from reflex at birth to deliberate, *intentional behavior* by 8 months of age. Beginning at 12 months, infants become *active experimenters.* 2. *Object permanence* is the understanding that objects exist independently. Piaget argued that a full understanding of this concept does not emerge until about 18 months of age. 3. By 18 months, infants begin to talk and gestures, evidence of their capacity to use *symbols.* C. Preoperational Thinking (2-7 years) a) Preoperational children's view of the world is *egocentric;* they believe others see the world exactly as they do. b) Preoperational children have a narrowly focused thought process called *centration.* c) Preoperational children often confuse *appearance* with reality. D. Evaluating Piaget's Theory a) Piaget's theory *underestimates cognitive competence* in infants and young children and overestimates it in adolescents. b) Piaget's theory is *vague* with respect to *processes of change.* c) Piaget's stage model does not account for *variability* in children's performance. d) Piaget's theory undervalues the influence of the *sociocultural environment* on cognitive development. E. Extending Piaget's Account: Children's Naïve Theories 1. According to the *core knowledge hypothesis,* infants are born with knowledge of the world and this knowledge is elaborated based on experience. 2. *Naïve physics* is used to assess children's understanding of object permanence. 3. 4-year-olds' naïve theories of biology include understanding about *growth, internal parts, inheritance, and healing.*

*Understanding Others*

*Understanding Others* A. As children move beyond the preschool years, they realize that others see the *world differently*, *both literally and figuratively*, and start to take the *perspective of other people.* 1. Children go through five stages of perspective-taking: a) *Undifferentiated:* Children know that others have different thoughts and feelings, but confuse them with their own thoughts and feelings. b) *Social-informational:* Children know that perspectives differ because people have access to different information. c) *Self-reflective:* Children can step into another person's shoes. d) Third-person. Children can understand a third-person perspective. e) *Societal:* Children realize that the third-person perspective is influenced by contexts. B. Prejudice 1. Once preschool children identify with a group, they begin to show *prejudice,* a negative view of others based on their membership in a specific group. 2. *Overt prejudice* declines during the elementary school years but implicit bias remains the same. 3. *Parents, teachers, and other adults* can help rid children of prejudice: a) *Encourage friendly and constructive contacts between children from different groups.* b) *Encourage intergroup contact.* c) When children learn about the *racism that minority groups experience, they tend to have more positive attitudes toward those groups who have experienced racism.*

Anal Stage

-1-3 yr -Libido focused on anus. Toilet training creates conflicts between biological urges and society demands

Genital Stage

-12> -Puberty reawakens libido and youth seeks mature sexual relationships toward the goal of reproduction

Phallic Stage

-3-6 yr -Libido centers on genitals. Resolution of Oedipus/Electra complex results in identification with sex-sex parent and superego development

Latent Period

-6-12 yr -Libido is quiet. Energy is focused on school and same-sex friends

Which theory is more accurate?

-A combination of the two is supported by research, but neither theory accounts for role of personality in influencing well-being in old age -Importance of goodness of fit between the individuals lifestyle and needs

What characteristics contribute to language achievement in children?

-Age; motivation; self-efficacy; changes in IQ -Parent engagement, support, and encouragement; stimulating environments; resources -School/classroom environment; teacher and school quality; adaptive, engaging, and supportive teachers; school resources ($)

Formation of Ethnic Identity

-All individuals have ethnicity and cultural background, but minorities in the US tend to put more emphasis on defining who they are ethnically -Children become increasingly aware of ethnic or racial differences -In forming positive ethnic identity, adolescents seem to proceed through the same identity status process -A positive ethnic identity can protect individuals from the damaging effects of racial or ethnic discrimination, contribute to self-esteem, promote academic achievement, adjustment, and reduce depression

Infant Identity

-Around 18 months infants develop self- recognition or ability to recognize self in mirror or photo -Varies by children raised in individualistic or collectivist cultures -By 18-24 months, they have begun to categorize themselves with others who are like them in terms of gender, age, etc. -Self-awareness is somewhat dependent on cognitive development, but also on social interaction (secure attachment with parents and a sense of normative behavior)

Child IQ

-At ~4, there is a strong link between early and later IQ -Some sizable ups and downs in IQ over childhood -Changes in IQ over childhood may be due to motivational issues, environment, poverty, or cultural biases

Social Learning/Social Cognitive Theory

-Bandura and Mischel -Reject the notion of universal stages of personality development and questioned the existence of enduring personality traits -People's behavior is influenced by the situations they are in and changes if their environments change, or other behaviors are reinforced -Emphasis on power of social context -Different situations = different personality

Contributions of Biology to Language

-Children are biological programmed with capacities to learn language (genetic basis) -At birth have the ability to learn any language -Exposure to specific language results in learning -Language acquisition device (LAD): set of linguistic processing skills that nativists believe are innate; enables child to infer rules governing speech and use these rules to produce language -Children learn words they hear; both when spoken to them and when observing others -When reinforced, children use more language and develop skills -Parents support accurate but grammatically incorrect and grammatically correct but inaccurate statements -Children work with what they learn to produce language and, over time, are corrected and pick up on rules of speech

How do nature and nurture work together in language?

-Children's biologically based competencies and their language environment interact to shape the course of language development -With maturation, children developmental abilities and their environment support learning

What do these two issues relate to and when do they disappear?

-Clearly related to Piaget's assimilation concept -These sorts of errors begin to disappear around 2.5-3 years

Stenberg's Triarchic Theory

-Comprised of practical, creative, and analytic intelligences (description next slide) -Later expanded idea of successful intelligence -When people establish and achieve reasonable goals consistent with skills and circumstances, -optimize strengths and minimize weaknesses, -adapt to environment, and -use all three components of triarchic theory

Adult IQ

-Connection between IQ and income/occupational prestige is striking -Greater IQ would enable person to handle more complex or challenging work, or even simply, go to college and be successful -Relationship between IQ health and SES -IQ scores remain relatively stable from preadolescence well into older adulthood -Crystalized intelligence stays same but fluid intelligence drops -Poor health, diseases, unstimulating lifestyle contribute to declines

Adult Language and Learning

-Continue to learn new language throughout life -Older adult may experience more "tip-of-the- tongue" moments for some words -Caused by retrieval issues not knowledge issues -Achievement motivation in childhood and adolescence can carry out into adulthood -Motivated to do well in work or higher education degrees -There is an increasing trend for older adults to go back to school (program at UD)

Adult Creativity

-Creative production increases from the 20s to early 40s, then gradually declines -Peak times of creativity vary from field to field Humanities scholars peak in their 60s -Productivity in arts peaks in 30s and 40s -Creative behavior is possible throughout life

Creativity

-Defined as the ability to produce novel responses appropriate in context and valued by others—products both original and meaningful -Debates on definition -Creativity is related to intelligence

Adolescent Creativity

-Drop in creativity in middle school (pressure to conform and fit it) but bounces back -With advancements in cognitive, perceptual, memory, and processing abilities, creativity increase

Temperament in Children

-Early response tendencies (temperament) are elaborated into a predictable personality during childhood, which then predicts later personality and adjustment -Behavioral inhibition and self-control are two areas that tend to see continuity in personalities across the life span -Personalities also change in response to parenting, cultural pressures, and other environmental influences -Correlations between childhood traits and adult traits are usually quite small, but grow more stable over time -Goodness-of-fit model also helps explain how some personality traits are encouraged in certain cultures but not in others

Infant Temperament

-Early, genetically based but also environmentally influenced tendencies to respond in predictable ways to events that serve as the building blocks of later personality -Evident from the first weeks of life Research on temperament: -Easy, Difficult, and Slow-to-warm-up (Chess & Thomas, 1999) -Behavioral inhibition (Kagan) -Surgency/Extraversion, Negative Affect, & Effortful control (Rothbart)

Adolescent Memory & Processing

-Emergence of new learning and memory strategies (e.g., master elaboration) -More deliberate and selective of strategies -Greater attentional abilities and processing speed greatly help here -Greater functional use of working memory due to maturational changes=process faster and more at once -Knowledge base continues to expand -Metamemory and metacognition improve -Make better choices about their learning -Some evidence of differences by race, gender, and SES level (resources & experience)

Adolescent Identity

-Erikson's psychosocial conflict of the adolescent stage was identity vs. role confusion -To achieve a sense of identity, the adolescent must integrate the varied perceptions of the self-concept into a coherent sense of self -Erikson's identity crisis and moratorium period (period of self- exploration and discovery) -Factors that influence identity formation: Cognitive development, personality, quality of relationship with parents, opportunities for exploration, & cultural context

Psychoanalytic Theory (Freud)

-Freud's universal stages of psychosexual development -Thought personality was formed during first 5 years of life and thereafter showed considerable continuity -Early experiences leave mark on later personality traits

Infant Memory & Processing

-Hard to study; requires some ingenuity (remember, they cannot talk yet) -Imitation vs. Deferred Imitation (imitation occurring after delay ~ early form of explicit memory)

Self Esteem

-How Good Am I? -your overall evaluation of your worth as a person -Based on all +/- self- perceptions that make up your self-concept

Identity

-Identity an overall sense of: who we are, where we are headed, where we fit in society -Who Am I? -most changes in adolescence

Personality Development in Children

-Increasingly sophisticated self-conceptions, including social identities and social comparison -Self-esteem: becomes more differentiated and multidimensional with age -At~8,childrendevelopmoreaccurateself-evaluation,butthey have also developed an ideal self which will be increasingly out of reach -Decrease is average self-esteem from early to middle childhood -Social feedback has a big impact on self-perceptions and self- esteem -Child's self-esteem remains surprisingly stable over the elementary school years -Some concerns over going overboard with praise, children also need opportunities to learn about their limitations and develop a realistic sense of self

Psychometric Approach to defining intelligence

-Intelligence is a trait or set of traits that characterizes some people to a greater extent than others -Use a variety of tests to precisely identify traits and explore differences among people

Adolescent Language/Achievement

-Know a lot of words and their meaning -For some, see declines in achievement but generally based on contextual factors -Family life, adjustment to changes, peer group/pressure, risk behaviors, self esteem, or mental health -Poor fit between person and environment -Dropout risks are increased by low IQ, test scores, grades, behavior, SES, family problems, and others

Vocational Identity

-Main developmental trend evident in vocational choice is increasing realism with age- shift from fantasy to informed choice -Vocational choice is a search for an optimal fit between one's self-concept and personality and an occupation -Vocational choices are often constrained by gender norms

Adolescent School/Work

-Many adolescents work part-time jobs (for a variety of reasons) -By 12th grade 60% are doing some sort of work -Gain wealth and independence but lose some free and study time—increased stress? -Research finds that working may be more damaging than beneficial to adolescents success for many because of nature of jobs -No room for growth

Infant IQ

-Measure IQ by assessing rate at which infants achieve important developmental milestones (e.g., motor skills or adaptive skills) -Not a true measure of intelligence (a measured later in life) so not a great predictor of future IQ -Some have found that attention and reaction time predict later IQ

How does memory change with aging?

-Most adults report having some difficulty in remembering things -Older adults learn new material slower (and sometimes less) and are less likely to remember what they learned -Retrieve information slower; test poorly when timed (require speed; cognitively demanding) -Test poorly on new or unfamiliar content -Have trouble with tasks that that require unexercised skills -More trouble with recall than recognition -More trouble with explicit memory task than implicit memory tasks

Infant Language

-Newborns are in tune with speech immediately and show preference for human speech -Have ability to differentiate between words in a stream of speech (word segmentation) -Begin producing sounds as they notice they influence caregivers reactions (e.g., hiccup results in mother saying "My goodness!") -By 10 months, infants can understand an average of 50 words; however, most cannot produce -Early understanding of words is related to childhood school grades -Speech usually beings around 1 year with holophrases: a single word utterance used by infant to represent an entire sentence worth of meaning (e.g., ghetti = I want spaghetti) -Infants slowly acquire more and more words until ~18 months when they experience a vocabulary spurt (word learning rapidly quickens) -Infants are motivated to learn language; without prompting from parents -It is higher in cases of greater stimulation -There are many tools/programs designed to get children speaking and reading sooner (e.g., baby Einstein) -Some people see this as problematic Many do not work!! -With exposure to a variety of stimulating environments and situations, speech and language will come naturally and with practice

What are the explanations for these declines in old age?

-Not likely due to deficiencies in knowledge base -Not likely due to issue with metamemory (e.g.,choosing ineffective or inefficient memory strategies) -However, older adults are experience a loss in confidence in memory skills (due to stereotypes) -Many older adults do not spontaneously use memory strategies; but they can -Problem lies with retrieval of details not in the original encoding of the event -Working memory capacity declines (slower processing; juggle less at once; harder to ignore irrelevant information) -Contextual factors (motivation,cultural context, characteristics of task)

Child Language

-Number and ability to use words continues to increase -The average 1st grader knows some 10,000 words and learns between 5-13 new words a day -They improve in their knowledge of language as a system (metalinguistic awareness) -Reading is one of the most important achievements in school for children -Readings requires direct instruction for learning and mastery (unlike language—is hard work!)

What are the changes in memory strategy? (Child)

-Older children have better "software" -They have learned and consistently use effective methods for putting information into long-term memory and retrieving it when they need it -Use strategies: rehearsal, organization, elaboration -Can learn new memory strategies and choose between them (~4-5) -Improved attention helps here

What are the changes in basic capacity? (Child)

-Older children have higher-powered "hardware" -Brain development contributes to more working- memory space for manipulating information and an ability to process information faster -Sensory register and long-term memory capacities don't change with age but operating speed and efficiency of working memory improves

What are the changes in knowledge about memory? (Child)

-Older children know more about memory and cognition -Greater metamemory awareness linked with greater memory abilities -For example, how long they must study to learn things thoroughly, which kinds of memory tasks take more effort, and which strategies best fit each task

What are the changes in knowledge about the world? (Child)

-Older children know more about the world in general -This knowledge makes material to be learned more familiar -Familiar material is easier to learn and remember than unfamiliar material -Some children have very developed area of expertise (e.g., children with dinosaurs)

What are the factors that influence autobiographical memories?

-Personal significance: more likely to remember events of importance to self -Distinctiveness: unique or novel events are more likely to be recalled -Emotional intensity: highly (-/+) are more likely to be recalled -Life phase of event: events in teens and 20s are more likely to be recalled (a lot is happening)

Continuity/Discontinuity of Personality

-Repeated evaluations with the Big Five personality tests have shown consistency in personality over time, but also room for change -Tendency to be consistent increases with age -Some traits seem to increase or decrease in most individuals with age (i.e. extraversion and openness to experience decline and emotional stability conscientiousness, and agreeableness increase) -Personality tends to be relatively stable because of genetic makeup, lasting effects of childhood experiences, and the relative stability of environments -Personality change is more likely when there is a poor person- environment fit

Adolescent Self Concept

-Self descriptions change between childhood and adolescence, become: • Less physical and more psychological • Less concrete and more abstract • Reflect greater self-awareness • Become more integrated and coherent

Adult Self-Concept/Self-Esteem

-Self-esteem increases in early adulthood, peaks in people's 50s and 60s, and declines in late old age -Self-perception changes little in the adult years, but older adults, lessening the gap between the ideal self and real self -Goals and standards change over the life span -Older adults are able to maintain good self-esteem by making social comparisons to other older adults with similar health status -Older adults can maintain self-esteem by avoiding self- stereotyping based on ageism -Cultural differences in self-concept and self-esteem

Adolescent Self Esteem

-Self-esteem tends to decrease in early adolescence • Adolescents become more knowledgeable and realistic about weaknesses • Can become unsure of themselves with changes in environments (schools, social groups) • Often unhappy with their changing bodies • Towards later adolescence self-esteem tends to increase, if adolescents have a chance to feel competent in areas important to them and experience the support and approval of parents, peers, etc.

