Lifespan Developmental Psychology - Final

Elder Abuse (ch.9)

- 1 in 10 Americans are affected by at least one form of elder abuse - ages 60-69 are more susceptible than older adults - cognitive impairment (confusion & communication deficits) creates greater risk - older women are more likely to be victims Physical Abuse: physical force resulting in injury, pain, impairment Sexual Abuse: nonconsensual sexual contact Psychological/Emotional Abuse: infliction of distress thru verbal/nonverbal acts (yelling, threatening, isolating) Financial Abuse & Exploitation: improper use of elder's finances, property, assets Neglect/Abandonment: intentional or unintentional refusal r failure to fulfill caregiving duties to an elder

Where People Die (ch.10)

- 60% of Americans die in acute care hospitals; 20% in nursing homes & 20% at home - 80% of Americans say they would like to die at home, other cultures prefer death in hospitals - 54% of deaths in 45 nations occurred in hospitals - rate of women who died in residential care is significantly higher than men

Formal Operational Stage (ch.6)

- adolescents begin to understand abstract principles (i.e. beauty, love, freedom, morality) hypothetical-deductive reasoning: developing hypotheses based on the things that might logically occur - adolescents understand transitivity (a relationship between 2 elements is carried over to other elements logically related to the first 2) egocentrism: heightened self-focus; adolescents attribute unlimited power to their own thoughts imaginary audience: belief that those around them are as concerned w/ their appearance as they are themselves personal fable: belief that one is unique, special, and invulnerable to harm

Cultural Differences in End-Of-Life & Death (ch.10)

- impact how doctors communicate bad news to patients, expectations regarding who makes health care decisions, & attitudes about end-of-life - outside of Western nations, sometimes among certain racial or ethnic groups inside these nations, doctors or family members may conceal full nature of a terminal illness, to prevent inflicting harm upon patient, could be seen as disrespectful or impolite - Family members in many Hispanic, Chinese, & Pakistani cultures protect terminally ill patients from knowing - in many cultures, family & community play the main role & medical professionals make the decisions, or doctor & family will decide together

Postformal Thought (ch.7)

- learn to base decisions made on practical/realistic, their choices are also adaptive - many adults do not receive a formal education on abstract thinking & have not been exposed to conceptual tools to analyze hypothetical situations - a knowledge base is necessary for abstract reasoning in particular fields

Suicide (ch.10)

- males have consistently higher rates of suicide as they experience higher # of substance use, don't seek treatment, & use lethal means when attempting suicide Deaths of Despair: decrease in economic & social well-being - suicide rates fall when living conditions are improved globally Prevention: limiting access to lethal methods decreases suicide rates worldwide; providing prevention programs & improving access to mental health treatment Fatal Drug Overdoses: linked to deaths of despair; differing from suicide rates, overdoses occur among urban & rural areas equally

Adolescent Brain Development (ch.6)

- the brain does not grow any larger during adolescence but it becomes more interconnected and specialized - myelination continues causing the brains amount of white matter to increase improving the adolescent's thinking & processing, but as myelination keeps increasing plasticity decreases - synaptic pruning increases causing the brain's gray matter (cortex) to become thinner but increasingly efficient - the corpus callosum (connection between the two brain hemispheres) thickens & the hippocampus becomes increasingly connected to the frontal lobes which causes better integration of memory & experiences into our decision making - the limbic system (controls emotions and rewards) is connected to the hormonal changes that occur during puberty; prefrontal cortex (involved in impulse control, decision making, planning and organization) is not fully developed until the mid-20s; the contrast in timing of the development of the two could potentially lead to risky behavior, weak emotional control, and poor decision making - brain's sensitivity to dopamine (neurotransmitter involved in reward circuits) peaks during adolescence, so potential rewards might outweigh risks; brain is also sensitive to oxytocin (facilitates bonding & makes social connections rewarding); two cause adolescents to seek excitement that could harm them

Healthy but Risky (ch.7)

