Lifespan Development
Contemporary developmentalists focus on which question concerning nature and nurture?
How do we explain the mechanisms by which nature and nurture interact to affect development?
Sasha, a 3-year-old girl, was having difficulty settling down at bedtime. She ran around her house, trying to make her parents catch her before getting into bed. Sasha's behavior awakened her baby sister, asleep in the next room. John, Sasha's father, felt pushed to his limit and he screamed at Sasha to stop and threatened her with a spanking. His loud voice made the young girl cry and run to her bed. John's actions appears to elicit ____________ in Sasha.
intense anxious arousal
Friendship, according to Selman, requires balancing
intimacy and autonomy
Normal fears in preschool children tend to
involve imaginary creatures like ghosts and monsters.
Wayne is taking a digit span test. When he hears this series of digits, 3 9 4 2 6 1 2, he realizes the digits match the ages of people in his family; his mother is 39, his father is 42, his little sister is 6, and he is 12. He decides to remember the series of four ages rather than try to recall each digit separately. Wayne is using a strategy called
chunking
Myelinization is the process which involves
coating the axon with a fatty sheath that improves conduction of electrical impulses.
Complete the following analogy: geneotype is to phenotype as
code is to expression
grade twins takes hours. Bath and bedtime have become daily battles. The parents threaten the children, but the children typically get their parents to give in. This is best described as an example of
coercive family patterns
NeoPiagetians are
cognitive developmental theorists who incorporate ideas from Piaget and from information processing approaches into their theories.
The ability to restrain or redirect a strong impulse in order to perform a less-preferred response is called
effortful control
Erikson's stage of late adulthood is called
ego integrity vs. despair
Erikson's stage of psychosocial development in early childhood associated with Freud's phallic stage of psychosexual development is
initiative vs. guilt
By "goodness of fit" developmental researchers refer to
the match between the caregiver's demands on a child and the child's temperament.
Developmental researchers use the term "goodness of fit" to refer to
the match between the caregiver's responses to a child and the child's temperament.
The more you know about a particular domain of knowledge,
the more easily you can learn new information in that domain.
One important lesson that people in helping professional can take from Piaget's and Vygotsky's work is that
understanding how young clients think can help in structuring interventions that build effectively on existing knowledge and meanings.
The process of myelination is not completed until
well into adulthood.
Negative reinforcement is best described as
when some unpleasant stimulus is avoided or removed, strengthening the behavior that allows escape from the unpleasantness.
Symptoms of fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) include
widely spaced eyes and flattened nose.
Which of the following discipline methods is most likely to in generate both immediate compliance and very high levels of anxiety?
withdrawal of love
Erikson's dilemma of intimacy vs. isolation is associated with what developmental age?
18 - 30 years
Which of the following helpers is most likely to have an implicit "incrementalist" belief about intelligence?
A counselor who recommends a strategy of academic skill building for a client who is experiencing academic problems.
In Bowlby's attachment theory, which of the following represents a primary outcome of the formation of attachments in infancy?
A working model of self, of others, and of relationships.
At 10 months old, Suzie is very active, responds intensely to stimulation, avoids new stimulation, and tends to be irritable and fussy. Suzie's mother, Anne, wants to be a good caregiver, but Suzie's fussiness and intensity have made her feel like a failure. Anne sometimes finds herself withdrawing from Suzie and not responding when Suzie cries, because she feels like it will do no good. What advice should Anne's counselor give her?
Anne is not responsible for her baby's fussiness. Some babies are needier and more negative than others. In the long run, continuing to be responsive to crying will help Suzie to better regulate her emotions.
A parent whose own working model of attachment is "preoccupied/entangled" is likely to have an infant with which of the following kinds of attachment?
Anxious ambivalent.
When 2-year-old Sabrina does not comply with requests, her mother tells her that she is not acting like a good girl and that Sabrina's father and sisters will be disappointed. She is told to wait until they come home when she will be punished for her misbehavior. What advice should a counselor give to Sabrina's mother?
Any consequence for misbehavior should be immediate, because Sabrina is too young to understand cause and effect when the consequences are so delayed.
Which of the following does not contribute to improvements in children's ability to remember with increasing age?
As children get older they forget previously misunderstood information.
When clinicians assess a client's presenting problem(s) in order to plan for treatment, which of the following approaches to diagnosis reflects a developmental viewpoint
Assess the nature of the problem by considering the person's unique history, interpersonal context, and challenges in the extrapersonal environment.
Two-year-old Luke pointed to a cow in a pasture and said "Doggie!" Which of the following is the child using to name the animal?
Assimilation
According to Bowlby's attachment theory, which of the following purpose(s) have attachment systems evolved to serve, for both the younger and the older infant?
Assuring survival and security.
Mr. Sanderson is a 1st grade teacher. He believes in fostering children's tolerance for others, encouraging fairness, and promoting cooperative behavior. One of his classroom jobs involves leading the lunch line to the school cafeteria, a coveted role among the students. Vanessa has been line leader of the week. It is now the last day of the week and Mr. Sanderson asks Vanessa to allow Jeremy, a brand new student, a chance to lead the line. Mr. Sanderson is upset with Vanessa when she refuses because he feels she is not being kind. What is the best explanation for Vanessa's behavior?
At this age, Vanessa can engage in needs-based reasoning but may still have difficulty weighing the needs of others against to her own.
A baby will spread out its toes then curl them under in response to stroking the bottom of the foot. Which reflex is this?
Babinski
Brown eye-color alleles are dominant over blue eye-color alleles, which are recessive. Jenna has brown eyes. Her husband, Bill, has blue eyes. Jenna and Bill are the biological parents of James, who has blue eyes. What eye-color gene alleles must Jenna have?
Bb (one brown and one blue allele)
Becky is struggling to learn her alphabet letters. Her kindergarten teacher, frustrated by failed attempts to teach her, says to Becky, "All the other girls and boys can write most of the letters and you can't even say their names." The teacher believes she is motivating the child to work harder by comparing Becky to the others. Which of the following predictions is most consistent with Cooley's theory of self-development?
Becky will incorporate her teacher's negative evaluations into her construction of her own sense of self.
Which of the following is true about breastfeeding as compared to bottle-feeding?
Breast milk contains beneficial disease antibodies and growth hormones not contained in formulas.
Which of the following is a true statement about the stability of infant attachments?
Changes in family stressors that lead to changes in caregiving quality can lead to shifts in attachment quality.