Trait Theory

-Set of dispositional trait dimensions along which people can differ -Assume personality traits are consistent across situations and relatively enduring -Big Five: five personality dimensions (or factors) widely recognized in research (openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism)

Adolescent IQ

-Some people suggests we are getting smarter as a species—but likely due to better schooling and practicing of skills used to test IQ -Current cohorts are "smarter" than past (Flynn Effect) -Childhood IQ is a good predictor of adolescent IQ -IQ is good predictor of academic achievement in high school, but not really college (motivation)

Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences

-Suggests there are many intelligences and we should identify peoples strengths from a full range of meaningful mental abilities -Abilities include: linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, naturalistic intelligences)

Defining Intelligence

-There is no single, universal accepted definition -Centering on the ability to think abstractly or to solve problems effectively -Now believe that intelligence is not fixed, it is dynamic and subject to environmental influence

Psychosocial Theory (Erickson)

-Thought people undergo similar personality changes at similar ages through confrontation with developmental stage challenges -More emphasis on social environment, role of rational ego, and resiliency to overcome early experiences -Saw potential for personal growth and change across life span

What are the 8 stages of Ericksons Psychosocial Theory?

-Trust vs. Mistrust (birth-1 yr): Can I trust others? -Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt (1-3 yr): Can I act on my own? -Initiative vs. Guilt (3-6 yr): Can I carry out my plans successfully? -Industry vs. Inferiority (6-12 yr): Am I competent compared to others? -Identity vs. Role Confusion (12-20 yr): Who am I and where am I going? -Intimacy vs. Isolation (20-40): Am I ready for a committed relationship? -Generativity vs. Stagnation (40-65): Have I given something to future generations? -Integrity vs. Despair (65+): Has my life been meaningful?

What are the modern ideas about memory?

-We now recognize that individuals (like computers) are carrying out multiple cognitive processes and activities at the same time (parallel processing) -Not really sequential (like solving a math problem) -Different processing approaches are used in different domains of knowledge and in different situations

Self Concept

-What Am I? -your perceptions of your unique +/- attributes and traits as a person -May be different from how others perceive you

Child Memory & Processing

-With development, children learn faster and remember more -Four hypotheses about why learning and memory improve: 1. Changes in basic capacities 2. Changes in memory strategies 3. Increased knowledge about memory 4. Increased knowledge about the world

What are children's problem solving skills like?

-Working memory is very important for problem solving -Children may fail to solve a problem because they did not encode or attend to all important information -May not approach problems systematically (do better if they take their time) -Use multiple rules or problem-solving strategies for different types of problems across content areas

Do infants have problem solving abilities?

-Yes, but it takes time -9-month olds could use a cloth to pull a toy into reach -Children learn that adults are useful resources to overcome obstacles (pointing, reaching, crying, talking)

Adult Memory & Processing

-You are in your peak! -Information-processing is thought to be most efficient in emerging and young adulthood -Adults tend to develop expertise in an area(s) -Expertise = more effective memory and problem- solving -Function best cognitive in domain of expertise -Can recall more details and more likely to remember new information about domain of expertise -Can quickly recall information about and address problems in domain of expertise -Knowledge base is organized

How is problem solving affected by aging?

-Young adults perform better than middle-aged adults, who perform better than older adults -Older adults struggle with task that are novel ; but can do well on familiar tasks or task related to everyday living and functioning -Selective optimization with compensations (SOC) -Approached used by older adults where strengths are optimized and weaknesses are minimized

Activity Theory

-aging adults will find their lives satisfying to the extent that they can maintain their previous lifestyles and activity levels -psychological needs do not really change as people enter old age

Oral Stage

-birth-1 yr -Libido focused on mouth as source of pleasure. Obtaining oral gratification from mother is critical for later development

Disengagement Theory

-successful aging involves a withdrawal of the aging individual from society -Psychological needs have changed and person seeks to leave old roles behind

Anal Stage (Freud)

1-3: Anus focus of pleasure & toilet training most important activity

Autonomy Vs. Shame & Doubt (Erikson):

1-3: Children become self-sufficient in activities (toilieting, feeding, walking, talking) or doubt themselves.

At what age do most babies understand and interpret pointing?

10 months

MOST babies speak their first recognizable words at _____ months.

12

Most babies speak their first recognizable words at:

12 months.

Formal Operational (Piaget)

12-Adulthood: Thinking about abstract and hypothetical concepts. Ethics, politics and moral issues

Ninety percent of all babies master walking by _____ months.

14.4

How many hours does the average newborn sleep per day?

16

Newborns sleep about

17 hours a day, in one- to three-hour segments.

A sudden increase in an infant's vocabulary typically begins at the age of:

18 months

According to Piaget, at what age do infants begin to anticipate and solve simple problems by using mental combinations?

18 to 24 months

primary circular reactions

1st of 3 feedback loops in sensorimotor intelligence: infant senses motion, sucking, noise, and other stimuli and tries to understand them

A typical infant begins laughing between _____ months of age.

2 and 4

Typically, infants' eyes can focus on a single thing between _____.

2 and 4 months

Preoperational (Piaget)

2-6: Thinking is egocentric (children perceive the world from their own perspective). Imagination flourishes & language becomes a means of self-expression and influence from others

The average newborn's length is approximately:

20 inches.

Children begin to use two-word combinations by age:

21 months

What chromosomal pair determines a person's sex?

23rd

secondary circular reactions

2nd of 3 feedback loops in sensorimotor intelligence: infants respond to other people, toys, and any other object they can touch and move

A preterm baby is born ____ or more weeks before the full 38 weeks of a typical pregnancy.

3

Initiative vs. Guilt (Erikson):

3-6: Children want to undertake adult like activities or internalize limits set by parents. They feel adventurous or guilty.

Phallic Stage (Freud)

3-6: Plallus, or penis most important part and pleasure derived from genital stimulation. Boys proud of penises and girls wonder why they don't have one.

tertiary circular reactions

3rd of 3 feedback loops in sensorimotor intelligence: infants explore a range of new activities, varying their responses as a way of learning about the world

Low birthweight (LBW) is defined as a body weight less than ____ at birth.

5 ½ pounds

By 24 months, most children are about ____ percent of their adult height.

50

Typical 2-year-olds are already:

50 percent of their adult height

Typical two-year-olds are already:

50 percent of their adult height

Typical 2-year-olds are already:

50 percent their adult height.

Once a child's vocabulary reaches about 50 words, it rapidly expands at a rate of _____ words per month.

50 to 100

Once a child's vocabulary reaches about 50 words, it rapidly expands at a rate of _______ per month.

50 to 100 words

At what age should foods besides milk be added to an infant's diet

6 months

At what age should foods besides milk be added to an infant's diet?

6 months

Industry vs. Inferiority (Erikson):

6-11: Children learn new skills or they feel inferior

Concrete Operational (Piaget)

6-11: Children understand and apply logical operations. Learn concept of conservation.

Latency (Freud)

6-11: Not a real stage, an interlude, sexual needs quiet, children focus on school work and sports

At what age would you expect an infant to search for a pacifier that his mother hides behind her back?

8 months

What percentage of U.S. women experience postpartum depression?

8 to 15 percent

In the United States, _____ of infants are breast-fed at birth, but only about _____ are breast-fed at 6 months.

80 percent; one-fifth

13. Vygotsky's term for the skills that a person can experience only with assistance and not yet independently is: a. zone of proximal development. b. scaffolding. c. theory of mind. d. guided participation.

A

15. According to theory-theory: a. children want explanations of everything they see and hear. b. even very young children are capable of abstract thought. c. young children understand what other people are thinking. d. children want logical definitions.

A

social smile; laughter

A __________ is expressed at 6 weeks and __________ between 2 and 4 months.

Headsparing

A biological mechanism that protects the brain when malnutrition disrupts body growth. The brain is the last part of the body to be damaged by malnutrition.

Multidisciplinary

A characteristic of development encompassing the idea that dozens of academic fields (psychology, biology, education, neuroscience, etc) contribute data and insight into the science of development

can perform this activity with guidance from a more skilled person.

A color-matching activity is within Cleo's zone of proximal development. In other words, Cleo:

DNA

A complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes.

Synchrony

A coordinated, rapid, and smooth exchange of responses between a caregiver and an infant

kinship care.

A form of foster care in which a relative of a maltreated child becomes his or her foster parent is:

A. allow them to make their own decisions. B. ensure confidentiality. C. provide them with information about odds.

A genetic counselor's ethical responsibility to a couple is to:

PKU

A genetic disorder in which a child's body is unable to metabolize an amino acid is called:

race

A group of human beings distinguished by physical traits, blood types, genetic code patterns or genetically inherited characteristics.

developmental

A group of ideas, assumptions, and generalizations that interpret and illuminate observations that have been made about human growth is referred to as a ____________ theory.

humanistic

A group of ideas, assumptions, and generalizations that interpret and illuminate observations that have been made about human growth is referred to as a ____________ theory.

cohort

A group of people who were born at about the same time and thus move through life together, experiencing the same historical events and cultural shifts

Strange Situation

A laboratory procedure for measuring attachment by evoking infants' reactions to the stress of various adults' comings and goings in an unfamiliar playroom Key behaviors to observe: Exploration of the toys. A secure toddler plays happily. Reaction to the caregiver's departure. A secure toddler misses the caregiver. Reaction to the caregiver's return. A secure toddler welcomes the caregiver's reappearance.

scientific observation

A method of testing hypothesis by unobtrusively watching and recording participants' behavior in a systematic and objective manner, either in a laboratory or natural setting.

Alzheimer disease

A person with one APOE4 allele has eight times the risk of developing ___________.

socioeconomic status (SES)

A person's position in society as determined by income, wealth, occupation, education, place of residence, and other factors (aka social class)

Self-awareness

A person's realization that he or she is a distinct individual whose body, mind, and actions are separate from those of other people.

Information-processing Theory

A perspective modeled on computer functioning. Information-processing theorists believe that a step-by-step description of the mechanisms of thought adds insight to our understanding of cognition at every age. Information-processing research has overturned some of Piaget's conclusions—including the concept of object permanence

an involuntary response to a particular stimulus.

A reflex is:

gene

A segment of DNA on a chromosome that codes for a specific trait

is between ages 1 and 3.

A sensitive period for learning a language:

Goodness of Fit

A similarity of temperament and values that produces a smooth interaction between an individual and his or her social context, including family, school, and community

Holophrase

A single word that is used to express a complete, meaningful thought. All new talkers say names and utter holophrases.

most questions were about human behavior, such as "Why do people kiss?"

A study of Mexican American children and the questions that they asked found that:

Naming explosion

A sudden increase in an infant's vocabulary, especially in the number of nouns, that begins at about 18 months of age.

evolutionary

A theory that studies the evolving foundations of human nature is the ________ theory.

ETHNOTHEORY

A theory that underlies the values and practices of a culture but is not usually apparent to the people within the culture. Example: Culture's ethnotheory includes the belief in reincarnation Children are not expected to show respect for adults, but adults must show respect for their reborn ancestors indulgent child-rearing Perceived as extremely lenient by Western cultures

chromosome

A threadlike, gene-carrying structure found in the nucleus. Each chromosome consists of one very long DNA molecule and associated proteins.

Disorganized attachment:

A type of attachment that is marked by an infant's inconsistent reactions to the caregiver's departure and return.

dynamic-systems theory

A view of human development as an ongoing, ever-changing interaction between the physical and emotional being and between the person and every aspect of his or her environment, including the family and society.

the onset was rapid and unexpected.

About one half of all home births occur because:

When new information is inconsistent with what we already know, we may change our thinking to incorporate the new information. This would be an example of:

Accommodation

young children are significantly limited by their own perspective.

According to Piaget, one of the reasons that logic is beyond young children is that:

social experiences

According to Vygotsky, which of the following would be MOST influential on a child's learning?

Early Memory

According to classic developmental theory, infants store no memories in their first year.

surrounding society and culture.

According to sociocultural theory, human development is the result of an interaction between developing persons and their:

fathers; mothers

According to the text, _________ encourage infants to explore, whereas _______ tend to be more cautious.

cohort effects.

According to the text, parental choice for a child's first name reveals:

is not a problem so long as it is used in moderation.

According to the text, the use of caffeine during pregnancy:

People refuse to answer or falsely answer questions.

According to the text, what is one of the main problems with surveys?

children want explanations of various things.

According to theory-theory:

social interaction and comfort

According to your text, early sensation appears to be organized toward which two goals?

hypothesis; discoveries

According to your text, theories produce __________ and generate _________.

Where does retrieval of information take place?

Actual storage and retrieval of new information takes place in area of cortex originally encoded by information

Genital Stage

Adolescence: Genitals focus of pleasure. Young person seeks sexual relationships. Adulthood: Freud believed the Genital Stage lasted thru adulthood.

Identity vs. Role Confusion (Erikson):

Adolescence: try to figure out who they are or are confused about what roles to play

Generativity vs. Stagnation (Erikson):

Adulthood: Middle-aged adults contribute to the next generation thru meaningful work, raising a family, or they stagnate

Integrity vs. Despair (Erikson):

Adulthood: Older Adults try to make sense out of their lives, they either see their lives as a meaningful whole or despair at unreached goals

Intimacy vs, Isolation (Erikson):

Adulthood: Young adults seek companionship or love or become isolated from others fearing rejection or disappointment

Behavioral teratogens

Affect the child's developing brain Can cause developmental retardation, hyperactivity, and learning disabilities Effects do not become evident for months or years

Age of viability

Age at which a preterm newborn may survive outside the mother's uterus if medical care is available About 22 weeks after conception Brain is able to regulate basic body functions (e.g. breathing) Chances of survival increase with each day after the 22-week mark

influenced by heredity.

Alcoholism is:

Which is TRUE of deaf babies and babbling?

All babies, even deaf babies, babble.

early childhood

All forms of artistic expression blossom during ____________.

Piaget's first period of cognitive development highlights that:

All of these answers are correct. (infants learn through adaptation, at birth, infants are active learners, infants' motor skills and senses are the conduits for learning.)

genome

All the genetic information in an organism; all of an organism's chromosomes.

allele

An alternative form of a gene.

In order to establish what causes a behavior, what research method must be used?