- top 5 causes of death in early adulthood: non-intentional injury, homicide, suicide, cancer, heart disease; males are 3x more likely to die in motor accidents Alcohol Abuse heavy drinking: 5+ drinks on same occasion on 5+ days in past 30 days binge drinking: blood alcohol concentration level hit 0.08 g/dL - average: women - 4 drinks, men - 5 drinks - serious health risks, accidents, injuries, assaults - college students see perpetrators who were drinking as less responsible, while victims who were drinking as more responsible - interventions can be educational or awareness programs, even intervention from medical professionals - reducing availability of alcohol decreases consumption & negative consequences Substance Use - illicit drug use is at a high between 19-22 & begins to decline - marijuana use is at highest level in 3 decades - impaired judgement, reduced inhibitions, altered mood caused by substance use & can lead to dangerous behavior - increased risk of STIs

Advanced Directives (ch.10)

Advanced Care Planning: all documents that pertain to end-of-life care Advance Directives: documents that mention a health care agent & living wills Living Wills: written or video statements that outline the health care initiates the person wishes under certain circumstances Durable Power of Attorney for Health Care: names person who should make health care decisions if the patient becomes incapacitated Medical Orders: crafted by a medical professional on behalf of seriously ill patient to be followed by other medical personnel; could include orders for Physician Order for Life Sustaining Treatment (POLST), Do-Not-Resuscitate (DNR), Do-Not-Incubate, or Do-Not-Hospitalize - in some cases medical orders may be limited to the facility where they were written, however, several states have endorsed POLST so they can be applicable across healthcare settings

Ageism & Cultural Differences (ch.9)

Ageism: prejudice based on age - Nelson found that when older people believed their cultures' negative stereotypes of aging, their memory & skills declined faster older individuals in places like China, who revere elders, had a more positive view on aging did not experience cognitive declines Self-fulfilling Prophecy: belief in one's ability results in actions that make it come true Stereotype-Threat: stereotypes adversely affecting individuals' performance on tasks b/c they worry they will confirm cultural stereotypes - when older adults internalize aging stereotypes they perform worse on w memory, physical tasks, & self-efficacy Triple Jeopardy: older, minority women facing ageism, sexism, & racism - women aged 65+ were more likely to be poor than men

Career Development, Employment, and Sexism (ch.7)

Career Development Stages 1) little to no regard of whether or not we suit occupations; children chose careers that are exciting 2) adolescents include their own capabilities and inabilities, but also glamorize certain professions when narrowing choices 3) older teens/emerging adults continue narrowing options & weigh more objectively the requirements, rewards, or downsides while also considering careers compatible w their own interests & goals; some might fall into jobs that do not align w their intrinsic (inner) interest for other reasons, i.e. family/societal pressure, money, availability 4) by mid to late 30s, most adults have chosen their careers; some people at this stage could feel trapped w/in their career, primarily ones w little room for advancement Sexism - jobs traditionally held by women tend to have lower status & therefore lower pay, benefits, & security Sexism: (gender discrimination) prejudice/discrimination based on an individual's gender/sex - linked to stereotypes & gender roles, including that men are intrinsically superior than other genders/sexes - extreme sexism could even lead to sexual harassment, rape, & other forms of sexual violence - U.S., women less likely to be hired/promoted in a male-dominated job - sexism can also be expectations for how a certain sex should behave Occupational Sexism: discriminatory practices, statements, actions based on one's gender & occur in the workplace - women entering a particular field lowers its status & therefore it's pay Sticky Floors: prevent low-wage workers, commonly women & minorities, from promoting Glass Ceiling: invisible barriers keeping women & minorities from getting to higher positions regardless of the qualifications they hold Glass Cliff: women & minorities getting placed in higher/ leadership positions when the failure risk is high

Climacteric & Sexuality (ch.8) M.A. middle adulthood

Climacteric: midlife transition to fertility declines Perimenopause: transition where ovaries stop releasing eggs & estrogen & progesterone levels decrease Female Sexual and Reproductive Health Menopause: 12 months w/out menstruation, average age is 51 but many women experience symptoms thru/out 40s - symptoms: inability to fall asleep or disruptive sleep, hot flashes (surge of adrenaline), lack of estrogen contributes to loss of vaginal lubricant & vaginal walls become thinner possibly causing painful intercourse Hormone Replacement Therapy: estrogen replacement was commonly caused to treat menopausal women, more recently HRT has been associated w breast cancer, stroke, & development of blood clots Male Sexual and Reproductive Health - tho men can father children thru/out M.A., erectile dysfunction is more common (inability/inconsistent ability to receive an erection); caused by diabetes, kidney disease, alcoholism, atherosclerosis (plaque build up on arteries) Andropause/Late-Onset Hypogonadism: significant loss of testosterone production Sexuality - many older adults are interested in remaining sexually active - couples can continue to enjoy physical intimacy in other ways (foreplay, oral sex, & other sexual expressions) - still risk of pregnancy until menopause & risk of STIs remains