The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA axis) plays a significant role in
the human response to stress.
Which of the following best represents Mead's contribution to our understanding of self-development?
Children internalize the orientations and values of their families and cultural groups in constructing their sense of self.
Which of the following is true about strategies children use to help them solve math problems?
Children will occasionally use less efficient strategies even after they have discovered more efficient strategies.
There are 46 of these in the nuclei of human cells, they are composed of deoxyribonucleic acid.
Chromosomes
Which of the following is the best example of the concept of a zone of proximal development?
Cindy explains to her younger sister how to solve a problem in math by organizing the information in a new way. Her younger sister can then complete her homework.
At birth we lack the ability to perceive, think, or use language because which area of our brain is not well developed?
Cortex
For counselors who work with abused and maltreated children, which of the following statements draws an appropriate conclusion from research on social cognition and friendships?
Counselors should pay attention to the social world of these maltreated children, because those who can make a best friend have a good chance of improving their self-esteem.
A kitten whose eyes are covered during the first months of its life loses the ability to see clearly in ways that would have been possible without the loss of early visual stimulation. This effect remains despite later attempts to remediate the loss. This is an example of which of the following?
Critical period.
Sam is at home with his two children, 3-year-old Daria and 6-week-old Keith. Sam is reading a story to Daria when baby Keith wakes up and screams for his bottle. Daria gets very upset when Sam leaves her to tend to the baby. Sam tries to explain to his daughter that her baby brother can't wait, but Daria continues to insist. Sam is concerned that Daria is not accepting her new baby brother. Based on your understanding of preschoolers cognitive development, what would you tell Sam?
Daria is probably exhibiting normal cognitive egocentrism because she cannot fully understand the needs of another person yet.
Gabbie is trying to decide what to wear today. It is going to be raining this morning but should be clearing off later. In addition, Gabbie knows that she has riding lessons after school, so she needs to take that into account when she chooses her clothes. On top of that, today is the pep rally, meaning Gabbie is expected to wear her school colors. In order to select an appropriate outfit without assistance, Gabbie must be capable of which of the following?
Decentration
Mrs. Harmon, the mother of 18-month-old Bryce, is concerned that Bryce has not learned to speak very well. He has a limited vocabulary and seems content to point to the things he wants. Mrs. Harmon has read several child development books which indicate that Bryce should be in the stage of language learning. Mrs. Harmon fears that Bryce is not keeping up developmentally. Based on your understanding of the timing of developmental stages, what would be your best advice?
Developmental stages can be useful guidelines, but there is a range of normal development within stages.
At 83 years old, Claudette happily recalls life when she was younger. She also enjoys spending time with her grandchildren and their children. According to Erikson, what has Claudette achieved?
Ego integrity
In one study, young rats exposed to stress vocalized their anxiety. Their mothers, alerted to this distress, responded with diligent caregiving behavior that altered the development of the hippocampus. Which of the following processes or principles does this example demonstrate?
Epigenesis.
Seven-month-old Juan and his mother live in a small rented apartment in a large city. Affordable, high quality child care centers are very hard to find in her neighborhood. Which level of the environment, according to Bronfenbrenner's model, is limiting her access to high quality day care in her community?
Exosystem
Mrs. Brown has tried to explain to her 3-year-old daughter, Maya, that Maya must stay at the babysitter's house while her mother goes to work. Maya cries each day during leave-taking. Mrs. Brown is embarrassed by this, especially because the babysitter seems to disapprove. The babysitter thinks that Maya should be more considerate toward her mother. Which is the most developmentally appropriate course of action?
Explain to the babysitter that Maya can't understand yet why her mother has to leave her and ask that the babysitter be patient with her.
Carolyn is thinking of her children and what they are to become. She wants to see her children succeed and raise healthy families of their own. Carolyn spends more and more time thinking about how best to help her children be good people who contribute to society. Which of Erikson's stages would Carolyn most likely be experiencing?
Generativity vs. stagnation
Of the following, which is the most accurate example of coaction?
Genes that are related to a specific disorder may be expressed phenotypically only in a certain kind of environment.
Which of the following terms describes an individual's unique genetic blueprint, which is created from genes contributed by both parents?
Genotype
Juan, a 7-month-old infant, lives in a city where the availability of high quality child care is very limited. His mother is forced to leave Juan in the care of a young woman who also cares for five other infants and toddlers in her small apartment. Which of the following influences represents an example of a distal process?
Governmental policies and subsidies for child care that apply in the city.
Mrs. Washington is conducting her weekly group counseling session for single young adults. Karen, a lonely young professional woman, talks about feeling abandoned by her boyfriend. The other group members listen patiently and respond empathically. Mrs. Washington reflects Karen's feeling with concern and sensitivity. What would social learning theorists predict about the behavior of others in the group in the next session?
Group members will be encouraged to self-disclose after observing the positive way Karen's self-disclosure was received.
Which of the following research techniques is an appropriate method for studying cognitive development of individuals during the sensorimotor period?
Habituation paradigm.
Jacinta, the mother of a 10-month-old baby boy, is concerned about her son's increasing fussiness when she leaves him with his babysitter each morning. Which explanation of his behavior is most likely to be accurate?
He is showing separation distress because his recognition memory is improving during this period.
Phillipa's husband, Manuel, is worried about her plan to return to full-time employment when their baby is 6 months old. He is afraid that there will be a negative effect on the baby's attachment to her mother. Phillipa suggests that she and Manuel discuss the pros and cons of day care with a counselor. What would a well-informed counselor advise this couple?
If Phillipa continues to provide sensitive, responsive care when she is with the baby, and if the day care is good quality, then the baby should still form a secure attachment to Phillipa.
As a rule of thumb, when might an evaluation by a speech pathologist be advisable?
If by age 4 the child's language is not understandable to people outside the family.
Which of the following statements does not reflect contemporary critiques of Piagetian theory that have experimental support?
Infants frequently have the ability to mentally represent objects at birth.
The available data indicate that chronic maternal stress during pregnancy has which of the following effects on the fetus?
Is related to newborn hyperactivity and irritability
Jacinta, the mother of a 10-month-old baby boy, is concerned about her son's increasing fussiness when she leaves him with his babysitter each morning. Whose opinion of the situation is most consistent with what you have learned about infant cognitive development?
Jacinta's neighbor, who says her children went through this stage and Jacinta should try to be understanding and maintain a consistent environment.