An experiment

The only research method that can establish a cause-and-effect relationship is:

An experiment

Experiments using the still-face technique

An experimental practice in which an adult keeps his or her face unmoving and expressionless in face-to-face interaction with an infant Babies are very upset by the still face and show signs of stress Conclusions: A parent's responsiveness to an infant aids psychological and biological development Infants' brains need social interaction to develop to their fullest

Insecure-avoidant attachment:

An infant avoids connection with the caregiver, as when the infant seems not to care about the caregiver's presence, departure, or return.

Secure attachment

An infant obtains both comfort and confidence from the presence of his or her caregiver.

Insecure-resistant/ambivalent attachment:

An infant's anxiety and uncertainty are evident, as when the infant becomes very upset at separation from the caregiver and both resists and seeks contact on reunion.

heterozygous

An organism that has two different alleles for a trait

homozygous

An organism that has two identical alleles for a trait

genotype

An organism's genetic makeup, or allele combinations.

information processing.

An updated version of Piaget's cognitive theory is called:

multidirectional

As we age, losses occur in some domains, while gains are made in others. This is consistent with the ____________ nature of development.

a negative correlation.

As we age, we tend to sleep fewer hours. This relationship is an example of:

atrophy.

At 12 months, Toni was malnourished. His body stopped growing, but his brain did not. This supports the concept of:

First Words

At about 1 year, babies speak a few words. Spoken vocabulary increases gradually (about one or two new words a week). Once spoken vocabulary reaches about 50 words, it builds quickly, at a rate of 50 to 100 words per month.

billions of neurons

At birth, the brain has ____________________.

John Bowlby (Attachment Theory)

Attachment with an adult caregiver ensures safety of children Good'nuf caregiver Secure Base All infants need to form enduring emotional bonds with primary caregiver

Lewis and Erika want to have children, but they also both value their careers. Each wants to be part of caring for their kids when they are born, so they are looking into which countries provide the most support for new parents. If they want to live in the country that provides the highest amount of partially paid or unpaid paternity leave, where would they move?

Australia

Height and Weight

Average weight at birth: 7.5 pounds Average length: 20 inches These numbers are norms, an average measurement.

set priorities and act on them.

Awareness of genetic risks helps parents:

The behaviorist MOST associated with operant conditioning is:

B. F. Skinner

Mirror Recognition Classic experiment (M. Lewis & Brooks, 1978)

Babies aged 9-24 months looked into a mirror after a dot of rouge had been put on their noses. None of the babies younger than 12 months old reacted as if they knew the mark was on them. 15- to 24-month-olds: Showed self-awareness by touching their own noses with curiosity.

Synchrony in the first few months

Becomes more frequent and more elaborate Helps infants learn to read others' emotions and to develop the skills of social interaction Synchrony usually begins with parents imitating infants

Attachment Theory

Beyond physical need for nourishment Harlow's monkeys Attachment has biological purpose Infant feels safe from predators Infant feels safe to explore environment Security increases independence

Oral Stage (Freud)

Birth - 1: Lips, Tongue and gums focus and sucking and feeding stimulating activities

Trust vs. Mistrust (Erikson):

Birth -1: Babies trust others will care for their basic needs or they develop mistrust about the care or others.

11. A young child's belief that natural objects and phenomena are alive is called: a. centration. b. static reasoning. c. animism. d. abnormal.

C

8. Theory of mind is seldom possible before age: a. 2. b. 6. c. 4. d. 7.

C

shaken baby syndrome

Can lead to lifelong intellectual difficulties

Proximal parenting

Caregiving practices that involve being physically close to the baby, with frequent holding and touching

Distal parenting

Caregiving practices that involve remaining distant from the baby, providing toys, food, and face-to-face communication with minimal holding and touching

unconditional positive

Carl Rogers believed that we should see each other with appreciation without conditions. He referred to this as giving each other __________ regard.

Threshold effect:

Certain teratogens are relatively harmless until exposure reaches a certain level

Systems Theory

Change in one part of a person, family, or society affects every aspect of development

Bisphenol A (BPA)

Chemical compound used to make clear plastic Small doses are harmless but threshold for humans is unknown Pregnant mothers should avoid plastic containers and dishware

language sponges

Children could be referred to as _____________ in early childhood.

Which theorist coined the term "language acquisition device"?

Chomsky

Who proposed that infants are innately ready to use their minds to understand and speak whatever language is offered?

Chomsky

Language acquisition device (LAD)-

Chomsky's term for a hypothesized mental structure that enables humans to learn language, including the basic aspects of grammar, vocabulary, and intonation.

Pavlov's experiment in which he conditioned dogs to salivate after hearing a bell demonstrated what he called:

Classical conditioning

Close father-infant relationships can teach infants (especially boys) appropriate expressions of emotion (Boyce et al., 2006).

Close relationships with their infants reduce fathers' risk of depression (Borke et al., 2007; Bronte-Tinkew et al., 2007).

Five-year-old Jada is learning to speak Dutch. What is the primary domain of development in this example?

Cognitive

The primary area of investigation for Piaget was _____ development.

Cognitive

When a new experience conflicts with a person's current knowledge structures, the person tends to experience an imbalance called:

Cognitive disequilibrium

Child Creativity

Creativity begins in childhood as child starts to display many new ideas, originality, humor, play, fantasy, etc.

reflexive communication.

Cries, movements, and facial expressions are examples of:

In order to determine how clothing preferences change with age, Dr. Zavala interviewed girls ranging from 6 to 12 years of age. This would be an example of:

Cross-sectional research

A person's macrosystem includes:

Cultural patterns

23. Montessori schools emphasize: a. group activities and projects. b. artistic expression. c. pretend and dramatic play. d. individual pride and accomplishment.

D

In a study of the effects of nutrition on school performance, test scores would likely be a....

Dependent variable

Erickson's Stages

Described eight developmental stages, each characterized by a challenging developmental crisis. His first five stages build on Freud's theory; but, he also described three adult stages.

Which step of the scientific method involves making a specific prediction?

Develop hypothesis

Embryo

Developing human organism from about the 3rd through the 8th week after conception Begins when the primitive streak appears down the middle of the cell mass Primitive streak becomes the neural tube and later forms the brain and spine of the CNS Head takes shape Eyes, ears, nose, and mouth form Heart begins to pulsate Extremities develop and webbed fingers and toes separate

Fetus

Developing human organism from the start of the 9th week after conception until birth Genitals form and sex hormones cause differences in fetal brain organization Cephalocaudal and proximodistal growth Heartbeat detectable via stethoscope All body parts and systems complete prenatal development Cortex is not fully mature at birth (e.g. prefrontal lobes) Brain at birth is far bigger than any other part of the baby

a code of ethics

Developmental researchers are required to follow ________ that protect(s) the integrity of research.

Emotional Self-regulation

Directly connected to maturation of the anterior cingulate gyrus

Genetic Diversity

Distinguishes each person Allows the human species to adapt to pressures of the environment (e.g. climate changes, illnesses).

Well-baby checkup

Doctor or nurse measures baby's growth: height, weight, and head circumference. Abnormal growth may indicate physical or psychological problems.

dominant-recessive pattern (heredity)

Dominant gene is far more influential than the recessive gene (non-additive). Dominant gene can completely control the phenotype with no noticeable effect of recessive gene. Genes for blood type B and Rh-positive blood are dominant. Effect of recessive genes can sometimes be noticed. Dominant brown eye gene and recessive blue eye gene can result in hazel eyes.

methylation

During the first few hours of life, biochemical elements silence certain genes in a process called _______.

Ethics

Each academic discipline and professional society involved in the study of human development has a code of ethics Researchers must ensure that participation is voluntary, confidential, and harmless.

chromosome.

Each molecule of DNA is called a(n):

Sibling Similarities

Each sibling gets abut 10,000 genes from each parent. Millions of variations and billions of combinations are possible. Full siblings are not necessarily alike.

Residents of all but which region rarely put their children in day care services, because they feel that it would be harmful to an infant's well-being?

Eastern Europe

Psychosocial Crisis Generativity vs. Stagnation (8) Erik Erikson Newman and Newman

Ego Quality - Care Core Pathology - Rejectivity

Psychosocial Crisis: Industry vs. Inferiority (4) Erik Erikson Newman and Newman

Ego Quality - Competence Core Pathology - Inertia

Psychosocial Crisis: Immortality vs. Extinction (10) Erik Erikson Newman and Newman

Ego Quality - Confidence Core Pathology - Diffidence

Psychosocial Crisis: Group Identity vs. Alienation (5) Erik Erikson Newman and Newman

Ego Quality - Fidelity Core Pathology - Disassociation

Psychosocial Crisis: Individual Identity vs. Identity Confusion (6) Erik Erikson Newman and Newman

Ego Quality - Fidelity II Core Pathology - Repudiation

Psychosocial Crisis: Trust vs. Mistrust (1) Erik Erikson Newman and Newman

Ego Quality - Hope Core Pathology - Withdrawal

Psychosocial Crisis: Intimacy vs. Isolation (7) Erik Erikson Newman and Newman

Ego Quality - Love Core Pathology - Exclusivity

Psychosocial Crisis: Initiative vs. Guilt (3) Erik Erikson Newman and Newman

Ego Quality - Purpose Core Pathology - Inhibition

Psychosocial Crisis: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (2) Erik Erikson Newman and Newman

Ego Quality - Will Core Pathology - Compulsion

Psychosocial Crisis: Integrity vs. Despair (9)

Ego Quality - Wisdom Core Pathology - Despair

scientific observation.

Elsa wants to research preschoolers' eating habits. She is reviewing video footage taken during snack and lunch at four preschools. Her method of study is:

15-18 months:

Emergence of the Me-self Sense of self as the "object of one's knowledge"

Fear:

Emerges at about 9 months in response to people, things, or situations

Development is the result of an interaction between biological and environmental forces. This statement MOST closely describes _____ theory.

Epigenetic

SYSTEMS THEORY

Epigenetic approach to development, using all five characteristics of the life-span perspective (multidirectional, multicontextual, multicultural, multi disciplinary, and plastic) Systems theory is especially insightful in interpreting temperament.

emotions.

Excessive stress during infancy impairs the brain, particularly in areas associated with:

In an experiment, the group that receives the treatment being investigated is called the _____ group.

Experimental

Developmentalists now agree that very young infants can remember if the following conditions are met:

Experimental conditions are similar to real life. Motivation is high. Special measures aid memory retrieval.

reduced motor skills.

Exposure to high levels of lead does not cause

heart

Exposure to teratogens during weeks 3 to 4 of pregnancy may result in birth defects to which of the following parts of the body?

zygote

Fertilized egg

Birth

Fetal brain signals the release of hormones to trigger the female's uterine muscles Labor begins Average duration for firstborn babies: 12 hours Quicker labor for later-born babies

6

Fifty percent of all babies master sitting unsupported by ____ months.

hands; two; brain

Fine motor skills require two ________ and thus ________ sides of the _________.

Anger

First expressions at around 6 month Healthy response to frustration

secondary

Flashing lights on stopped school buses are an example of ___________ prevention.

Erik Erikson Newman and Newman Psychosocial Stages How different from Freud and others

Fluid theory Across the entire lifespan Crisis to be resolved Ego quality and core pathology

Adequate Nutrition

For every infant disease (including SIDS), breast-feeding reduces risk and malnutrition increases it, stunting growth of body and brain. Breastfed babies are less likely to develop allergies, asthma, obesity, and heart disease. As the infant gets older, the composition of breast milk adjusts to the baby's changing nutritional needs.

In Piaget's _____ stage, you would expect one to develop interest in ethics, politics, and social and moral issues.

Formal operational

Human Genome Project:

Found "only" about 20,000 genes in humans Exact number is unknown

latency stage.

Freud believed that sexual needs were quiet and that psychic energy was put into schoolwork and sports during the:

A major difference between Erikson and Freud is that:

Freud emphasized psychosexual development, whereas Erikson emphasized psychosocial development.

oral.

Freud's first stage of psychosexual development is:

Object Permanence (Infants)

Fundamental understanding that objects continue to exist even when they are no longer visible or detectable to senses (because infants rely on senses for cognition, difficult for them to grasp)

Four general research conclusions

Genes affect every aspect of human behavior Nongenetic influences begin at conception and continue lifelong, sometimes altering genetic instructions Most environmental influences on children raised in the same home are NOT shared, partly because parents treat each child differently Children , adolescents, and adults "niche-pick," choosing environments that are compatible with their genetic inheritance

What are the factors that influence IQ?

Genes and environment, supportive & stimulating environment, race and ethnicity, motivational differences, SES, social support, country, health

Alcoholism probably has a genetic basis

Genes can cause an overpowering addictive pull in some people Environmental conditions can modify the genetic effects Nature and nurture must combine to create an alcoholic

Causes of Low Birthweight

Genetic factors Maternal illness Exhaustion Infection Malnutrition Drug use Multiple births

In the science of human development, ''nature'' refers to:

Genetic influences

Three main periods of prenatal development

Germinal Period (first two weeks after conception): rapid cell division and beginning of cell differentiation Embryonic Period (3rd through 8th week): basic forms of all body structures develop Fetal Period (9th week until birth): fetus grows in size and matures in functioning

Which statement is TRUE?

Good preschool education is beneficial for young children

repeated exposures.

Habituation involves:

Dominant Disorders (Gene Disorders)

Half of the offspring of parents with a dominant disorder will have the disorder. Most dominant disorders begin in adulthood (fatal dominant childhood conditions cannot be passed on). Many dominant disorders have relatively mild or variable symptoms.

In normal development cases, newborns:

Have five functional sensory systems

A single word that is used to express a complete, meaningful thought is called a

Holophrase

9 months

How long is a full-term pregnancy, as measured in months?

multidisciplinary

Human development includes insight and information from diverse disciplines referred to as:

it is hard to figure out where one gene starts and another stops.

Human genome research cannot pinpoint the exact number of genes because:

Multicontextual

Human lives are embedded in many contexts, including historical conditions, economic constraints, and family patterns

Development Is Plastic

Human traits can be molded (as plastic can be), yet people maintain a certain durability of identity (as plastic does).

Oral fixation:

If a mother frustrates her infant's urge to suck, the child may become an adult who is stuck (fixated) at the oral stage (e.g. eats, drinks, chews, bites, or talks excessively)

between the ages of 15 and 25.

If a person is going to kill someone he or she is most likely to do so:

12 hours.

In a first birth, the average length of ACTIVE labor is:

dependent variable.

In a study of the effects of nutrition on school performance, test scores would be a likely:

cross-sectional research.

In order to determine how clothing preferences change with age, Dr. Zavala interviewed girls ranging from 6 years of age to 12. This would be an example of:

the zone of proximal development.

In sociocultural theory, the "zone" that includes all the skills, knowledge, and concepts that a person is close to acquiring but cannot yet master without help is:

What is the explanation for some babies initially learning more verbs than nouns?

In some cultures, words for how one responds to other people are emphasized; in other cultures learning the names of toys is emphasized. Some languages place verbs in various and illogical places in sentences. Some languages place verbs at the beginning or end of sentences, making them easier to learn. All of these answers are correct.

a quality preschool is especially beneficial.