Theories of Aging Pt.2 (ch.9)

DNA Damage: overtime our DNA accumulates damage; usually not of concern since cells are capable to repairing themselves, some damage is harmless but some damage cannot be repaired & remains in our DNA, scientists believe this is important for aging; as damage increases cells deteriorate/malfunction; damaging factors: ultraviolet radiation, smoking, hydrocarbons, auto & coal exhaust Mitochondrial Damage: can lead to destruction of mitochondria, can lead to cellular death Free Radicals: (missing an electron & create instability in surrounding molecules by taking electrons from them; cause damage to cells/tissue; identified w cancer, atherosclerosis, cataracts, & neurodegeneration Immune & Hormonal Stress: metabolic stress - life sustaining activities of the body (circulating the blood, eliminating waste, controlling body temp, neuronal firing in the brain), all activities that keep the body alive create biological stress; innate immune system - made up of skin, mucous membranes, cough reflex, stomach acid, specialized cells that alert body of impending threat; adaptive immune system - includes tonsils, spleen, bone marrow, thymus, circulatory system & lymphatic system working to produce T-cells (lymphocytes that fight bacteria, viruses, & foreign threats to body), T-cells remember how to fight certain viruses if they happen to come back Hormonal Stress Theory / Neuroendocrine Theory of Aging: suggests as we age the ability of hypothalamus begins to decline leading to metabolic problems; linked to excess of stress hormone cortisol; many hormones decrease w age, cortisol does not; the more stress we experience, the more cortisol is released, the more damage to hypothalamus; linked to diabetes, thyroid problems, osteoporosis, & orthostatic hypertension

Midlife Crisis (ch.8)

Daniel Levinson - midlife transition (40-45) is a time of reevaluating previous commitments: making dramatic changes when necessary, expressing previously ignored talents/aspirations, sense of urgency about life & meaning - Levinson believed midlife crisis was a normal part of development - research suggests that people in the U.S. do not experience midlife crises

Death Defined (ch.10)

Death: individual has sustained either irreversible cessation of circulatory & respiratory functions, or irreversible cessation of all functions of entire brain; determination of death made in accordance w acceptable medical standards Social Death: others begin to dehumanize & w/draw from someone who is terminally ill or diagnosed w terminal illness; includes ignoring them, talking about them as if they are not present, making decisions w/out consulting them, forcing unwanted procedures

Eating Disorders (ch.6)

Eating Disorder: a persistent disturbance of eating & eating-related behaviors that alter the consumption or absorption of food that impairs physical health &/or psychosocial functioning - can occur throughout lifespan but most common during teen years & young adulthood - rates among women are 2 and 1/2 times greater than the rates of men - men are more likely to experience muscle dysmorphia (extreme desire to increase muscularity) - caused by a complex interaction between genetic, biological, behavioral, psychological, & social factors Anorexia Nervosa: restriction of energy intake leading to a significantly low body weight; intense fear of gaining weight; disturbance in one's self-evaluation regarding body weight Bulimia Nervosa: recurrent episodes of binge eating; recurrent inappropriate compensatory behaviors to prevent wight gain (purging, laxatives, fasting, excessive exercise); self-evaluation is unduly affected by body weight and shape Binge-Eating Disorder: recurrent episodes of bing eating; marked distress regarding binge eating; binge eating is not associated w/ recurrent use of inappropriate compensatory behavior - Anorexia has highest mortality rate of any psychiatric disorder, can cause an abnormally slow heart rate & low blood pressure increasing risks of heart failure, reduction of bone density (osteoporosis), severe dehydration, fainting, fatigue. - binge/purge cycles can hurt the digestive system & lead to chemical/electrolyte imbalances; constant vomiting can cause inflammation & potentially rupture the esophagus, also tooth decay & staining - binge eating could cause obesity, high blood pressure, high cholesterol, heart disease, Type II Diabetes, & gall bladder disease - treatment plans are made to fit individual needs: medical care, nutritional counseling, medications, and psychotherapy

Research About Emerging Adulthood (ch.7)