Jeremy, a 2nd grader, is in the counselor's office because he hit another boy on the playground. He tells the counselor that he knew the other boy was about to hit him first. He was just "getting back" at the other student. The counselor tries to help Jeremy control his aggressive behavior by explaining that the other boy didn't intend to hurt him. Given what you have learned about social development, which of the following is your best recommendation for the counselor?
Jeremy probably doesn't have a good understanding of another person's intentions at this age. The counselor should assess the quality of Jeremy's perspective-taking and structure the intervention accordingly.
When she was pregnant with Joey, Joey's mother had a poor diet because food was in short supply in her war-torn country. The war ended after Joey was born, and his middle-class mother was able to provide him with adequate, nutritious food throughout his childhood. Which of the following outcomes is the most likely for Joey?
Joey may show few, if any, long term negative effects from his prenatal deprivation.
Mrs. Washington is conducting her weekly group counseling session for single young adults. Karen, a lonely young professional woman, talks about feeling abandoned by her boyfriend. The other group members listen patiently and respond empathically. Mrs. Washington reflects Karen's feeling with concern and sensitivity. What would operant learning theory predict about Karen's behavior in the next group session?
Karen will speak openly because she has previously received attention and support.
Keisha is a 35-year-old African-American woman who is depressed. Her presenting concerns include marital distress, the imminent possibility of losing her job, overeating, and chain-smoking. As you listen to her story, you begin to construct a picture of her developmental history. Which of these explanations would someone using a multidimensional perspective be most likely to offer for Keisha's problems difficulties?
Keisha's difficulties most likely developed through the interaction of her family experiences and societal conditions like poverty and racism.
Keisha is a 35-year-old African-American woman who is depressed. Her presenting concerns include marital distress, the imminent possibility of losing her job, overeating, and chain-smoking. As you listen to her story, you begin to construct a picture of her developmental history. Which of these explanations would someone using a stage theory of development be most likely to offer for Keisha's problems?
Keisha's problems are most likely related to insufficient emotional gratification during infancy when oral needs are paramount.
Keisha is a 35-year-old African-American woman who is depressed. Her presenting concerns include marital distress, the imminent possibility of losing her job, overeating, and chain-smoking. As you listen to her story, you begin to construct a picture of her developmental history. Which of these explanations would someone using an incrementalist developmental perspective be most likely to offer for how Keisha's problems have developed?
Keisha's problems are most likely related to lack of appropriate models of effective marital communication.
Akili has the disorder that results from the presence of an extra X chromosome and produces underdeveloped genitals, extreme height, and enlarged breasts. He has
Klinefelter's syndrome.
Surya wants 8-year-old Leila to start her homework. Leila doesn't want to turn off the TV. Surya raises her voice and threatens to take away Leila's TV privileges for a week if she doesn't comply. Surya enters the room and commands Leila to obey. Leila begins to wail, saying that the homework is too hard and that she never understands it anyway. At this point the phone rings. Surya gets absorbed in the call. Thirty minutes later, Leila is still watching TV and another battle ensues. Surya, exhausted from the struggle, take her to bed. Which of the following best illustrates the negative reinforcement cycle that is operating in this example?
Leila is allowed to watch TV longer if she keeps arguing with her mother.
A counselor is concerned about a clients' self-esteem. Which of the following provides a research-based rationale for this concern?
Low levels of self-esteem are related to negative attributions about one's self, which are related to depression.
Which of the following statements is true with respect to moral development?
Many adults reach the point where they reason about moral issues using universal ethical standards.
Marie has a 2½-year-old daughter. The babysitter has been calling her daughter "naughty" and "a bad girl" when the child is uncooperative. The babysitter says that the little girl doesn't understand what she is saying so it doesn't matter. Marie is unsure about what to do. Based upon information presented in this chapter, what would you say to Marie?
Marie should find some way to stop this before these labels become part of her daughter's developing self-understanding.
Infants form multiple attachments, to both mother and father and perhaps to a sibling, grandparent, and so on. Which of the following statements is most consistent with available data on the impact of these attachments?
More than one secure attachment adds value, serving as a further protective factor.
What is another name for the startle reflex?
Moro
Which of the following is the best example of neuroplasticity?
Neurons that are transplanted from the auditory cortex to the visual cortex begin to perceive light.
Which of the following therapeutic approaches is designed to help children develop their perspective taking and friendship skills?
Pair therapy
Based on what you have learned about language development, what advice would you give to new parents who are concerned about their child's literacy and later success in school?
Parents and caregivers should provide lots of good quality language experience and practice by asking questions and elaborating on many topics of interest to their children.
For counselors who work with families that include children of different ages, which of the following statements is true?
Parents need to be flexible as children get older and adjust their rules and expectations to developmentally changing competencies and needs.
Surya wants 8-year-old Leila to start her homework. Leila doesn't want to turn off the TV. Surya raises her voice and threatens to take away Leila's TV privileges for a week if she doesn't comply. Surya enters the room and commands Leila to obey. Leila begins to wail, saying that the homework is too hard and that she never understands it anyway. At this point the phone rings. Surya gets absorbed in the call. Thirty minutes later, Leila is still watching TV and another battle ensues. Surya, exhausted from the struggle, take her to bed. This scenario is an example of which phenomenon?
Patterson's coercive family process.
In which stage of cognitive development does a child use symbols to think and communicate?
Preoperational
Piaget's description of the differences between preoperational thought (characteristic of preschool aged children) and concrete operational thought (characteristic of elementary school aged children), includes which of the following?
Preoperational thought is centered, but concrete operational thought is decentered.
Peter, who is an aggressive 11-year-old, is referred to the counselor because of a recent episode of fighting on the bus. When asked to explain what happened, Peter said that he had to sit next to a girl who was laughing with her friend across the aisle about the "stupid kids in school." Enraged by this, Peter pushed her head into the window. What is the most likely explanation for Peter's aggressive reaction?
Peter has a hostile attribution bias and assumed the girls' mean comments were about him.
Peter, who is an aggressive 11-year-old, is referred to the counselor because of a recent episode of fighting on the bus. When asked to explain what happened, Peter said that he had to sit next to a girl who was laughing with her friend across the aisle about the "stupid kids in school." Enraged by this, Peter pushed her head into the window. Where is the error in Peter's social information processing about this situation?
Peter interprets cues incorrectly, and assumes the girls' comments are referring to him.