In terms of early childhood learning, research has found that if the home educational quality is poor, then:

spina bifida

In the United States and Canada, folic acid is now added to many foods. The rate of __________ has decreased.

20

In the United States in 2010, what percentage of children spoke a language at home other than English?

genetic influences.

In the science of human development, "nature" refers to:

environmental influences.

In the science of human development, "nurture" refers to:

Temperament

Inborn differences between one person and another in emotions, activity, and self-regulation Temperament is epigenetic, originating in the genes but affected by child-rearing practices New York Longitudinal Study (NYLS) Started in the 1960s Found 4 categories of temperament

Sadness

Indicates withdrawal and is accompanied by increased production of cortisol Stressful experience for infants

Cross-modal perception

Infant associates textures with vision, sounds with smells, own body with the bodies of others Basis for early social understanding

Stranger wariness:

Infant no longer smiles at any friendly face but cries or looks frightened when an unfamiliar person moves too close

Synesthesia of emotions

Infant's cry can be triggered by pain, fear, tiredness, or excitement; laughter can turn to tears. Infants' emotions are difficult to predict because of the way their brains are activated

Anal stage (second year):

Infant's main pleasure comes from the anus (e.g. sensual pleasure of bowel movements and the psychological pleasure of controlling them)

How does a child learn language?

Infants are socially programmed to communicate. All of these answers could be correct. Infants are taught language. Infants have a natural capacity for language learning.

5 months:

Infants begin to develop an awareness of themselves as separate from their mothers.

Social Impulse Toward Communication

Infants communicate in every way they can because humans are social beings, dependent on one another for survival, well-being, and joy.

First 4 months

Infants have no sense of self and may see themselves as part of their mothers.

Trust versus Mistrust (Erikson)

Infants learn basic trust if the world is a secure place where their basic needs are met Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt Toddlers either succeed or fail in gaining a sense of self-rule over their actions and their bodies -Early problems can create an adult who is suspicious and pessimistic (mistrusting) or who is easily shamed (insufficient autonomy)

Teenagers are less likely to lash out at friends and authorities if they experienced a warm, responsive relationship with their fathers as infants (Trautmann-Villalba et al., 2006).

Infants may be equally securely attached to both parents, more attached to their mothers, or more attached to their fathers (Belsky et al., 2006).

Learning Approach

Infants need to be taught B. F. Skinner (1957) noticed that spontaneous babbling is usually reinforced. Parents are expert teachers, and other caregivers help them teach children to speak. Frequent repetition of words is instructive, especially when the words are linked to the pleasures of daily life. Well-taught infants become well-spoken children.

Which statement is TRUE?

Infants typically develop sensorimotor intelligence earlier than Piaget predicted.

The Survey

Information is collected from a large number of people by interview, questionnaire, or some other means. Acquiring valid survey data is not easy. Some people lie, some change their minds. Survey answers are influenced by the wording and the sequence of the questions.

mechanisms of human thought.

Information processing theory seeks to explore:

What stance did Piaget take on nature-nurture debate?

Interactionist position ~ children actively create knowledge by building schemes from their experiences using inborn intellectual functions

six months.

International health organizations recommend that mothers exclusively breast-feed for the first:

HapMap:

International project trying to spot all variations in the human genome Found 11 million variations among the 3 billion chemical pairs

Which of the following is a LIMIT to observation as a research method?

It does not help determine the causes of behaviors.

Certain experience-expectant developments may suffer if the eyesight goes unrepaired.

It is discovered that a newborn has significantly impaired eyesight. Why would it be important to recognize and mitigate this impairment at an early age?

gross motor skills.

Large body movements, such as walking and jumping, are:

Freud believed that sexual needs are quiet during middle childhood, when people experience the _____ stage.

Latency

Multicultural

Many cultures - not just between nations but also within them - affect how people develop

Marcia's Identity Development

Marcia (1996) built upon Erikson's ideas by developing an interview procedure looking at identity crisis and commitment in the progress towards an identity in each of several domains

survival hierarchy.

Maslow believed that all people had the same basic needs and drives. He arranged those into what was called:

Cystic fibrosis (Recessive Disorders)

More common among people with northern European ancestors Carriers may have been protected against cholera

Which of the following reflexes is seen when an infant is startled?

Moro

Fragile X Syndrome

Most common form of inherited mental retardation Additional symptoms include muscle weakness, shyness, and poor social skills

Color blindness

Most common sex-linked condition Often passed on because it is not debilitating

A. motivation is high. B. special measures are taken to aid memory retrieval. C. situations or events are similar to real life.

Most developmentalists agree that very young infants can remember if:

selectively use all the theories.

Most developmentalists prefer an eclectic perspective so they can:

average three placements before finding a permanent home.

Most foster children:

Which of the following statements about neurons is true?

Most neurons are created before birth.

use both sides of the brain for all cognitive functions.

Most people:

Five Characteristics of Development:

Multidirectional, Multidisciplinary, Multicontextual, Multicultural, Plasticity

more time indoors.

Nearsightedness in the United States increased from 25 to 42 percent. A possible reason may be:

Vision is the least mature sense at birth.

Newborns focus only on objects between 4 and 30 inches away. Binocular vision, the ability to coordinate the two eyes to see one image, appears at 3 months. Sensation is essential for the visual cortex to develop normally.

Sickle-cell trait (Recessive Disorders)

Offers some protection against malaria African carriers are more likely than non-carriers to survive

obtaining consent from both the children and the parents.

One of the ethical standards for research with children includes:

The Big Five (acronym OCEAN)

Openness: imaginative, curious, welcoming new experiences Conscientiousness: organized, deliberate, conforming Extroversion: outgoing, assertive, active Agreeableness: kind, helpful, easygoing Neuroticism: anxious, moody, self-critical

instrumental conditioning.

Operant conditioning is also called:

Freud's psychosexual stages

Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency, Genital

Monozygotic (identical) twins:

Originate from one zygote that splits apart very early in development. Incomplete split results in conjoined twins. Same genotype but slight variations in phenotype are possible due to environmental influences.

Fine motor skills-

Physical abilities involving small body movements, especially of the hands and fingers, such as drawing and picking up a coin.

sensorimotor intelligence

Piaget's term for the way infants think--by using their senses and motor skills--during the first period of cognitive development

Five basic steps of the scientific method:

Pose a question. Develop a hypothesis Test the hypothesis. Draw conclusions. Report the results.

Longitudinal study of infant temperament (Fox et al., 2001): Grouped 4-month-olds into three distinct types based on responses to fearful stimulation

Positive (exuberant) Negative Inhibited (fearful)

Abuse (form of chronic stress)

Potential long-term effects on a child's emotional development High levels of stress hormones indicative of emotional impairment Excessive stress in infants must be prevented

George, Kaplan, & Main, 1984 Developed AAI - Adult Attachment Interview

Predictor of individual's attachment style to children Four adult attachment types identified Secure/autonomous Dismissing Preoccupied Uninvolved/disorganized

Potential genetic counseling issues

Prospective parents must base some decisions on odds Tests often reveal that more tests are needed False positives and false negatives True positives may cause additional stress

Which term is used to describe the process in which unused neurons die?

Pruning

Fathers usually spend less time with infants than mothers do and are less involved parents

Reasons: Fathers' own ideas of appropriate male behavior Mothers often limit fathers' interactions with their children Quality of marital relationship is best predictor Happier husbands tend to be more involved fathers

sensorimotor

Recalling an earlier chapter, Piaget's first period of intelligence in which both coordinated motion and perceptual skills are developed is called the __________ stage.

Phenylketonuria (PKU)

Recessive condition Results in inability to metabolize phenylalanine (amino acid found in many foods) Buildup of phenylalanine causes brain damage, progressive mental retardation, and other symptoms Early testing and a special diet usually results in normal development

multifactorial

Referring to a phenotypic character that is influenced by multiple genes and environmental factors.

Hypothalamus

Regulates various bodily functions and hormone production May grow more slowly in stressed than in nonstressed infants

_____ genes influence thousands of other genes, and _____ genes influence the phenotype.

Regulator; additive

Which of the following is TRUE of the scientific method?

Research findings should be made available to other scientists.

qualitative research.

Research that asks open-ended questions and obtains answers that are not easily translated into numbers is called:

Dizygotic (fraternal) twins

Result from fertilization of two separate ova by two separate sperm. Dizygotic twins have half their genes in common and occur twice as often as monozygotic twins. Incidence is genetic and varies by ethnicity and age.

What are the issues with aging studies?

Results based on cross-sectional and don't capture the complexity of individual experiences, or the fact that most declines happen around 70

Postpartum Depression

Sadness and inadequacy felt by 8-15% of new mothers in the days and weeks after giving birth Symptoms range from baby blues to postpartum psychosis Depressed mothers find baby care burdensome and may think about mistreating the infant Paternal involvement can have beneficial effect Some fathers are depressed themselves Causes for Postpartum Depression vary

fine motor skills.

Sam was sitting in his high chair and his mom gave him some cereal to eat on his own. Sam looked at the small pieces of cereal and was able to coordinate his fingers in order to pick up one piece and put it in his mouth. This is an example of:

Erikson's first crisis of life.

Satisfying a child's basic needs with care and consistency relates to:

hybrid theory.

Scholars have attempted to integrate theories of language development (social-pragmatic theory, innate abilities, and behaviorism) into one theory known as:

willing to explore.

Secure attachment (type B) makes a toddler:

Social referencing

Seeking information about how to react to an unfamiliar or ambiguous object or event by observing someone else's expressions and reactions. That other person becomes a social reference. Mothers use a variety of expressions, vocalizations, and gestures to convey social information to their infants.

Pretending and using the words "I," "me," "mine," and "myself" are evidence that the child has developed:

Self recognition

Piaget's Periods of Cognitive Development

Sensorimotor, Preoperational, Concrete Operational, Formal Operational

What is TRUE regarding the impact of environmental experiences on brain development?

Sensory deprivation and a lack of experiences can harm the developing brain.

gamete

Sex cell

Psychoanalytic theory originated with:

Sigmund Freud

Psychoanalytic theory originated with:

Sigmund Freud.

Smiling and Laughing

Social smile (6 weeks): Evoked by viewing human faces Laughter (3 to 4 months): Often associated with curiosity

Tourette syndrome (Gene Disorders)

Some who inherit the dominant gene exhibit uncontrollable tics and explosive outbursts Most have milder, barely noticeable symptoms

Genetic Vulnerability

Some zygotes carry genes that make them vulnerable Certain genes increase likelihood of cleft lip in Japanese people Some women do not metabolize folic acid well Increases rates of neural-tube defects (e.g. spina bifida) Folic acid was added to many foods in the United States and Canada and rates have decreased

explicit memory.

Sonia has realized that when her daughter gets out of her crib in the morning she goes right to the same toy to play every morning. This could be an example of the daughter's:

The Father's Role

Supportive father helps mother stay healthy Father can decrease or increase mother's stress (affects fetus) Most fathers are helpful to their pregnant wives Two way street: Pregnant mothers should support, involve, and encourage fathers

Cesarean Section (C-Section)

Surgical birth Fetus can be removed quickly Rates and reasons for c-sections vary greatly Lower rates in poorer countries (emergencies) Higher rates in richer countries (planned for the convenience of mother and/or obstetrician) 1/3 of births in the United States Less trauma for the newborn but slower recovery for the mother Subsequent cesarean deliveries may be necessary

In which country are mothers paid their full work salary for a total of 47 weeks while they stay home to care for their babies, followed by state-funded high-quality free day care for children older than 1 year of age?

Sweden

Klinefelter Syndrome (XXY): (Abnormalities of the Sex Chromosomes)

Symptoms include learning problems and infertility Boy's penis does not grow during puberty and fat accumulates around the breast area Sometimes not recognized until adulthood

behavioral theory

Teacher-directed early-education programs are based on which developmental theory?

Separation anxiety:

Tears, dismay, or anger when a familiar caregiver leaves. If it remains strong after age 3, it may be considered an emotional disorder.

Ethical Guidelines

Test results are kept confidential Decisions regarding sterilization, adoption, abortion, or carrying a pregnancy to term are made by the clients

expressive

The ability to speak or write is called _________ language.

Social learning

The acquisition of behavior patterns by observing the behavior of others Demonstrated in the classic Bobo Doll study by Albert Bandura

Cognition

The activity of knowing and the processes through which knowledge is acquired and problems are solved

Sudden Infant Death Syndrome

The actual cause of SIDS is still unknown: low birthweight, heavy clothing, soft bedding, teenage parenthood, and, particularly, maternal smoking are risk factors. Putting infants to sleep on their backs reduces the risk but does not eliminate it.

prefrontal cortex.

The area of the brain that specializes in anticipation, planning, and impulse control is the:

is lower at age 5 than at any other age in the life span.

The body mass index (BMI, the ratio of weight to height):

23rd pair

The chromosome pair that, in humans, determines sex. The other 22 pairs are autosomes; inherited equally by males and females.

secondary circular reactions involve the infant responding to people and objects.

The difference between primary and secondary circular reactions is that:

visual cliff.

The experimental apparatus that gives the illusion of a sudden drop-off is referred to as a:

Babbling

The extended repetition of certain syllables, such as ba-ba-ba, that begins when babies are between 6 and 9 months old.

Motor Skills

The first movements are not skills but reflexes, involuntary responses to a particular stimulus.

Genome:

The full set of genes that are the instructions to make an individual member of a certain species Similarity between two people: 99.5% Similarity between humans and chimpanzees: 98% Similarity between humans and every other mammal: 90+%

Which of the following happens during the fetal period?

The genitals develop.

obsessive-compulsive behavior in adults.

The hazards of the rigidity the "just-right" phenomenon DO NOT include:

Child-directed speech

The high-pitched, simplified, and repetitive way adults speak to infants. (Also called baby talk or motherese.)

child-directed speech.

The high-pitched, simplified, and repetitive way in which adults speak to infants is sometimes called:

Which of the following statements about neurons is TRUE?

The human brain has far more neurons at birth than any other primate.

cognitive theory.

The idea of a working model is from:

The Effects of Infant Day Care

The impact of nonmaternal care depends on many factors. Psychosocial characteristics, including secure attachment, are influenced more by the mother's warmth than by the number of hours spent in nonmaternal care. Quality of care is crucial, no matter who provides that care.

What is a synapse?

The intersection between neurons

Perception

The mental processing of sensory information when the brain interprets a sensation.

Oral stage (first year):

The mouth is the young infant's primary source of gratification

an experiment.

The only research method that can establish a cause-and-effect relationship is:

middle school students

The people in which group are members of a cohort?

Ecological systems approach-

The person should be considered in all the contexts and interactions that constitute a life. Urie Bronfenbrenner

What happens when a child is able to speak about 50 words?

The progression of language acquisition increases dramatically.

Sensation

The response of a sensory system (eyes, ears, skin, tongue, nose) when it detects a stimulus

Which of the following statements regarding problems with immunizations is TRUE?

The risks of disease are far greater than the risks associated with immunization

Which of the following statements regarding problems with immunizations is TRUE?