Emerging Adulthood: time between late teens & late 20s (18-29) Arnett - during age of identity exploration emerging adults go thru the most identity development, explore career choices & ideas of intimate relationships - during age of instability explorations creates uncertainty & instability, changing jobs, relationships, residences - during age of self-focus, begin to see parents as people, while also focusing on themselves as they realize they have less obligations to others - during age of feeling in-bewteen many are dependent on parents financially & don't have other indicators of adulthood (finished education, full-time job, committed relationship) - during age of possibilities emerging adults are optimistic & hopeful of the future Socioeconomic Class: emerging adults from lower socioeconomic class had more negative emotional lives & higher levels of depression; also agreed they had not been able to find sufficient funds to receive the education they believed they needed

Identity Development in Adolescence Pt. 1 (ch.6)

Erikson: Identity versus Role Confusion - psychosocial task of establishing identity - struggle w/ answering "Who Am I?" surrounding concepts of appearance, career aspirations, education, relationships, sexuality, political/social views, personality, and interests - Erikson views this as a period of confusion and experimentation Psychological Moratorium: adolescents put commitment to an identity on hold as they continue exploring new options - those who are unable to resolve this stage may become lost or withdraw into social isolation - research suggests the most identify development/formation occurs during late adolescence and early adulthood James Garcia Identity Diffusion: status given to those who have neither made a commitment to an identity, nor explored their options - those who remain in this period consistently might have little connection to those around them or have a small sense of purpose for their lives Identity Foreclosure: made a commitment to an identity without having explored options; parents might make decisions for adolescent or in other cases teens might identify w/ parents from the start Identity Moratorium: status describing individuals who are actively exploring in an attempt to establish their identity but have not made a commitment yet Identity Achievement: individuals who have explored and made a commitment; longer process and is often not achieved until after adolescence Other Theories of Identity Development Religious Identity: views are often similar to an adolescent's family, especially parents, however, adolescents begin to question the customs, practices, &/or ideas; very few outright object the religion of their parents Political Identity: majority influenced by parent's political views

Integrity vs. Despair (ch.9)

Erikson: Integrity vs. Despair: "retrospective accounting of one's life to date; how much one embraces life as as having been well lived, as opposed to regretting missed opportunities" - must achieve acceptance of life & inevitability of death - acceptance leads to integrity, but if unable to achieve acceptance, individuals might experience despair - bitterness/resentments in relationships/life events can lead to despair in later life - Erikson suggests successful completion of this stage leads to wisdom in late life

Crystallized vs. Fluid Intelligence (ch.8)

Fluid Intelligence: capacity to learn new ways of solving problems & performing activities quickly & abstractly Crystallized Intelligence: accumulated knowledge of the world we acquire thru/out out lives - crystallized intelligence increases w age & fluid intelligence tends to decrease Flow: mental state of being completely present & fully absorbed in task Tacit Knowledge: knowledge that is pragmatic/practical & learned from experience rather than being explicitly taught

Gender (ch.7)

Gender: cultural, social, psychological meanings that are connected to femininity or masculinity Gender Identity: individual's sense of self associated w gender Social Construct: doesn't exist naturally, created ideas by society/culture - variance thru/out cultures (e.g. kilts masculine in Scottish culture, skirts feminine in American culture) Gender Roles: expectations associated w being male or female - for the most part, adults try to fit w gender roles thru/out life - men make up greater # in professions of law enforcement, military, & politics; women have greater # in care-related professions like healthcare, social work, & child care Gender Binary: categorizing as only male or female - many adults have challenged the gender binary & it's labels/ rules, gender has new possible identities: cisgender, transgender, agender, genderfluid, genderqueer, gender nonconforming, bigender, pangender, ambigender, non- gendered, & intergender - Two-Spirit: modern umbrella term used by Indigenous North Americans describing gender-variant people in their communities Gender Minority Discrimination - non-conforming individuals are most likely to face harassment & bullying, as well as higher #s of discrimination in housing, employment, healthcare, education - structural racism causes more issues for transgender people of color - those who identify as gender non-conforming or transgender have higher levels of depression &/or anxiety

Generativity vs. Stagnation (ch.8)