Ms. Hernandez is working with 4-year-old Peter, who is afraid of the dark. He believes monsters come out at night like he has seen on TV. Ms. Hernandez patiently explains that there are no real monsters, but to no avail. Peter still refuses to go to sleep. What Piagetian idea helps to explain why Peter does not understand the truth about the unreality of TV monsters?
Peter may assimilate the information about monsters, but he lacks the knowledge structures needed to accommodate the new information into his existing framework.
Ms. Hernandez is working with 4-year-old Peter, who is afraid of the dark. He believes monsters come out at night like he has seen on TV. Ms. Hernandez patiently explains that there are no real monsters, but to no avail. Peter still refuses to go to sleep. What might Piaget propose as the reason for this treatment failure?
Peter, at 4 years old, still has difficulty understanding that monsters are not real because he sees monsters on TV.
According to research on self-concept in children, which of the following aspects of self-concept is most closely tied to overall level of self-esteem?
Physical appearance.
Which of the following statements is most accurate with regard to Piaget's theory?
Piaget believed in the dynamic quality of stages and understood that children in the same stage could vary greatly in their specific understanding of causality, morality, and so forth.
According to Crittendon's model, infants who have avoidant attachment classifications have experienced which pattern of learning or conditioning?
Predictable punishment for displays of affect.
Ms. Jackson, a middle school counselor, is concerned about the special problems girls face at adolescence. Consider the research evidence for gender differences in self-esteem at this period of development. Which of the following interventions would be most productive?
Provide opportunities, modeling, and support for both girls and boys to select courses and activities that could be considered non-traditional with regard to gender.
It is generally a best practice for counselors to approach working with youngsters who demonstrate anger, noncompliance, and aggression in which of the following ways?
Provide structure and a clear set of guidelines for appropriate behavior while seeking to enhance social competence.
Some research shows that cultural values and goals shape the kinds of discipline that parents use with their children. Which of the following statements is true in this regard?
Puerto Rican mothers were more likely than European American mothers to use directives and issue commands with their children.
Dr. Jones encountered a problem with a new client in therapy. Using the model of reflective practice described in Chapter 1, what is the sequence of steps he should use in order to work with this client effectively?
Reflect on well-established theories; apply the theoretical knowledge to the individual's case; and then test out new ways of thinking about the problem if prior theory does not suffice.
Which of the following is an accurate description of the long-term effects of chronic stress on the body?
The ability of the immune system to fight infection and ward off disease is compromised.
Sasha, a 3-year-old girl, was having difficulty settling down at bedtime. She ran around her house, trying to make her parents catch her before getting into bed. Sasha's behavior awakened her baby sister, asleep in the next room. John, Sasha's father, felt pushed to his limit and he screamed at Sasha to stop and threatened her with a spanking. How would you explain Sasha's compliance?
Sasha complied because she was afraid
Sasha, a 3-year-old girl, was having difficulty settling down at bedtime. She ran around her house, trying to make her parents catch her before getting into bed. Sasha's behavior awakened her baby sister, asleep in the next room. John, Sasha's father, felt pushed to his limit and he screamed at Sasha to stop and threatened her with a spanking. What is Sasha most likely to learn from repeated experiences like this one?
Sasha will learn how angry her father gets when she refuses to do what he wants.
Sasha, a 3-year-old girl, was having difficulty settling down at bedtime. She ran around her house, trying to make her parents catch her before getting into bed. Sasha's behavior awakened her baby sister, asleep in the next room. John, Sasha's father, felt pushed to his limit and he screamed at Sasha to stop and threatened her with a spanking. In this example, which of the following statements is true with regard to internalization of standards?
Sasha's father did not support her internalization of rules of behavior because she only complied out of fear.
As Selena and her friends are walking home after school they approach a corner store and see bags of candy and snacks on open shelves outside the front door. A young clerk is also outside waiting for customers. As they get closer, they see the clerk go inside the store. Selena's friends encourage her to take a bag of candy, but she refuses. How would an individual in Kohlberg's conventional stage of moral reasoning explain Selena's behavior?
Selena didn't take the candy because it belonged to someone else.
As Selena and her friends are walking home after school they approach a corner store and see bags of candy and snacks on open shelves outside the front door. A young clerk is also outside waiting for customers. As they get closer, they see the clerk go inside the store. Selena's friends encourage her to take a bag of candy, but she refuses. How would an individual in Kohlberg's preconventional stage of moral reasoning explain Selena's behavior?
Selena didn't take the candy because she might get caught.
Selena and her friends are walking home after school. They approach a grocery store with bags of candy and other snacks stacked on open shelves right outside the front door. A young clerk sits outside waiting for customers. As they get closer, Selena notices that the clerk goes inside the store. Selena's friends encourage her to take a bag of candy from the shelf and run away, but she refuses. How would an individual in Kohlberg's preconventional stage of moral reasoning explain Selena's behavior?
Selena didn't take the candy because she might get caught.
As Selena and her friends are walking home after school they approach a corner store and see bags of candy and snacks on open shelves outside the front door. A young clerk is also outside waiting for customers. As they get closer, they see the clerk go inside the store. Selena's friends encourage her to take a bag of candy, but she refuses. How would Freud's theory explain Selena's behavior?
Selena identifies with her mother, who taught her that stealing is wrong.
As Selena and her friends are walking home after school they approach a corner store and see bags of candy and snacks on open shelves outside the front door. A young clerk is also outside waiting for customers. As they get closer, they see the clerk go inside the store. Selena's friends encourage her to take a bag of candy, but she refuses. According to Gilligan's theory, how would Selena, if she were an adult, most likely explain why she chose not to steal?
Selena would explain that she does not steal because stealing is wrong and because it would cause harm to the shop owner.
Selena and her friends are walking home after school. They approach a grocery store with bags of candy and other snacks stacked on open shelves right outside the front door. A young clerk sits outside waiting for customers. As they get closer, Selena notices that the clerk goes inside the store. Selena's friends encourage her to take a bag of candy from the shelf and run away, but she refuses. How would Gilligan's theory explain why Selena, if she were an adult, might choose not to steal?
Selena would not steal because stealing is wrong and because it would cause harm to the shop owner.
Which two areas of the brain undergo major growth spurts during middle childhood?