The risks of disease are far greater than the risks associated with immunization.

Which of the following statements regarding problems with immunizations is true?

The risks of disease are far greater than the risks associated with immunization.

the cortex.

The six outer layers of the brain are referred to as:

lateralization.

The specialization in certain functions by each side of the brain is:

Synesthesia

The stimulation of one sensory stimulus to the brain (sound, sight, touch, taste, or smell) by another. Common in infants because boundaries between sensory parts of the cortex are less distinct.

plasticity.

The story about the author's nephew David illustrates:

parent-infant bond.

The strong loving connection between a parent and newborn is called the:

behaviorism

The theory that psychology should only study observable behaviors, not mental processes (also called the learning theory)

23 pairs

The typical human cell contains how many chromosomes?

autism.

Theory of mind is slow to develop in children who have:

How does Piaget define intelligence?

Thinking or behavior that is adaptive

Neurons and synapses proliferate (increase rapidly in number) before birth.

This increase continues at a fast pace after birth, but soon an opposite phenomenon occurs: the elimination, or pruning, of unnecessary connections.

Prescription drugs Vitamin A

Threshold effect: certain levels harmful to pregnant women

Infant Creativity

To date, researchers have not developed a method for studying creativity among infants

Particular people begin to arouse specific emotions

Toddlers get angry when a teasing older sibling approaches them or react with fear when entering the doctor's office. Memory triggers specific emotions based on previous experiences.

multifactorial.

Traits affected by many factors, both genetic and environmental, are referred to as:

sublimation.

Transforming energy from the libido to create something acclaimed by others, such as a musical masterpiece, is called:

Erikson's Psychosocial Stages:

Trust vs. Mistrust, Autonomy Vs. Shame & Doubt, Initiative vs. Guilt, Industry vs. Inferiority, Identity vs. Role Confusion, Intimacy vs, Isolation, Generativity vs. Stagnation, Integrity vs. Despair

zygote

Two gametes (sperm and ovum) combine and produce a new individual with 23 chromosomes from each parent.

Research by Pilarz and Hill (2014) finds that children with _____ maternal caregiving are more likely to be aggressive by 3 years of age.

Unstable

What occurs in the brain during the pruning process?

Unused neurons and misconnected dendrites shrink and die.

Turner Syndrome (X only): (Abnormalities of the Sex Chromosomes)

Unusually short, underdeveloped female organs, infertile Slow to develop Problems in spatial understanding

stage six.

Using mental combinations to anticipate and solve simple problems takes place in Piaget's sensorimotor:

Allele:

Variation of a gene or any of the possible forms in which a gene for a particular trait can occur. Effects of variations vary greatly from causing life-threatening conditions to having no detectable effect at all.

60 percent

What percentage of natural conceptions fail to implant properly?

stranger wariness.

When an infant is fearful of strangers, he or she is exhibiting:

between ages 2−6

When does a child's appetite decrease in childhood?

teachers.

When early childhood programs are compared, the most important variable is the:

Stepping reflex

When infants are held upright with their feet touching a flat surface, they move their legs as if to walk.

Moro reflex

When someone startles them, perhaps by banging on the table they are lying on, infants fling their arms outward and then bring them together on their chests, as if to hold on to something, while crying with wide-open eyes.

Palmar grasping reflex

When something touches infants' palms, they grip it tightly.

the birth rate of girls to boys was 83:100.

When the "one child" policy was initiated in China in 1990:

crowning.

When the head first appears through the vaginal opening it is referred to as:

Swimming reflex

When they are laid horizontally on their stomachs, infants stretch out their arms and legs.

Mothers tend to engage in more caregiving and comforting, and fathers tend to engage in more high-intensity play (Kochanska et al., 2008).

When toddlers are about to explore, they often seek their father's approval, expecting fun from their fathers and comfort from their mothers (Lamb, 2000).

changing the data to support the hypothesis

Which is unethical research behavior?

concrete operational

Which of Piaget's periods of cognitive development highlights thinking that is limited to what can be personally seen, heard, touched, and experienced?

crawling

Which of the following is a gross motor skill?

The risks of disease are far greater than the risks associated with immunization.

Which of the following statements regarding problems with immunizations is true?

REM sleep

Which sleep stage is characterized primarily by dreaming and rapid brain waves?

develop a hypothesis

Which step of the scientific method involves making a specific prediction?

Lev Vygotsky

Which theorist stressed the role of culture and society?

behavioral

Which theory answers the following: Does learning depend on specific instruction, punishment, and examples?

personalities are developed in the early years.

With regard to development, Freud believed that:

COGNITIVE THEORY

Working model: Set of assumptions that the individual uses to organize perceptions and experiences A person might assume that other people are trustworthy and be surprised by evidence that this working model of human behavior is erroneous. The child's interpretation of early experiences is more important than the experiences themselves. New working models can be developed based on new experiences or reinterpretation of previous experiences.

The chromosomal makeup of a typical female is:

XX.

Replication

____________ permits science to advance by allowing old findings to be refined, refuted, and replicated.

Smallpox

_____________ was once the most lethal disease for children.

Developmental

_________theorists try to make sense out of observations and construct a story of the human journey from infancy to adulthood.

preterm

a birth at 35 or fewer weeks after conception

neurotransmitter

a brain chemical that carries information from the axon of a sending neuron to the dendrites of a receiving neuron

Neurotransmitter

a brain chemical that carries information from the axon of a sending neuron to the dendrites of a receiving neuron.

parental alliance

a commitment by both parents to cooperate in raising their child

protein-calorie malnutrition

a condition in which a person does not consume sufficient food of any kind

down syndrome

a condition in which a person has 47 chromosomes instead of 46

synchrony

a coordinated, rapid, and smooth exchange of responses between a caregiver and an infant

Dynamic interaction

a dynamic systems approach highlights the ever- changing impact that each part of a system has on all the other parts.

dendrite

a fiber that extends from a neuron and receives electrochemical impulses transmitted from other neurons via their axons

Dendrite-

a fiber that extends from a neuron and receives electrochemical impulses transmitted from other neurons via their axons.

axon

a fiber that extends from a neuron and transmits electrochemical impulses from that neuron to the dendrites of other neurons

Axon

a fiber that extends from a neuron and transmits electrochemical impulses from that neuron to the dendrites of other neurons.

kangaroo care

a form of newborn care in which mothers rest their babies on their naked chests

A genome is:

a full set of instructions to make a living organism.

x-linked

a gene on the x chromosome

nurture

a general term for all the environmental influences that affect development after an individual is conceived

nature

a general term for the traits, capacities, and limitations that each individual interits genetically from his or her parents at the moment of conception

fragile x syndrome

a genetic disorder in which a part of the x chromosome seems to be attached to the rest of it by a ver thin string of molecules

cohort

a group defined by the shared age of its members, who, because they were born at the same time, move through life together, experiencing the same historical events and cultural shifts.

cross-sequential research

a hybrid research design in which researchers first study several groups of people of different ages, and then follow those groups over the years

strange situation

a lab procedure for measuring attachment by evoking infants' reactions to the stress of various adutls' coming and goings in an unfamiliar playroom

Which of the following best explains the inability of a three-month-old to successfully grab and hold an object?

a lack of coordination

anoxia

a lack of oxygen for a second or two during birth - dangerous if prolonged

Attachment

a lasting emotional bond that one person has with another. Attachments begin to form in early infancy and influence a person's close relationships throughout life

shaken baby syndrome

a life-threatening injury that occurs when an infant is forcefully shaken back and forth, a motion that ruptures blood vessels in the brain and breaks neural connections

Shaken baby syndrome-

a life-threatening injury that occurs when an infant is forcefully shaken back and forth, a motion that ruptures blood vessels in the brain and breaks neural connections.

fMRI

a measuring technique in which the brain's electrical excitement indicates activation anywhere in the brain

scientific observation

a method of testing a hypothesis by unobtrusively watching and recording participants' behavior in a systematic and objective manner in a natural setting or lab; archival data is also observation

postpartum depression

a new mother's feelings of inadequacy and sadness in the days and weeks after giving birth

sociocultural theory

a newer theory that holds that development results from the dynamic interaction of each person with the surrounding social and cultural forces

self-awareness

a person's realization that he or she is a distinct individual whose body, mind, and actions are separate from those of other people

gamete

a reproductive cell, a sperm or ovum that can produce a new individual by combining with a gamete to form a zygote -Each gamete consists of 23 chromosomes.

longitudinal research

a research design in which the same individuals are followed over time and their development is repeatedly assessed

deferred imitation

a sequence in which an infant first perceives something done by someone else and then performs the same action hours or even days later

working model

a set of assumptions that the individual uses to organize perceptions and experiences

The term "holophrase" refers to:

a single word that expresses a complete thought.

holophrase

a single word that is used to express a complete, meaningful thought

sudden infant death syndrome

a situation in which a seemingly healthy infant, usually between 2 and 6 months old, suddenly stops breathing and dies while asleep

social smile

a smile evoked by a human face, normally first seen about 6 weeks after birth

Which of the following is the BEST definition of a hypothesis?

a specific prediction that can be tested

hypothesis

a specific prediction that can be tested

cognitive equilibrium

a state of mental balance in which people are not confused because they can use their existing though processes to understand current experiences and ideas

naming explosion

a sudden increase in an infant's vocabulary, especially in the number of nouns, that begins at about 18 months of age

developmental theory

a systematic statement of general principles that provides a framework for understanding how and why people change as they grow older

developmental theory

a systematic statement of principles and generalizations that provides a framework for understanding how and why people change as they grow older.

NBAS

a test given to newborns that measures responsiveness - 46 behaviors including 20 reflexes

psychoanalytic theory

a theory of human development that holds that irrational, unconscious drives and motives, often originating in childhood, underlie human behavior (Freud)

sensitive period

a time when a certain type of development is most likely to happen or happens most easily, although it may still happen later with more difficulty. (Early childhood sensitive period for language learning)

sensitive period

a time when a certain type of development is most likely to happen or happens most easily, although it may still happen later with more difficulty. For example, early childhood is considered a sensitive period for language learning

critical period

a time when a particular type of developmental growth (in body or behavior) must happen if it is ever going to happen

critical period

a time when a particular type of developmental growth, in body or behavior, must happen if it is ever going to happen

multifactorial

a trait that is affected by many factors, both genetic and environmental

disorganized attachment

a type of attachment that is marked by an infant's inconsistent reactions to the caregiver's departure and return

dynamic systems

a view of human development as an ongoing, ever-changing interaction between the physical, cognitive, and psychosocial influences.

scientific method

a way to answer questions that required empirical research and data-based conclusions

doula

a woman trained to support laboring women

Child-directed speech is:

a. preferred by newborns over other sounds. b. also called motherese. c. high-pitched, simplified, and repetitive speech used by adults to infants. d. All of these answers are correct.

binocular vision

ability to focus the two eyes in a coordinated manner in order to see one image

Fluid Intelligence

ability to use your mind actively to solve novel problems (e.g., verbal analogies or recognize relationships among figures)

Fetal alcohol syndrome is associated with:

abnormal facial features.

Tertiary circular reactions are characterized by:

active exploration and experimentation.

What occurs when infants change from sucking their mother's breast to sucking a pacifier?

adaptation

Stage two of sensorimotor intelligence, sometimes called the stage of first habits, relies on the infant _____ the environment.

adapting to accommodating assimilating All of these answers are correct.

Every ____________ gene contributes something to phenotype.

additive

At what age does Erikson's stage of identity versus role confusion occur?

adolescence

teratogens

agents and conditions including viruses, drugs and chemicals that can impair prenatal development and result in birth defects or even death

behavioral teratogens

agents and conditions that can harm the prenatal brain, impairing the future child's intellectual and emotional functioning

attachment

ainsworth: and "affectional tie" that an infant forms with a caregiver - a tie that binds them together in space and endures over time

immunization

aka vaccination; process that stimulates the bodys immune system to defend against attack by a particular contagious disease. this may be accomplished either naturally (by having the disease) or through vaccination (often by having an injection)

grammar

all the methods - word order, verb forms, and so on, that languages use to communicated meaning (apart from words)

grammar

all the methods--word order, verb forms, and so on--that languages use to communicate meaning, apart from the words themselves

teratogen

an agent or condition (viruses, drugs, chemicals, etc) that can impair prenatal development

life-span perspective

an approach to the study of human development that takes into account all phases of life, not just childhood or adulthood.

apgar scale

an assessment of a newborns health: testing 5 vital signs (color, heart rate, cry, muscle tone, and breathing) given a score of 0, 1, or 2 at both 1 minute and 5 minutes after birth. should be 7 or higher

norm

an average, or standard, measurement, calculated from the measurements of many individuals within a specific group or population

In order to establish what causes a behavior, what research method must be used?

an experiment

visual cliff

an experimental apparatus that give the illusion of a sudden drop-off between one horizontal surface and another

still-face technique

an experimental practice in which an adult keeps his or her face unmoving and expressionless in face-to-face interaction with an infant

ultrasound

an image of a fetus produced by using high-frequency sound waves

intra-cytoplasmic injection

an in vitro fertilization technique in which a single sperm cell is injected directly into an ovum

case study

an in-depth study of one person

separation anxiety

an infant's distress when a familiar caregiver leaves; most obvious between 9 and 14 months

stranger wariness

an infant's expression of concern (stare, clinging, fear) when a stranger appears

babbling

an infants repetition of certain syllables, such as ba-ba-ba, that begins when babies are between 6 and 9 months old

According to Chomsky's theory of language development, which factor predicts communication?

an innate ability

human genome project

an international effort to map the complete human genetic code

What is a synapse?

an intersection between neurons

affordance

an opportunity for perception and interaction that is offered by a person, place, or object in the environment

Personality

an organized combination of attributes, motives, values, & behaviors unique to each individual

A hypervigilant or emotionally flat response to stress later in life is a potential consequence of _______ in infancy.

an overabundance of stress hormones

reflex

an unlearned, involuntary action or movement in response to a stimulus

allele

any of the possible forms in which a gene for a particular trait can occur

eclectic perspective

approach in which aspects of each of the theories of each of the theories of development are applied

Newborns:

are legally blind

An example of a difference-equals-deficit error is:

assuming that children who are deaf cannot communicate as well as children who can hear.

One essential factor for quality infant day care is:

attention to health and safety.

A norm is a(n) _____ for a particular population.

averafe

A norm is a(n) ____________ for a particular population

average

The extended repetition of syllables is called:

babbling

Morphemes

basic units of meaning that exist in a word (e.g., view = 1; review = 2) *Not syllables*

Phonemes

basic units of sound that can change the meaning of a word ("ae" or "ah")

When do infants begin learning language?

before birth

When do infants begin learning to recognize language?

before birth

When do infants being learning to recognize language?

before birth

Zygote

begins duplication and division within hours of conception Development of the placenta Organ that surrounds the developing embryo and is attached to the wall of the uterus Sustains life via the umbilical chord (nourishes organism and carries waste products away) Implantation (about 10 days after conception) Developing organism burrows into the placenta that lines the uterus Organism grows rapidly Pregnancy can be detected due to new chemicals in the mother's urine

The primary focus of behaviorism is:

behavior.

At birth, the brain has ____________________.

billions of neurons

The ability to coordinate two eyes to see one image is called _____ vision.

binocular

head-sparing

biological mechanism that protects the brain when malnutrition disrupts body growth. the brain is the last part of the body to be damaged by malnutrition

Epigenetic theory arises from:

biology, genetics, and neuroscience.

fetal alcohol syndrome

birth defects (like deformed face, slow growth, and reduced intelligence) that may occur in the fetus of a woman who drinks alcohol while pregnant

fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)

birth defects including abnormal facial characteristics, slow physical growth, and retarded mental development

preterm birth

birth that occurs 3 or more weeks before the full pregnancy has elapsed

small for gestational age

birthweight is significantly lower than expected, given the time since conception

extremely low birthweight

birthweight of less than 2 pounds, 3 ounces (1000 grams)

very low birthweight

birthweight of less than 3 pounds, 5 ounces (1500 grams)

low birthweight

birthweight of less than 5 1/2 pounds (2500 grams)

small for gestational age (SGA)

body weight at birth that is significantly lower than expected given the time since conception (aka small-for-dates)

Most developmental psychologists believe that development is the result of:

both nature and nurture.

When an infant's nutrition is temporarily inadequate, which part of the body is "spared"?

brain

neurotransmitter

brain chemical that carries info from the axon of a sending neuron to the dendrites of a receiving neuron

experience-expectant brain functions

brain functions require certain basic common experiences in order to develop normally

experience-dependent brain functions

brain functions that depend on particular, variable experiences and therefore may or may not develop in a particular infant

Plasticity

brain has the ability to change and reorganize after damage, every individual can be altered at any point within the life span. Change is ongoing, although neither random or easy.

Which of the following makes sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) LESS likely?

breast-feeding

Which of the following makes sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) less likely?

breast-feeding

Some reflexes help insure survival

breathing, thrashing, shivering, sucking, rooting, swallowing, spitting up.

Moderate use of the following substance has NOT been associated with fetal abnormalities:

caffeine.

Breast-feeding reduces the risk of:

cancer, asthma, and diabetes

Recall

capable of recall without cues (e.g., reconstructing sequence after delay)

proximal parenting

caregiving practices that involve being physically close to the baby, with frequent holding and touching

distal parenting

caregiving practices that involve remaining distant from the baby, providing toys, food, and face to face communication with minimal holding and touching

Correlation is not

causation

Differentiation occurs when:

cells begin to specialize.

stem cells

cells from which any other specialized type of cell can form

mirror neurons

cells in an observer's brain that respond to an action performed by someone else in the same way they would if the observer had actually performed that action

mirror neurons

cells in an observer's brain that respond to an action performed by someone else in the same way they would if the observer were actually performing that action

Multidirectional

change occurs in every direction, not always in a straight line. Gains and losses, predictable growth and unexpected transformations are evident.

kangaroo care

child-care technique where mother for low-birthweight infant holds the baby between her breasts like a kangaroo that carries her newborn in a pouch on her abdomen

The high-pitched, simplified, and repetitive way in which adults speak to infants is sometimes called

child-directed speech

The high-pitched, simplified, and repetitive way in which adults speak to infants is sometimes called:

child-directed speech

Organization

children systematically combine existing schemes into new and more complex ones

Down syndrome is a condition in which an individual has three copies of:

chromosome 21.

Each molecule of DNA is called a(n):

chromosome.

Pavlov's experiment in which he conditioned dogs to salivate after hearing a bell demonstrated what he called:

classical conditioning.

Piaget was a theorist of:

cognition

The information-processing theory compares human thinking with:

computer functioning

The information-processing theory compares human thinking to:

computer functioning.

Down Syndrome

condition in which a person has 47 chromosomes instead of the usual 46, with three chromosomes of 21. Have unusual facial characteristics like thick tongue, round face, slanted eyes. Heart abnormalities and language difficulties. (aka trisomy-21) Accelerated aging (cataracts, dementia, certain forms of cancer common at age 40)

mesosystem

consisting of the connections among the other systems, Relations between microsystems or connections between contexts (relations of family experiences to school experiences, school experiences to church)

genetic counseling

consultation and testing by trained experts that enable individuals to learn about their genetic heritage, including harmful conditions that they might pass along to any children they conceive

While young Mara is sitting on the sofa next to her mother watching a cartoon on television, she leans into her mother's side and "snuggles up" to her. This demonstrates attachment through _____ behavior.

contact-maintaining

Which of the following is a gross motor skill?

crawling

Gross motor skill is to _________ as fine motor skill is to _________.

crawling; grabbing

What is an infant's FIRST means of communication?

crying

The FIRST emotional expressions to emerge at birth are

crying and contentment

What accounts for the ethnic variations in the development of gross motor skills?

cultural patterns b. practice c. genetics d. All of these contribute to variations.

co-sleeping

custom in which parents and their children (usually infants) sleep together in the same room

Over the first few months of infancy, the amount of time spent in REM (dreaming) sleep:

decreases

Over the first few months of infancy, the amount of time spent in REM (dreaming) sleep:

decreases.

A sequence in which an infant perceives another's action and then performs the same action at a later time is called

deferred imitation

A sequence in which an infant perceives another's action and then performs the same action at a later time is called:

deferred imitation

One-year-old Danielle watches her sister talk on a cell phone. The next day Danielle holds the cell phone to her ear as if she is using the phone. Danielle is demonstrating:

deferred imitation

One-year-old Danielle watches her sister talk on a cell phone. The next day, Danielle holds the cell phone to her ear as if she is using the phone. Danielle is demonstrating:

deferred imitation

A sequence in which an infant perceives another's action and then performs the same action later is called:

deferred imitation.

Vygotsky

described the interaction between culture and education.

visual cliff

designed to provide the illusion of a sudden dropoff between one horizontal surface and another. Mothers were able to urge their 6-month-olds to wiggle forward over the supposed edge of the cliff, but 10-month-olds fearfully refused to budge.

Compensation

develop ways around the need for other skills

Each of Erikson's developmental stages is characterized by a particular challenge or:

developmental crisis.

Emergent Literacy

developmental precursors of reading skills including knowledge, skills, and attitudes

The sense of hearing

develops during the last trimester of pregnancy and is already quite acute at birth; it is the most advanced of the newborn's senses.

kwashiorkor

disease of chronic malnutrition during childhood, where a protein deficiency makes the child more vulnerable to other diseases, such as measles, diarrhea, and influenza

kwashiorkor

disease of malnutrition during childhood - protein deficiency makes child more vulnerable to other diseases

marasmus

disease of malnutrition during infancy - growth stops, body tissues waste away, death

marasmus

disease of severe protein-calorie malnutrition during early infancy, in which growth stops, body tissues waste away, and the infant eventually dies

cerebral palsey

disorder resulting from damage to brain's motor centers - difficulty with muscle control

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Breast-feeding reduces the risk of WHICH of the following

eczema

Breast-feeding reduces the risk of WHICH of the following?

eczema

The stage of prenatal development that lasts from two through eight weeks is the:

embryonic.

Throughout his life, Bronfenbrenner:

emphasized studying humans in natural settings.

Dispositional Traits

enduring aspects that help describe personality (extraversion vs. introversion, or independence vs. dependence)

Tertiary circular reactions are characterized by toddlers who

engage in deferred imitation

Tertiary circular reactions are characterized by toddlers who:

engage in deferred imitation

In the science of human development, "nurture" refers to:

environmental influences.

Of the following theories, which places the greatest emphasis on the interaction between genes and the environment?

epigenetic

Development is the result of an interaction between biological and environmental forces. This statement most closely describes:

epigenetic theory.

Autobiographical Memory (Children)

episodic memories of personal events and are essential to understanding of past, present, and future; begin to develop early childhood (~2 years; most ~4/5)

trust versus mistrust

erikson's first crisis of psychosocial development. infants learn basic trust if the world is a secure place where their basic needs are bet

autonomy versus shame and doubt

erikson's second crisis of psychosocial development. toddlers either succeed or fail in gaining a sense of self-rule over their actions and their bodies

empirical evidence

evidence that is based on observation, experience, or experiment, not theory

Which of the following is not associated with Urie Bronfenbrenner?

exosystems

Moratorium Status (Marcia)

experiencing a crisis, raising questions and seeking answers

babbling

extend repetition of certain syllables, such as ba-ba-ba, that begins when babies are between 6 and 9 months

Savant

extraordinary talent in visual or math

stunting

failure of children to grow to a normal height for their age due to severe and chronic malnutrition

The microsystem includes:

family and peers.

XX

female, a 23rd chromosome pair w two XX shaped chromosomes, one from the mother and one from the father

in vitro fertilization

fertilization that takes place outside the woman's body

dendrite

fiber that extends from a neuron and receives electrochemical impulses transmitted from other neurons via their axons

axon

fiber that extends from a neuron and transmits electrochemical impulses from that neuron to the dendrites of other neurons

Small body movements, especially of the hands and fingers, are referred to as _____ skills.

fine motor

germinal period

first two weeks of prenatal development after conception, characterized by rapid cell division and the beginning of cell differentiation

cognitive theory

focuses on changes in how people think over time - our thoughts shape our attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors

In which of Piaget's stages would one expect to see the development of an interest in ethics, politics, and social and moral issues?

formal operational

International health organizations recommend that mothers exclusively breast-feed for the first:

four to six months.

Which genetic disorder is sex-linked, appears on the X chromosome, and may result in mental retardation?

fragile X syndrome

The _____ cortex is the part of the brain that assists in planning, self-control, and self-regulation.

frontal

mirror neurons

frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so; the brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy

genome

full set of genes that are instructions to make an individual member of a species

additive gene

gene that adds something to some aspect of the phenotype. it's contribution depends on additions from the other genes, which may come from either the same or the other parent. -Example: Height is affected by the contributions of about 100 genes

regulator gene

gene that directs the interactions of other genes, controlling their expression, duplication, and transcription

The basic unit on a chromosome used for the transmission of heredity is called a(n):

gene.

According to epigenetic theory:

genes establish possible behavior patterns.

copy number variations

genes with various repeats or deletions of base pairs

phenylketonuria

genetic disorder in which a child's body in unable to metabolize an amino acid called phenylalnine. the resulting buildup of phenyl aline in body fluids causes brain damage, progressive mental retardation and other symptoms.

fragile x syndrome

genetic disorder where part of the x chromosome is attached to the rest of it by a very thin string of molecules. Caused by a single gene containing over 200 repetitions of one triplet.

The full set of genes for a living organism is called a:

genome

A person's genetic inherited potential is called the _______, while a person's actual appearance and behavior is called the ________.

genotype; phenotype

Using gestures when speaking to babies is important because:

gestures allow babies to communicate earlier

Six-month-old Elena began to babble, but she stopped shortly afterwards and hasn't babbled since. Her parents should:

get Elena's hearing checked.

Behaviorists believe that a mother who _________ will stimulate her child's communication skills.

gives reinforcement

An example of a fine motor skill is

grabbing a pencil and holding it while drawing

Word order, prefixes, suffixes, intonation, verb forms, pronouns, negations, prepositions, and articles are all parts of:

grammar

transient exuberance

great but temporary increase in the number of dendrites that develop in an infant's brain during the first 2 years of life

Large body movements, such as walking and jumping, are called _____ motor skills.

gross

Large body movements, such as walking and jumping, are:

gross motor skills.

Scaffolding

guide gives structured help to novice, but gradually reduces the help

A formula-fed baby is more likely to _____ than a breast-fed baby.

have more allergies

A formula-fed baby is more likely to ________ than a breast-fed baby.

have more allergies

At 12 months, Tony experienced a bad cold with a very stuffy nose. He stopped eating adequately for several days and became slightly malnourished. His body stopped growing, but his brain did not. This supports the concept of:

head-sparing

genetic counseling

helps prospective parents understand their genetic risk so that they can make informed decisions about their pregnancy

Short Term Memory

holds limited amount of information for short time (~5 to 7 items)

A single word that is used to express a complete, meaningful thought is called a:

holophrase

What does the science of human development seek to understand?

how and why people change over time

Piaget was primarily interested in:

how children think.

social learning theory

humans sometimes learn without personal reinforcement

cross-sequential research

hybrid research design in which researchers first study several groups of people of different ages and them follow those groups over the years

monozygotic twins

identical twins formed when one zygote splits into two separate masses of cells, each of which develops into a separate embryo

Identity Achievement Status (Marcia)

identity has been questioned and resolved

A correlation is positive

if both variables tend to increase together or decrease together.

A correlation is zero

if no connection is evident

A correlation is negative

if one variable tends to increase while the other decreases.

sonogram

image of unborn fetus (or an internal organ) produced by scanning it with high-frequency sound waves (aka ultrasound)

A process that stimulates the body's immune system to defend against a particular contagious disease is:

immunization

process that stimulates the body's defense system to protect against a particular contagious disease is:

immunization

Hearing is quite acute at birth. It is processed

in the auditory cortex

Assimilation

in which new experiences are interpreted to fit into, or assimilate with, old ideas (Piaget)

Accommodation

in which old ideas are restructured to include, or accommodate, new experiences (Piaget)

temperament

inborn differences between one person and another in emotions, activity, and self-regulation

self-righting

inborn drive to remedy a developmental deficit; literally, to return to sitting or standing upright after being tipped over. people of all ages have self-righting impulses, for emotional as well as physical imbalance

heritability

indicates only how much of the variation in a particular trait, within a particular population, in a particular context and era, can be traced to genes.

By three months of age,:

infants show a preference for faces with features over faces without features.

By 3 months of age:

infants smile more at happy faces than ones that are expressionless

Assimilation

interpret new experiences in terms of existing schemes

synapses

intersection between the axon of one neuron and the dendrites of other neurons

psychoanalytic theory

irrational, unconscious drives and motives, often originating in childhood, underlie human behavior

Shaken baby syndrome:

is seen in one in five children hospitalized for maltreatment.

When something is said to be "genetic," this means that:

it is part of a person's biological makeup.

Metamemory

knowledge of memory and to monitoring and regulating memory processes

Metacognition

knowledge of the human mind and of various cognitive processes

A mental structure enabling infants to learn grammar, vocabulary, and intonation is called:

language acquisition device

motor skills

learned abilities to move some part of the body, in actions ranging from a large leap to a flicker of the eyelid (movement of muscles)

Habituation (Infant)

learning not to respond to repeated stimulus (if they recognize it and become bored, they learned it)

operant conditioning

learning process in which a action is followed by something desired (making the action more likely to be repeated) or by something unwanted (which makes the action less likely to be repeated) (aka instrumental learning)

Behaviorists are also referred to as:

learning theorists.

social learning theory

learning through observation and imitation of other people

Carriers of the sickle-cell trait are:

less likely to die of malaria.

extremely low birthweight (ELBW)

less than 2 pounds, 3 ounces

low birthweight (LBW)

less than 5 1/2 pounds

The prenatal term "viability" means:

life outside the womb is possible

shaken baby syndrome

life-threatening injury that occurs when an infant is forcefully shaken back and forth, a motion that ruptures blood vessels in the brain and breaks neural connections

Piaget's term for the stage-five toddler who experiments without anticipating the results is the:

little scientist

Class Inclusion (Children)

logical understanding that all parts are included in the whole; preschoolers have trouble with classification as well

According to your text, which of the following diseases does NOT have an immunization available?

malaria

XY

male, 23rd chromosome pair with an X shaped chromosome from the mother and Y shaped chromosome from the father.