Sensory and motor areas and the frontal lobes of the cerebral cortex
Juan is a fearless 4-year-old and one of the most active children in his day care center. He eagerly climbs the playground equipment and seems to have little fear of getting hurt. Juan often wanders away from his mother in stores, preferring to explore the interesting sights rather than wait patiently by her side. Juan's mother is exasperated with his behavior and fears for his safety. Based upon the research cited in this chapter, what advice could you give her?
She should remember that Juan will be more likely to comply if she explains the rules and reasons for her worries.
A counselor is running a parents' group when the topic of spanking as a disciplinary technique is raised. What is the most accurate statement based on research that the counselor can offer?
Spanking may gain immediate compliance, but it does not aid development of self-regulation and it may increases a child's aggressiveness.
Selman describes stages in the development of both perspective taking skill and of friendship. Suppose that David understands that his friend Mike has a different perspective from his own, but David cannot yet judge how his own behavior is likely to be viewed by his friend. Which of Selman's stages is David most likely to be in?
Stage 1, "Differentiated/Subjective"
Using Erikson's developmental theory as a framework, which of the following statements is an accurate representation of his ideas?
Successful resolution of a psychosocial crisis at each stage depends upon having more positive than negative experiences in the area of major concern.
Surya wants 8-year-old Leila to start her homework. Leila doesn't want to turn off the TV. Surya raises her voice and threatens to take away Leila's TV privileges for a week if she doesn't comply. Surya enters the room and commands Leila to obey. Leila begins to wail, saying that the homework is too hard and that she never understands it anyway. At this point the phone rings. Surya gets absorbed in the call. Thirty minutes later, Leila is still watching TV and another battle ensues. Surya, exhausted from the struggle, take her to bed. Which behavior is most likely to increase next time?
TV viewing
Which of the following is true with respect to the impact of nurture on the fetus' developing brain?
The establishment of some synaptic connections in the fetal brain depends upon environmental input, like sound.
Robert and Nadine both have been laid off. The couple has inadequate access to food or health care. When they realize that Nadine is pregnant, they feel desperate, and they talk to a social worker at a local clinic about their situation. The social worker is able to provide them with referrals to a food outlet, but she is unable to find a prenatal care clinic that provides free services in their neighborhood. Considering the effects of multiple risk factors, what is the most likely potential value of the social worker's efforts?
The fewer risk factors the better, so their unborn child is likely to be better off even with the limited help the social worker provided.
Based on your knowledge of prenatal development, which of the following sequences would you expect to be correct?
The heart begins to form before the hands.
Which of the following statements is true about the effects of teratogens on the developing fetus?
The kind of damage done depends on the stage of development during exposure.
Juan is afraid of snakes, like many other people. Which of the following is likely to best describe how his brain responds when he first sees a snake?
The lower limbic structures like the amygdala can process the sensory input from the snake and trigger a physical reaction to the feared stimulus before the input is processed at a more rational level by the cortex.
Gisela is a 6-year-old Peruvian girl who lives with her family on a farm in a rural village. She often helps her father take produce to a market to sell. She does not know how to read, but she understands the cost of items and can make change without errors. Sophie is a 6-year-old who lives in the US. She is in the 1st grade, is making great progress in learning to read and write, and is gaining skill in computer use. What is the best way to explain the development of these two children?
The processes involved in cognitive development are similar across cultures, but the specific kinds of knowledge acquired may differ depending upon children's culture.
Juan, a 7-month-old infant, lives in a city where the availability of high quality child care is very limited. His mother is forced to leave Juan in the care of a young woman who also cares for five other infants and toddlers in her small apartment. According to Bronfenbrenner's theory, which of the following influences on Juan's development represents an example of a proximal process?
The quality of care-giving Juan receives in day care.
what can you infer is the same about these two people?
Their sex.
According to the textbook (not the DSM-5), which of the following is not true with regard to the definition of reactive attachment disorder?
These children behave indifferently, like avoidantly attached youngsters.
Sally, age 28, recently married John, age 45. They would like to have a child, but they are concerned that they may be at high risk to have a child with a chromosomal abnormality, like Down's syndrome, because of John's age. What is their genetic counselor likely to tell them?
They are at higher than average risk for some chromosomal disorders because of John's age, but not for Down's syndrome.
Ms. Dawson recently gave birth to twins, a girl and a boy. Which of the following statements about them must be true?
They are dizygotic.
Tim is doing poorly in math. Although he knows he's not a very good math student, it does not concern him greatly. He spends most of his time after school playing hockey, a sport at which he excels. Tim's 5th grade math teacher tries to motivate him to stay after school for tutoring, but Tim doesn't want to miss hockey practice. Furthermore, he reasons, two of his teammates have even lower marks in math than he does. Which intrapersonal process seems to be serving to enhance Tim's self-esteem?
Tim's downward social comparison
Tim is doing poorly in math. Although he knows he's not a very good math student, it does not concern him greatly. He spends most of his time after school playing hockey, a sport at which he excels. Tim's 5th grade math teacher tries to motivate him to stay after school for tutoring, but Tim doesn't want to miss hockey practice. Furthermore, he reasons, two of his teammates have even lower marks in math than he does. Which of the following statements about Tim's self-esteem is most accurate?
Tim's global self-esteem is likely to be high because he excels in an area of importance to him.
Tim is doing poorly in math. Although he knows he's not a very good math student, it does not concern him greatly. He spends most of his time after school playing hockey, a sport at which he excels. Tim's 5th grade math teacher tries to motivate him to stay after school for tutoring, but Tim doesn't want to miss hockey practice. Furthermore, he reasons, two of his teammates have even lower marks in math than he does. Which of the following statements about Tim's self-concept is most accurate?
Tim's self-concept reflects some understanding of his strengths and weaknesses.
Massage therapy for infants has been very successful in promoting weight gain and social interaction, and in decreasing distress in low birth weight infants. Based upon developmental research, what is the best explanation for this?
Touch is the best developed sense at birth and therefore the most effective avenue for soothing and regulating the newborn.
Tim is doing poorly in math. Although he knows he's not a very good math student, it does not concern him greatly. He spends most of his time after school playing hockey, a sport at which he excels. Tim's 5th grade math teacher tries to motivate him to stay after school for tutoring, but Tim doesn't want to miss hockey practice. Furthermore, he reasons, two of his teammates have even lower marks in math than he does. Which of the following approaches would you recommend Tim's teacher use with him?
Try to help Tim gain a more realistic perspective about his weaknesses in math and help him learn the skills he needs to succeed.
According to Crittendon's model, infants who have anxious-ambivalent attachments have experienced which pattern of learning or conditioning?