In the industry versus inferiority stage, children try to:

master new skills.

The MMR vaccine protects against:

measles, mumps, and rubella.

explicit memory

memory that is easy to retrieve on demand (as in a specific test). Most explicit memory involves consciously learned word, data, and concepts

difference-equals-deficit error

mistaken belief that a deviation from some norm is necessarily inferior to behavior or characteristics that meet the standard

information-processing theory

model of memory that assumes the processing of information for memory storage is similar to the way a computer processes memory in a series of three stages

X-linked conditions

more common in boys; girls are likely to be protected by their second X

As we age, losses occur in some domains, while gains are made in others. This is consistent with the ____________ nature of development.

multidirectional

According to the text, which three factors enable toddlers to walk?

muscle strength, brain maturation, and practice

embryo

name for a developing human organism from about the third through the eighth week

Information is carried from one neuron to another by:

neurotransmitters.

Stage four of sensorimotor intelligence is characterized by:

new adaptation and anticipation

Stage four of sensorimotor intelligence is characterized by:

new adaptation and anticipation.

The Apgar scale measures the:

newborn's condition following birth.

Diffusion Status (Marcia)

no crisis, no commitment, identity not really examined or stable

A game in which a father hides his face and then reveals it while saying "peek-a-boo" is fun for an eight-month-old because of the child's emerging sense of:

object permanence.

Isaiah is 7 months old. His sister takes a toy and hides it behind her back. Isaiah cries and does not look for the toy. It is likely that he has not yet acquired:

object permanence.

Isaiah is seven months old. His sister takes a toy and hides it behind her back. Isaiah cries and does not look for the toy. It is likely that he has not yet acquired:

object permanence.

phenotype

observable characteristics of a person, including personal appearance, personality, intelligence and other traits

In social learning theory, modeling is a process by which people:

observe the actions of others and then copy them.

Implicit Memory

occurs unintentional, automatically, and without awareness (a.k.a. procedural) -priming: to prime one to act in a certain way -results of classical conditioning -skills, procedure, habits: riding a bike or walking

chromosome

of of 46 molecules of DNA (in 23 pairs) in the human body that contain all the genes

Newborns' sleep is primarily active sleep

often dozing, able to awaken if someone rouses them, but also able to go back to sleep quickly if they wake up, cry, and are comforted.

neuron

one of billions of nerve cells in the CNS, especially in the brain

neuron

one of billions of nerve cells in the central nervous system, especially in the brain

For several months after birth, newborns gain approximately _____ per day.

one ounce

genetic epistemolosit

one who studies how children gain knowledge about the world as they grow up (Piaget)

The type of learning in which a reinforcer or punishment follows a particular behavior is called:

operant conditioning.

All of the following occur during the germinal period except: a. cell differentiation. b. organ formation. c. implantation. d. cell duplication.

organ formation.

genotype

organism's entire genetic inheritance or genetic potential -Unique for each organism

Cortex

outer layers of the brain

cortex

outer layers of the brain in humans and other mammals. most thinking, feeling, and sensing involve this

Over-regulization

overapplying rules to cases in which proper form is irregular (e.g., deers)

Five-year-old Marisol becomes furious after minor incidents with her peers. Her inability to deal with normal stress may be related to the _______ of stress hormones in her brain during infancy

overproduction

co-sleeping

parents and their children (usually infants) sleep together in the same room

With a good fit

parents of difficult babies build a close relationship parents of exuberant, curious infants learn to protect them from harm parents of slow-to-warm-up toddlers give them time to adjust

Which of the following seems to predict insecure attachment?

parents who are highly stressed about things like income, other children, or their marriage

synaptic gap

pathway across which neurotransmitters carry info from the axon of the sending neuron to the dendrites of the receiving neuron

ethnic group

people whose ancestors were born in the same region and who often share a language, culture, and religion

. Which term describes what occurs when the brain processes and interprets a sensation?

perception

Which term describes what occurs when the brain notices and processes a sensation?

perception

reminder session

perceptual experience that is intended to help a person recollect an idea, a thing, or an experience, without testing whether the person remembers it at the moment

Carrier

person whose genotype includes a gene that is not expressed in the phenotype. the gene is passed to half of the carrier's children, who will be carrier's. -Offspring can be carrier or express the gene in the phenotype (e.g. when unexpressed gene is inherited by both parents)

hybrid theory

perspective that combines various aspects of different theories to explain how language, or any other developmental phenomenon, occurs

information-processing theory

perspective that compares human thinking processes, by analogy, to computer analysis of data, including sensory input, connections, stored memories, and output

What are the observable characteristics of a person, including appearance and personality, called?

phenotype

gross motor skill

physical abilities involving large body movements (walking and jumping)

gross motor skills

physical abilities involving large body movements such as walking and jumping

fine motor skills

physical abilities involving small body movements, especially of the hands and fingers, like drawing and picking up a coin

fine motor skill

physical abilities involving small movements (drawing, picking up a coin)

The organ that develops within the pregnant woman's uterus to protect and nourish the developing prenatal organism is called the:

placenta.

Executive Functions

planning, organization, and inhibitory functions

Most human traits are affected by many genes. In other words, they are:

polygenic.

What is the first step of the scientific method?

pose a question

Which term describes feelings of inadequacy and sadness following the birth of a baby?

postpartum depression

Optimization

practice those skills to keep them sharp

The last part of the brain to mature is the

prefrontal cortex, the area for anticipation, planning, and impulse control.

Egocentrism (Children)

preschool-age children tend to view world from their own perspective and have difficulty recognizing other points of view

Piaget's first two stages of sensorimotor intelligence involve the demonstration of:

primary circular reactions

immunization

primes the body's immune system to resist a particular disease

Guided Participation

process by which children learn by actively participating in culturally relevant activities with the aid and support of knowledgeable guides

conditioning

process by which responses become linked to particular stimuli and learning takes place

Adaptation

process of adjusting to the environment

What can stem cells do?

produce any type of cell

___ occurs when a person does NOT consume enough food of any kind. It can lead to illness, weight loss, and death.

protein-calorie malnutrition

quantitative research

provides data that can be expressed with numbers such as ranks or scales

Stress can be avoided by:

providing new mothers with help and emotional support involving new fathers in the care of the infant strengthening the relationship between mother and father

Which term is used to describe the process in which unused neurons die

pruning

Which term is used to describe the process in which unused neurons die?

pruning

What are the 3 theories of personality?

psychoanalytic, trait, and social learning

uses several theoretical perspectives.

psychologist who uses an eclectic approach during therapy:

Apgar scale

quick assessment of a newborn's body functioning. baby's heart rate, respiratory effort, muscle tone, color and reflexes are given a score of 0, 1, or 2 twice, at one minute and five minutes after birth. Scores compared with the ideal score of 10.

object permanence

realization that objects (including people) still exist even if they can no longer be seen, touched, or heard

polygenic

referring to a trait that is influenced by many genes

epigenetic

referring to the effects of environmental forces on the expression of an individual's, or a species', genetic inheritance

epigenetic

referring to the effects of environmental forces on the expression of an individual's, or a species', genetic inheritance.

Working Memory (Short-Term Memory)

refers to a mental "scratch pad" that temporarily stores information while actively operating on it; what is on ones mind or on ones consciousness at any moment

Which of the following is an infant's first motor skill?

reflex

Which of the following is an infant's FIRST motor skill?

reflexes

Cries, movements, and facial expressions are examples of:

reflexive communication

Cries, movements, and facial expressions are examples of:

reflexive communication.

The typical order of spoken language development is:

reflexive vocalizing, cooing, babbling, and simple words.

The typical order of spoken language development is:

reflexive, cooing, babbling, and simple words

The typical order of spoken language development is:

reflexive, cooing, babbling, and simple words.

The typical order of spoken language development is:

reflexive, cooing, babbling, simple words

Long Term Memory

relatively permanent and seemingly unlimited

replication

repetition of a study, using different participants

What is a zygote?

reproductive cells that have fused

longitudinal research

research design in which the same individuals are followed over time and their development repeatedly assessed

cross-sectional research

research design that compares groups of people who differ in age but are similar in other important characteristics

survey

research method where info is collected from a large number of people by interviews, written questionnaires, or some other means

sensation

response of a sensory system (eyes, ears, skin, tongue, nose) when it detects a stimulus

postpartum depression

sadness and inadequacy felt by some new mothers in the days and weeks after giving birth

The difference between primary and secondary circular reactions is that:

secondary circular reactions involve the infant responding to people and objects.

gene

section of chromosome and basic unit for transmission of heredity, instructions for cell to manufacture proteins -Chemicals are organized in four pairs (AT, TA, CG, GC). -Each person has about 3 billion pairs.

social referencing

seeking information about how to react to an unfamiliar or ambiguous object or event by observing someone else's expressions and reactions

A feeling of self-confidence that an individual develops when he or she has high aspirations and notable achievements is:

self-efficacy.

Because of his hard work, Roman is a successful member of his high school debate team. He looks forward to his future success on the college debate team. This is an example of:

self-efficacy.

Syntax

semantic rules for sentences ("Laura talks fast", not "talks Laura fast")

Language learning is considered a:

sensitive period.

Phonological Awareness (Children)

sensitivity to the sounds of language that enables them to segment spoken words into sounds or phonemes

The term used to describe the thought process in infants that relies on senses and motor skills is _____ intelligence.

sensorimotor

Piaget's cognitive development period that begins at birth and ends around age 2 is called:

sensorimotor intelligence.

The term used to describe an infant's thought process that relies on senses and motor skills is:

sensorimotor intelligence.

deferred imitation

sequence in which an infant first perceives something done by someone else and then performs the same action hours or even days later

Grammar includes all the devices by which words communicate meaning:

sequence, prefixes, suffixes, intonation, loudness, verb forms, pronouns, negations, prepositions, and articles. Worldwide, people who are not yet 2 years old already use language well.

Which of the following may result in brain damage, coma, and/or death?

shaken baby syndrome

Which of the following may result in brain damage, coma, or death?

shaken baby syndrome

Which of the following senses is the LEAST mature and functional at birth?

sight

Which of the following senses is the least developed at birth?

sight

Fifty percent of all babies master sitting unsupported by ____ months.

six

Newborns have a high proportion of REM (rapid eye movement)

sleep, with flickering eyes and rapid brain waves.

According to your text, early sensation appears to be organized toward which two goals?

social interaction and comfort

An example of psychosocial development is:

social skills.

REM (rapid eye movement) sleep

stage of sleep characterized by flickering eyes behind closed lids, dreaming, and rapid brain waves

heritability

statistic that indicates what percentage of the variation in a particular trait within a particular population in a particular context and era, can be inherited -Example: 90% of the height differences among children of the same age is genetic. Environment can affect the expression of inherited genes.

humanism

stressed the potential of all humans for good and the belief that all people have the same basic needs

parent-infant bond

strong, loving connection that forms as parents hold, examine, and feed their newborn

behaviorism

studies observable behavior - the "learning theory" because it describes the laws and processes by which behavior is learned

Tarek was malnourished as a child, and as a result he is significantly shorter than his peers. Even though he has already passed his adolescent growth spurt and his parents are of average height, it is clear that he will always be unusually short. Tarek is experiencing a condition called:

stunting

naming explosion

sudden increase in an infant's vocab, especially in the number of nouns, that begins at about 18 months

When an apparently healthy 2-month-old baby dies in his or her sleep, he or she most likely died of:

sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS).

cesarean section (c-section)

surgical birth, where incisions are made through the abdomen and uterus so the fetus can be removed quickly

couvade

symptoms of pregnancy and birth experienced by fathers

Neurons in the brain connect at "intersections" called:

synapses

Operant Conditioning

taps into implicit or procedural memory (mobile studies)

reinforcement

technique for conditioning behavior in which the behavior is followed by something desired

assisted reproductive technology

techniques designed to help infertile couples become pregnant

wasting

tendency for children to be severely underweight for their age as a result of malnutrition

A-not-B Error (Infants)

tendency of 8 to 12 month olds to search for an object where they last found it, rather than new hiding space; new experiments have shown that young infants have some concept of object permanence

An infant who begins to explore the environment by actively taking independent action is entering the _____ stage

tertiary circular reactions

fetal period

the 9th week on of prenatal development: gains 7 pounds, organs mature, fetus gradually able to function on own

Decentration (Children)

the ability to focus on two or more dimensions of a problem at once

binocular vision

the ability to focus the two eyes in a coordinated manner in order to see one image

age of viability

the age (22 weeks) at which a fetus might survive outside of the womb

age of viability

the age (about 22 weeks after conception) that a fetus can survive outside the mother's uterus with specialized medical care

The age of viability is:

the age at which the fetus can, with specialized medical care, survive outside the uterus.

prefrontal cortex

the area of the cortex at the front of the brain; specializes in anticipation, planning, and impulse control

prefrontal cortex

the area of the cortex at the very front of the brain that specializes in anticipation, planning, and impulse control

mean length of utterance

the average number of words in a typical sentence

head-sparing

the brain is the last part of the body to be damaged by malnutrition

allocare

the care of children by people other than the biological parents

modeling

the central process of social learning, by which a person observes then copies them

The six outer layers of the brain are referred to as:

the cortex

embryo

the developing human organism at 3-8 weeks after conception

fetus

the developing human organism from weeks 9-40 of pregnancy

nurture

the environmental influences that affect development after an individual is conceived health and diet of the embryo's mother family school community society

Goodness of Fit

the extent to which the child's temperament is compatible with the demands and expectations of the social world to which she must adapt

stunting

the failure of children to grow to a normal height for their age due to severe and chronic malnutrition

cesarean section

the fetus is removed through incisions in the mother's abdomen

One-month-old Emily realizes that her hand is too big to fit into her mouth. She reacts by sucking just on her thumb. Piaget would describe Emily's behavior as:

the first acquired adapation

transient exuberance

the great but temporary increase in the number of dendrites that develop in an infant's brain during the first two years of life

differential sensitivity

the idea that some people are more vulnerable than others to certain experiences, usually because of genetic differences

Primary circular reactions involve:

the infant's own body

dominant-recessive pattern

the interaction of alleles in such that the phenotypes reflect one allele (dominant) more than the other (recessive)

Synapse

the intersection between the axon of one neuron and the dendrites of other neurons.