Unpredictable reinforcement for expressions of need.
Alex is 22 months of age. He knows that he should not play with his food at the dinner table, but he sometimes still does so. His parents can usually redirect his behavior with simple reminders about what he should be doing. What is happening cognitively to help him grow in self-control?
With repeated experience, Alex is constructing representations of standards for everyday behavior that serve as guidelines for behavior.
Which of the following is a difference between working memory and long-term memory?
Working memory has a limited capacity whereas long-term memory has almost unlimited capacity.
Ms. Dawson, a 1st grade teacher, has asked your advice on how to set up a cooperative learning project with her 1st graders. She wants the children to solve problems together in small groups. Based on what you have learned about children's interpersonal strategies, what advice should you give her?
Young children in the 1st grade are not as likely to be able to cooperate in learning projects as older children.
In one animal study of the influence of genes on behavior, offspring of rats with genes for low stress reactivity were reared by unrelated mother rats with genes for high stress reactivity. This is an example of
a cross-fostering study.
Imagine that you are counseling a 6th grader on how to improve her study skills so that she will remember more information on tests. Not only do you teach her some memory strategies, you also encourage her to engage in self-testing so that she will begin self- monitoring, that is, keeping track of how well she is remembering new material. What kind of skill is this kind of self-monitoring?
a metacognitive skill
Jenna, a 10-year-old, has a mental structure, or schema, about what typically happens when you go out to eat in a restaurant. Her schema indicates that a host or hostess first leads you to a table, then a waiter or waitress comes to take your order, and so on. This kind of mental structure is called
a script
One factor that promotes self-esteem among minority group members is
a strong and positive racial or ethnic identity.
The scientific usage of the word theory is best described as
a tested and supported explanation that synthesizes a large body of information to account for known facts or phenomena.
Some babies produce contradictory behaviors in the strange situation test, both showing some signs of approaching the mother when stressed but then avoiding the mother when she approaches. These babies often engage in bizarre behaviors as well, like rising to greet the parent and then falling prone. Such unusual behavior has been found to be associated with what kind of caregiving on the part of the mother?
abusive caregiving
A counselor tries to use sports' metaphors with her clients in order to help them gain insight into their behavior. Certain clients lack the background knowledge about sports to understand her messages, so they fail to demonstrate any increased understanding about themselves or their problems. This primarily describes a failure of
accommodation
Day care researchers have identified a dose-response relationship between the amount of time spent in day care and the age of entry into day care and which later outcome?
aggression and neediness at school age
Neurons communicate with each other
by means of chemicals that are present in the spaces between them.
Which attachment pattern describes a style of attachment in which children display a combination of positive and negative reactions to their mothers? They show great distress when the mother leaves, but upon her return they may simultaneously seek close contact but also hit and kick her.
ambivalent attachment pattern
A group of people characterized by shared traditions, attitudes, values, and beliefs handed down from one generation to another constitute ______________.
an ethnic group.
The general consensus is that disorders of the autism spectrum
are neurobiological in nature and have high family concordance rates.
Becoming aware of the "Me" self, the self that recognizes one's gender and age, occurs roughly around what age?
around 3 years
Erikson's stage of development associated with Freud's anal stage is
autonomy vs. shame and doubt
In Ainsworth et al.'s (1978) study of attachment formation, some mothers were less responsive to their babies' signals than others. One group of mothers seemed to be reluctant to hold their babies, showed less warmth and affection than other mothers, and were more rejecting and angry. When their babies were tested in the strange situation test, the children tended to fit which category of attachment?
avoidant
When a parent is classified as "dismissive" on the basis of an attachment interview assessing the parent's attachment to early caregivers, that parent's baby is likely to have a (an) ____________ attachment to the parent.
avoidant
Research using habituation and preferential response paradigms has provided us with much of what we know about the infant's perceptual abilities. The habituation paradigm takes advantage of
baby's tendency to orient to new stimulation
Individuals with high levels of self-esteem would be more likely than those with low self-esteem to
be assertive about expressing something they believe in.
Counselors who work to improve children's social relationships are concerned with developing friendship skills. According to Selman, friendship skills can be defined as
behaviors such as appropriate assertiveness, eye contact, and good communication with peers.
Brown eye-color alleles are dominant over blue eye-color alleles, which are recessive. Jenna has brown eyes. Her husband, Bill, has blue eyes. Jenna and Bill are the biological parents of James, who has blue eyes. Jenna would be described as ____________ of the allele for blue eyes.
being a carrier
Charles was a temperamentally irritable baby who was difficult for his parents to handle. Now at 6, he is showing behavior problems in school. He has not mastered his alphabet letters and gives up easily. Charles' parents also have difficulty making rules stick with him at home. They remember how easy their other two children were to raise and now have less patience with their youngest son. Based on research, which of the following characteristics is least likely to be related to Charles' conduct problems?
birth order
Bea is the mother of 4-month-old Alex. She has been depressed since Alex's birth and is frequently withdrawn. Brain research indicates that, in comparison to other infants his age, Alex will have
brain activation patterns resembling those of fearful and inhibited children.
Stanley is 7 years old. His parents are quite concerned about his school progress. Although he has begun to learn to read, he reverses some letters when he writes. Based on research, Stanley's school counselor should tell his parents that
brain development can be quite uneven in childhood and as a result, it is not unusual for children to show poor performance in isolated skills.
At what age would a young child typically show self-recognition, the ability to recognize themselves in a mirror?
by 18 months
Both Sam and Suzanna, age 11, are having trouble making friends. A counselor assesses each of them for social interactive skills and discovers that Sam has poor perspective-taking skills for his age. Suzanna actually has good perspective-taking skills, but she fails to use these skills effectively when interacting with others. In Selman's terms, these two children show different levels of ____________ but similar levels of ____________.
competence/performance
The internalization of rules and standards of behavior is most closely associated with the development of
conscience
Counselors apply multidimensional models most explicitly in their work with clients when they
consider levels of influence on the individual and select interventions that are targeted to more than one level.
Reflective clinicians often absorb the tenets and techniques associated with major theoretical approaches to counseling and then interpret and organize them in ways that are useful for their own work. This aspect of reflective practice is an example of
constructivism
The belief that individuals create their own knowledge by interpreting new experience in the light of past experience is a fundamental proposition of
constructivism.