motor skill

the learned abilities to move parts of the body

operant conditioning

the learning process in which a particular action is followed by something desired (to increase behavior) or something unwanted (to decrease behavior)

perception

the mental processing of sensory information when the brain interprets a sensation

difference-equals-deficit error

the mistaken belief that a deviation from some norm is necessarily inferior to behavior or characteristics that meet the standard

phenotype

the observable characteristics of a person (appearance, intelligence, personality)

cortex

the outer layers of the brain; involves most thinking, feeling, and sensing

synaptic gap

the pathway across which neurotransmitters carry information from the axon of the sending neuron to the dendrites of the receiving neuron

cortisol

the primary stress hormone

reinforcement

the process by which a behavior is followed by something desired

selective adaptation

the process by which living creatures (including people) adjust to their environment. Genes that enhance survival and reproductive ability are selected over generation to become more prevalent

guided participation

the process by which people learn from others who guide their experiences and explorations

habituation

the process of becoming accustomed to an object or event through repeated exposure to it, and thus becoming less interested in it

Reversibility (Children)

the process of mentally undoing or reversing an action

Accommodation

the process of modifying existing schemes to better fit new experiences

conditioning

the processes by which responses become linked to particular stimuli and learning takes place - result of repeated practice

object permanence

the realization that objects still exist when they can no longer be seen, touched, or heard

accommodation

the reconstruction of old ideas to include new experiences

assimilation

the reinterpretation of new experiences to fit into old ideas

replication

the repetition of a study, using different participants

sensation

the response of a sensory system (eyes, ears, tongue, nose) when it detects a stimulus

The neural tube eventually develops into:

the spinal cord.

little scientist

the stage-five toddler who experiments without anticipating the results, using trial and error in active and creative exploration

parent-infant bond

the strong, loving connection that forms as parents hold, examine, and feed their newborn

wasting

the tendency for children to be severely underweight for their age as a result of malnurition

Centration (Children)

the tendency to center attention on a single aspect of the problem

embryonic period

the third-eighth weeks of prenatal development: basic forms of body structures develop

nature

the traits, capacities, and limitations that each individual inherits genetically from his or her parents at the moment of conception

Crystalized Intelligence

the use of knowledge acquired through schooling or other experiences (e.g., general information or facts)

dependent variable

the variable that may change in response to conditions experimenter adds. dependent variable depends on the independent variable

independent variable

the variable you change to see how it will affect the dependent variable.

ecological-systems approach

the view that in the study of human development, the person should be considered in all the contexts and interactions that constitute a life

ecological-systems approach

the view that in the study of human development, the person should be considered in all the contexts and interactions that constitute a life.

cognitive theory

theory of human development that focuses on how people think over time. Our thoughts shape our attitudes, actions, beliefs and behaviors (Piaget)

Subjects (participants in research) must give informed consent-

they must understand the research procedures and any risks involved.

By his or her first birthday, a newborn's weight typically:

triples

A baby described as small for gestational age (SGA):

weighs significantly lower than expected.

classical conditioning

when a neutral stimulus evokes a response after being paired with a stimulus that naturally evokes a response

threshold effect

when a teratogen is relatively harmless in small doses but becomes harmful once exposure reaches a certain level

According to research, bottle-feeding is recommended only:

when an infant's mother has some condition that makes her milk unhealthy.

pruning

when applied to brain development, the process by which unused connections in the brain atrophy and die

Why does childhood amnesia occur?

when individuals have few autobiographical memories of events from early years because: -Lack of language—memory relies heavily on language skills -Context which encourages discussion and examination of an early event (e.g., parents "reviewing") -Lack of a strong sense of self -Way we store memories (whole experience vs parts)

What is Holland's person-environment fit theory of vocational development?

• Investigative - scientists • Social- teachers, counselors • Realistic- car mechanics, construction • Artistic- artists, musicians • Conventional- accountants, librarians • Enterprising- sales people, entrepreneurs

What are the abilities of elementary age children?

-Can decenter and consider multiple dimensions at once, grasp concept of conservation -Capable of seriation ~ enables them to arrange items mentally along a dimension -Become more aware of multiple perspectives and able to classify in increasingly complicated ways

Information-Processing Approach

-Model emphasizes the basic mental processes involved in attention, perception, memory, and decision making -Maturation of nervous system and experience enable individuals to: remember more, perform complex cognitive tasks, greater accuracy

What do recent studies show about preschool aged children's abilities?

-Piaget may have underestimated children's abilities when tasks were reduced to their bare essentials -Used familiar objects and contexts they performed much better -Consistent with dynamic skill framework and the idea that the developmental range of skills depends on context

Postformal thought

describes ways of thinking that are more complex than those of the formal-operational stage

What can formal operational thought lead to?

adolescent egocentrism ~ imaginary audience, personal fable

Formal Operations

ages 11 - 12+; can think about abstract ideas, develop deductive reasoning skills, can form hypothesis and systematically test them with science methods

12. Theory of mind: a. occurs in predictable phases over a period of three to five years. b. usually develops slowly in young children, typically emerging about age 4. c. occurs in predictable phases over a period of two to three years. d. does not occur until the formal operational stage of cognitive development is reached.

B

14. If a child with a food allergy ingests some of that food, it could lead to a life-threatening reaction. What can be injected into the child to stop this reaction and potentially save her life? a. dopamine b. epinephrine c. cortisol d. serotonin

B

17. A young child who states that "butter is made by butterflies" and "birds grow birdseed" is trying to use: a. theory of mind. b. logical extension. c. social mediation. d. scaffolding.

B

18. Which of the following is part of the limbic system? a. putamen b. hippocampus c. nucleus accumbens d. thalamus

B

Preoperational

ages 2 - 7; capacity for symbolic thought but is not yet logical problem solving, develop language/engage in pretend play, not thinking logically, egocentric, do not recognize that properties of an object do not change when appearance is altered

Concrete Operations

ages 7 - 11; acquire logical operations ~ allows them to mentally classify, add, and act on concrete objects, use trial and error, can solve real-world practical problems

Neuro-Constructivism Theory

-Builds upon Piaget by attempting to explain precise mechanisms of cognitive development -Theory that new knowledge is constructed through changes in the neural structures of the brain in response to experiences -Houde et al. (2011) have conducted fMRI scans on children completing Piagetian tasks, can show differences in brain activity between those children able to complete the task and those that weren't

Piaget's Constructivist Approach

-Children of the same age make the same mental mistakes -Used naturalistic observation and his clinical method (question-and-answer technique) to explore how children understand the world -Defined intelligence as a life function that helps an organism adapt to its environment -Viewed infants as active agents in their own development, learn by observing, investigating, and experimenting -Children's' brains create schemes to organize patterns of action or thought -Schemes become increasingly more sophisticated, and help children adapt to their environment

What are the implications of formal thought?

-Paves the path for complex thinking, humor, and a sense of identity -But also creates a more nuanced view of world that creates questioning of authority figures and rules

What is symbolic thought for children?

-Preschoolers show capacity for symbolic thought by using words to refer to things, people and events that are not present -Pretend play and dress up are common -Imaginary friends are common

Private Speech

-Spoken language is the most important tool that children learn -Piaget saw preschool children's self monologue as a sign of preoperational thinking -Vygotsky saw private speech as critical step in development of mature and independent thought -Research with young children has shown that their private speech increases when facing an obstacle -Four-year olds who are more goal oriented are more likely to use private speech to regulate behavior and achieve their goals -Early reliance on private speech predicts later problem-solving abilities

Why do older adults have trouble solving Piagetian tests of formal-operational thinking?

-This may be a byproduct of cross-sectional comparisons, and the cohort effect of older adults receiving less formal education -Brief training can quickly improve the performance of older adults long out of school, cognitive abilities can be reactivated -Like young children, or people from cultures with less formal education, objects are often classified based upon their usage and not similarities

What is the mastery of formal operations?

-Transition from concrete operations to formal operations takes place gradually over years -Munich Longitudinal Study showed that many younger participants had an understanding of scientific thinking, but few could produce it -Two forms of reasoning- intuitive and scientific- coexist in older thinkers -Formal education plays a major role in whether individuals are able to solve logic problems

What are challenges to Piaget's theory?

-Underestimated young minds -Focus on stages ignores inconsistent performance & continuous change -Good description of development, but not so good at explanation of how -Limited attention to social influences on cognitive development (particularly ignored role of adults in child's learning)

Fischer's Dynamic Skill Framework

-Uses some ideas from Piaget and Vygotsky (stages from Piaget and zone of proximal distance (developmental range) from Vygotsky) -Human performance is dynamic, and changes in response to context -Believed that cognitive development needs to be studied in its natural context and not in a laboratory setting -Fischer proposes that skill levels (not cognitive structures) change and develop

Vygotsky's Sociocultural Perspective

-Vygotsky was not as well known because he was banned for political reasons and died of tuberculosis at age 38 -Newly rediscovered theory in recent decades -Believed that cognitive growth occurs in a sociocultural context and evolves out o the child's social interactions

What are the abilities of adolescents?

-emergence of abstract thought -adolescent who grasps abstract thought can mentally juggle and think about ideas, which cannot be seen, heard, tasted, smelled or touched -formal-operational thought is more hypothetical and abstract -Permits systematic and scientific thinking about problems -Hypothetical-deductive reasoning: reasoning from general ideas to their specific implications

How does explicit and implicit memory fluctuate with age?

-implicit memory develops earlier in infancy -capacity for explicit memory increases with age

What are the three types of short term memory processes?

-phonological: holds auditory information (words or music) -visual spatial: hold visual information (colors or shapes) -episodic: links auditory and visual

What are the processes to store memory?

1. Encode: get information into our systems 2. Consolidate: process and organize in a form that can be saved for long term 3. Store: hold information in long term memory 4. Retrieve: getting information out when needed

What is the development of symbolic capacity in infants?

1. Primary circular reactions: infants repeat actions with their own bodies that initially happened because of chance (sucking a finger) 2. Secondary circular reactions: infants derive pleasure by repeatedly performing an action (banging a toy) 3. Coordination of secondary schemes: infants combine secondary actions to achieve simple goals (push an obstacle away) 4. Tertiary circular reactions: infants experiment with toys,exploring them and learning about their properties (a pot can become a hat- ability to use symbolic thought)

What are Piaget's stages of cognitive development?

1. Sensorimotor Stage (birth to 2 years) 2. Preoperational Stage (2-7 years) 3. Concrete operations stage (7-11 years) 4. Formal operations stage (11+ years) *children pass through stages at different rates, age ranges are an average*

What are the phases of the sensorimotor stage?

1. reflex activity (birth - 1 mo) ~ exercise and refinement of innate reflexes (sucking patterns) 2. primary circular reactions (1 - 4 mo) ~ repeats interesting acts centered on self (kick legs); usually start as random but then repeated for pleasure 3. secondary circular reactions (4-8 mo) ~ repeats interesting acts on objects (hits mobile); actions extend to outside world 4. coordination of secondary schemes (8-12 mo) ~acts to solve problems & achieve goals (move object); intentionality 5. tertiary circular reactions (12-18 mo) ~ experiment with ways solve problems or produce outcomes (hitting water; cats) 6. beginning of thoughts ~ solve problems mentally; use symbols; visualize tool use (move toy)

What are Fischer's tiers of development?

1.Reflexive 2. Sensorimotor 3. Representations 4. Abstractions

19. In 2011 in the United States, _____ percent of children entering kindergarten spoke a language other than English at home. a. 15 b. 7 c. 2 d. 22

A

20. Which characteristic of preoperational thought involves a child assuming that the world is unchanging—that whatever is now has always been and always will be? a. static reasoning b. centration c. irreversibility d. conservation

A

6. In the country of Brazil, what is currently the MOST common nutritional problem? a. having too much overall food b. a lack of calcium in diets c. elevated levels of arsenic and mercury in food products d. having too little overall food

A

9. Perseveration is the opposite of: a. impulsiveness. b. habituation. c. emotional dysregulation. d. sensory adaptation.

A

2. Which of the following is a central processor of memory, especially for locations? a. hypothalamus b. hippocampus c. pituitary d. amygdala

B

10. By the time a child reaches 6 years of age, her brain will weigh _____ percent of what it will weigh in adulthood. a. 100 b. 90 c. 50 d. 75

B

21. The average child knows about _____ words at age 2 and more than _____ at age 6. a. 800; 20,000 b. 500; 10,000 c. 800; 10,000 d. 500; 20,000

B

3. Child-centered programs recognize that children learn through interaction with other children. This is MOST consistent with the views of: a. Erikson. b. Vygotsky. c. Freud. d. Adler.

B

5. What is Piaget's term for cognitive development in children between ages 2 and 6? a. sensorimotor b. preoperational intelligence c. concrete operational d. formal operational

B

7. The tendency of a young child to apply rules of grammar when he or she should not—when exceptions to those rules should be honored—is called: a. syntax extension. b. scaffolding. c. fast-mapping. d. overregularization.

D

16. Vygotsky proposed that every aspect of a child's cognitive development: a. depends on the age of the child. b. depends on the level of the child's intelligence. c. is related to the child's genetic inheritance. d. is embedded in a social context.

D

22. An example of scaffolding is: a. reading to a child while the child remains quiet and listens. b. enrolling a child in a phonics course. c. providing a child with educational books. d. joint reading with a child—explaining, pointing, listening.

D

Symbolic Capacity (Infants)

the ability to use images, words, or gestures to represent or stand for objects and experiences; allows infants and young children to manipulate ideas mentally, beyond what they are able to observe with senses

Cognitive Conflict

the challenging of old schemes that drives cognitive growth, but we are motivated to reach equilibrium- mental stability when our internal thoughts are consistent with the evidence we are receiving from the external world

Sensorimotor

birth - age 2; explore world to learn, use senses/motor action to explore, move reflexes to intelligent actions, some symbolic thought

Dialectical thinking

detecting paradoxes and inconsistencies among ideas and trying to reconcile them- challenge their own understandings of what is "truth"

What do the images from the fMRI reveal?

difference between children who successfully solve a number conservation task and children who are not successful

Executive Control Processes

direct and monitory the selection, organization, manipulation, and interpretation, of information in the information- processing system, including executive functions

Central Executive (leader/supervisor)

directs attention and controls the flow of information; runs the show; guides the selection, organization, manipulation, and interpretation of information

STUDY CH 7 - PART 2 (table slide)

do it

STUDY CH 7 PART 1 - SLIDE 14

do it

STUDY CH 7 PART 1 - SLIDE 16

do it

Sensory Register (Memory)

holds the vast sensory information of stimuli for seconds, at most

Explicit Memory

involves deliberate, effortful recollection of events (declarative) -episodic: events or experiences -semantic: general facts or knowledge (both types are deeply entangled with language)

How does Fischer's perspective differ from Piaget and Vygotsky?

people do not always perform at their optimal level of skill because we lack the needed supportive context- explains why people that have reached certain "stages" don't always perform at that level

Zone of Proximal Development

the gap between what a learner can accomplish independently and what she can accomplish with the guidance and encouragement of a more-skilled partner

Perceptual Salience (Children)

the need to focus on the most obvious features of an object or situation- highly influenced by their immediate perceptions (affects preschoolers)

Problem Solving

the use of information-processing system to achieve a goal or arrive at a decision; requires both knowing what you are doing/trying to do and making decisions