Izard and others have found that at birth or soon after, infants' facial expressions display which of the following emotions?
contentment
In lifespan developmental theories, significant developmental changes are thought to be largely complete by
death.
Mrs. Dubois knows that her son, Andre, is very advanced in understanding math compared to his first grade peers. However, he is rather immature in his social relationships and doesn't share or interact well with classmates. His social skills are not what his mother would expect, given his advanced cognitive development in math. Piaget's term for this variation in skills is
decalage.
At 10 months old, Suzie is very active, responds intensely to stimulation, avoids new stimulation, and tends to be irritable and fussy. Her temperament would be called
difficult
Which of the following terms is used to describe the temperament of children who are less regular with their body functions and slower to develop stable eating and sleeping patterns?
difficult
Children who show the _____________ attachment pattern show inconsistent, contradictory, and confused behavior, such as approaching the mother when she returns but not looking at her.
disorganized-disoriented
Twins who are produced when two separate ova are fertilized by two separate sperm at roughly the same time are called ________ twins.
dizygotic
General guidelines for intervention programs for children with autism spectrum disorder include
early entry into intervention, use of Applied Behavior Analysis, and parent training and support.
Carla, a bright, energetic 8-year-old, has lost four gloves during the past few weeks. Her mother is annoyed at the need to keep replacing gloves. Carla notices that her little brother is amused that Carla is in trouble, and she formulates the theory that her brother is stealing the gloves just to get her into trouble. Carla is convinced that she is right. She refuses to entertain her mother's suggestion that Carla is often so distracted that she does not keep track of her possessions. Carla is displaying a form of
egocentrism
When Sammy had to learn the names of all the planets, as well as their relative sizes, he made up sentences to help him remember. For example, "Eartha ate the Mars candy bar" helped him remember that Earth is larger than Mars. Sammy was using a memory strategy called
elaboration
Which of the following is a critical element that underlies the development of self-control?
emotion regulation
The still-face paradigm has been used primarily to study
emotion regulation in infants
Billy's babysitter takes him to the park every day where he can play with other preschoolers. When Billy falls or gets hurt, his babysitter soothes him until he feels better. One day Dwayne, another preschool child, falls from the swings. Billy looks concerned and rushes over to help. Then Billy tells his babysitter that Dwayne got hurt. According to research, Billy's prosocial behavior is strongly related to Billy's experience of
empathy and sympathy
Schulman (2002) defines morality as composed of three interlocking systems, including
empathy, identification with moral others, and standards of right and wrong.
A "skills first" approach to mental health problems refers to an approach that
enhances competence in order to bolster self-esteem, because feeling good is seen as a by-product of doing well.
Our knowledge of an event in our own lives, such as a family vacation, is a type of
episodic knowledge
Memory is to some degree reconstructed. This accounts for the phenomenon of
false memories
The brain is commonly classified into three main parts. They are
forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain.
Individuals with low levels of self-esteem would be more likely than those with high self-esteem to
go along with peers even when they do not agree.
Which of the following emotions develops only after a child has a mental representation of him or herself as a separate person?
guilt
Vygotsky believed that egocentric or private speech (talking aloud to one's self) played an important role in cognitive development by
helping organize young children's thinking, as a precursor to self-regulation.
A counselor works with Mrs. Jacobs, who has a 1-month-old daughter. Mrs. Jacobs finds her daughter intense, demanding and hard to soothe. Most likely, this is because
her baby has a more difficult temperament.
The epigenome is the full set of factors, from the cell to the outside world, that controls the expression of
hereditary material.
A person who perceives neutral events as containing aggressive or threatening meaning is said to possess a
hostile attributional bias
The quality of a children's attachments has been found to affect
how children respond to new social situations.
If shown equal sized lumps of clay, the pre-schooler will know they are equal. If one is flattened out, the child will believe that the lumps are no longer the same size. This deficiency of preoperational thinking is called
inability to conserve
Assimilation can be described as ____________ and accommodation can be described as ____________.
incorporating information / restructuring information.
Models of development which hold that change occurs as a continuous process are called
incremental models.
Parents who give reasons for the rules they set in ways that their children can understand are using what disciplinary method?
induction
Guidelines for the application of developmental research in helping professions include
keeping abreast of issues in the field and taking a multidimensional view of the influences on an individual.
Children who suffer severe protein and calorie shortages at any age may experience stunted growth, a protuberant belly, and extreme apathy. This severe starvation syndrome is called
kwashiorkor.
Counselors who do parent training primarily use which approach for this work?
learning theory
The Phineas Gage matrix describes a syndrome due to frontal lobe damage that diminishes an individual's emotional intensity. From this syndrome we have learned that with decreased emotional intensity comes
lesser tendency to plan and make rational decisions.
Which of the following is a temperamental characteristic that is associated with prosocial behavior?
low social anxiety
Self-esteem has been mistakenly touted as the "holy grail" of mental health, and this has meant that
many preventive and remedial efforts have focused directly on improving low self-esteem.
Carla, a 10-month-old infant, sees her caregiver enter the room carrying a bottle of milk for another child in the day care center. Carla watches the caregiver give the bottle to the other child, and then extends her hands toward the bottle, making noises that indicate she wants one as well. Her caregiver notices, picks Carla up, and quickly prepares a bottle for her. In this example, Carla is demonstrating
means-end behavior
Vygotsky pointed out that children do not independently construct a definition for each a word they learn, but rather they learn the meanings that the surrounding culture has ascribed to each word. This central concept in Vygotsky's theory is called
mediated learning
Before using cognitive therapies with children, which of the following is an important area of cognitive skill that clinicians should assess in their young clients?
metacognitive skill
Caring for others is an example of a ____________, while using a proper form of address, such as Mister or Miss, is an example of a ____________.
moral rule/ conventional rule
Bea is the mother of 4-month-old Alex. She has been depressed since Alex's birth and is frequently withdrawn. Because of Bea's depression, we can expect that, in comparison to other 4-month-olds, Alex experiences will display
more fearfulness and turning away.
The maturing of the corpus callosum by middle childhood is especially important for
motor coordination
Recent research on the self-system supports the idea that the self is ____________ in nature.
multidimensional
Models of development which hold that change occurs as a function of reciprocal influences, both from within the person and from the external environment are called
multidimensional models.
The idea that children's development is affected by biological factors, and that biological factors are also affected by the environment and experience, is part of
multidimensional systems theories
Counselors must recognize the principle of ___________: Individual pathways of development may result in a wide range of possible outcomes
multifinality
Which cognitive achievement underlies a baby's ability to form an attachment to a specific adult, like a parent or other caregiver?
object permanence
An attempt to forestall the development of problems by promoting health and wellness in the general population is called
primary prevention.
If a mother and baby are cooing and smiling at each other, and then the mother withdraws and becomes unresponsive, the typical infant will first engage in ____________, and then in ____________.
other-directed coping behaviors / self-directed coping behaviors
Dylan, a 9-year-old, is manipulative in his interactions with his friends. He does not use physical aggression, but he often tries threats and scare tactics to get what he wants. Dylan's interpersonal orientation would be described as
other-transforming
Critics of Gilligan's perspective on moral reasoning say that she has
overemphasized the importance of gender differences in moral reasoning
Annette is a warm and affectionate mother to her sons, Jason and Keith. When she comes home from her job, she likes to spend time playing with them, preparing their favorite foods, and watching TV with them. She describes herself as a "soft touch" when it comes to her children. Lately she has been hearing complaints about 6-year-old Jason's behavior in school. Annette thinks the teacher is being too hard on her son. She does not want anything to affect the good relationship she has with her children. Which style best describes Annette's parenting?
permissive
Meko has dark hair and dark eyes, even though his biological mother is fair skinned. Meko's hair and eye color are part of his
phenotype
For most mental illnesses and behavioral disorders, like alcoholism and clinical depression, the genetic contribution can best be described as
polygenic.
Sasha, a 3-year-old girl, was having difficulty settling down at bedtime. She ran around her house, trying to make her parents catch her before getting into bed. Sasha's behavior awakened her baby sister, asleep in the next room. John, Sasha's father, felt pushed to his limit and he screamed at Sasha to stop and threatened her with a spanking. Which type of discipline did Sasha's father use?
power assertion
The ability to use language to communicate effectively by using well-organized narratives primarily depends upon the development of ____________ skill.
pragmatic
Jamie, a boy scout, has practiced tying a particular kind of knot dozens of times, and he does it quickly and efficiently. But when he tries to explain how to do it to a younger member of his troop, he can't put it into words, he can only show the other boy how to do it. Jamie's knowledge of knot tying is an example of
procedural knowledge
According to Crittendon's model, infants encode early experiences of care-giving in the form of
procedural memories
High levels of the hormone oxytocin plays an important role in early social bonding by
promoting physical closeness and reducing maternal stress.
Counselors who work with young children to enhance their mental health should take an active role in
providing support and information for parents.
Stage theories of development typically describe ____________ changes in behavior, cognition, or social relationships.
qualitative
Human development involves changes in size, efficiency, and capacity that can be described as ____________change, and shifts in forms of thought and behavior that can be described as ______________ changes.
quantitative / qualitative
Metacognition is reflected in
questions such as "How well am I thinking?"
When interviewers use the guided imagery technique to help young children remember what they have witnessed, there is danger of creating false memories in the children because of their difficulty with
reality monitoring
Levels of social cognitive ____________ do not always match _____________.
reasoning/behavior
In Bronfenbrenner's model, proximal processes refer to
reciprocal interactions between an organism and its immediate environment.
In a number conservation task a set of discrete items is laid out in two rows They are first laid out in exactly the same way, and then one row is moved so that the items are farther apart. Typically, 3- and 4-year-olds
recognize that the rows have the same number when they are arranged identically, but believe there are more items when they are farther apart.
Eight-year-old Marquita has spent a great deal of time learning basic addition facts. When she solves a complex addition problem in school, she pulls these facts out of memory. Marquita is using a ____________ strategy to help her solve addition problems.
retrieval
Normally developing motor and visual milestones for a 4-month-old include
rolling over, reaching for objects, visual tracking moving objects.
When Tamara responds to the crying of her 4-month-old baby, Jessie, she tries to figure out what has caused the baby's distress (hunger, wet diaper, etc.) while making soothing sounds and holding the baby. Tamara's actions are ____________ Jessie's developing emotion regulation abilities.
scaffolding
The term ____________ refers to the description of a person's attributes, whereas the term ____________ refers to how a person feels about those attributes.
self-concept/self-esteem
People are generally motivated to evaluate themselves favorably in relation to others. This tendency is called a
self-enhancing bias
Beginning in the first hours after birth, caregivers interaction with infants in ways that enhance positive affect and attention, such as
smiling, affectionate touching, and high-pitched vocalizations.
Some research shows that cultural values and goals shape the kinds of discipline that parents use with their children. One example is that Puerto Rican mothers wanted their children to recognize their obligations and connectedness to others; their goals for their children were more ____________ than the goals of European American mothers.
sociocentric
The nature and amount of verbal communication between parents and their children is correlated with the family's
socioeconomic status
The measure of social status that combines aspects of education background, income, and occupation is called
socioeconomic status.
Models of development which hold that change typically occurs in shifts between periods of relative stability and periods of disequilibrium are called
stage models.
Five-year-old Brennan was questioned by police about a babysitter (Ginger) who was suspected of abusing Brennan's older sister. To encourage Brennan to reveal what he knew about Ginger, a police interviewer referred to the babysitter as a "nasty lady who does some strange things." These interviewer remarks are an example of
stereotype induction
Basic emotions such as _____________ can be observed in young infants, but self-conscious emotions such as ____________ only emerge in childhood.
surprise and fear / embarrassment and pride
Most postnatal brain growth depends upon the proliferation of
synapses.
In a classic study of the development of separation distress, Schaffer and Emerson (1964) found
that by 8 months babies usually develop a strong preference for one caregiver.
Fetal brains are built by neurons
that migrate from the bottom of the brain up to the higher areas.
One epigenetic change that can affect the expression of a gene is methylation, which is
the addition of an organic molecule to DNA
Which of the following aspects of friendship development does Selman believe is not influenced and informed by a child's perspective taking skills?
the need for autonomy
The term rhythmicity, in regard to infants, refers to
their biological regularity, as in how regularly they sleep or eat.
Developmentalists study what infants and children understand about other people's intentions, desires, beliefs, feelings, and so on. This field of study is referred to as
theory of mind
Theories of development differ from opinion primarily because
they are based on scientific research.
people carry ____________ recessive, defective alleles in their genotypes.
three to five
According to Vygotsky, language is one product of shared understanding among members of a social group and may be considered a ____________ that facilitates learning and thinking.
tool or sign