Generativity: encompasses procreativity, productivity, & creativity; includes generation of new beings, products, & ideas; during generativity, one establishes family & career, is concerned w leaving a positive legacy & parenthood is primary generative type - a sense of stagnation occurs when one isn't active in generative matters but a period of stagnation can motivate one to engage in more meaningful activities - Erikson believed the strengths gained from the earlier tasks were essential for generational task of cultivating strength for the next generation - generativity occurs best when one has resolved intimacy & identity issues - generative adults have various positive characteristics: cultural knowledge & healthy adaptation to the world - thru the transition to late adulthood, generativity is not required & could cause stagnation as individuals do not feel needed or challenged

Grief, Bereavement, & Mourning (ch.10) MDD: Major Depressive Disorder

Grief: normal process of reacting to a loss, can be a response to physical loss (death) or social loss (job) - reactions include feelings of numbness, anger, guilt, anxiety, sadness, & despair Complicated Grief: atypical grief reactions, feelings of disbelief, preoccupation w deceased loved one, distressful memory, feeling unable to move on w life, yearning for deceased (last 6+months & mirror symptoms of MDD) Disenfranchised Grief: grief that is not socially recognized, intensified symptoms due to lack of support Anticipatory Grief: occurs when death is expected & survivors had time to prepare for the loss, may bring a sense of relief if loved one had been suffering Bereavement: period after a loss in which grief & mourning occur; amount of time spent in bereavement depends on circumstances of the loss & levels of attachment Mourning: process by which people adapt to a loss; greatly influences by cultural beliefs, practices, & rituals

Sexuality Pt.2 (ch.7)

Hormones Oxytocin: released during sexual intercourse when orgasm is achieved; also released in females during birth/breast feeding & involved in maintaining close relationships Follicle-Stimulating hormone (FSH): responsible for ovulation in females & stimulates sperm production in males Luteinizing Hormone (LH): triggers release of mature egg during ovulation Vasopressin: involved in male arousal phase Estrogen & Progesterone: regulate motivation for sexual behavior in females, estrogen increases motivation & progesterone decreases motivation - men peak in sexual responsiveness during late teens & early 20s, they can remain sexually active thru/out life but might require increasingly intense stimulation to become aroused - women become more sexually responsive thru 20s/30s & peak during late 30s/early 40s

Sexuality (ch.7)

Human Sexuality: people's sexual interest/attraction to others, & their capacity to for erotic experiences/responses - experienced/expressed thru fantasies, desires, beliefs, attitudes, values, behaviors, practices, roles, relationships Libido: (sexual motivation) overall sexual drive &/or desire for sexual activity - determined by biological, psychological, social factors - sex hormones influence rather than control one's ability to participate in sexual behaviors - might also be affected by hormones, medical conditions, medication, lifestyle, stress, pregnancy, relationship Sexual Response Cycle: physiological responses taking place during sexual activity Phase 1: Excitement - intrinsic (inner) motivation to pursue sex arises Phase 2: Plateau - sexual excitement w heart rate increasing & circulation that sets stage for orgasm Phase 3: Orgasm - release of tension Phase 4: Resolution - unaroused state before cycle repeats - brain translates nerve impulses from skin into pleasurable senses, regulates release of hormones - cerebral cortex (outer layer of brain for thinking/reasoning) believed to be origin of sexual thoughts/fantasies - limbic system (including amygdala, hippocampus, cingulate gyrus, & septal area) is where emotions/feelings are believed to originate, is important for sexual behavior - hypothalamus (small area at base of brain consisting groups of nerve-cell bodies that receive input from limbic system) most important part of brain for sexual functioning; controls the pituitary gland which secretes hormones that control other parts of the body

Developmental Perceptions of Death & Death Anxiety (ch.10)

Infancy: cannot comprehend death but react to separation caused by death; infants separated by mothers may be sluggish or quiet while no longer smiling, cooing, sleeping, % physical symptoms (weight loss) Early Childhood: experience difficulty distinguishing reality & fantasy, lack an understanding of death; does not seem permanent & assume it is temporary, might believe person is sleeping; might also feel they have caused the death w actions (poor behavior, words, or feelings) Middle Childhood: begin to understand finality of death, until 9 child might believe in reversibility of death, may believe they could have prevented it & feel guilty Late Childhood: understand finality of death & that everybody dies including themselves, might believe it was caused by wrongdoing from the deceased, develop fears of parents dying & feel guilty if a death occurs Adolescence: understand death to same extent adults do; think abstractly about death, philosophize death, & think about their own lack of existence; personal fables cause a sense of invulnerability towards death leading to risky behaviors Early Adulthood: lower rate of deaths plays important role in lower rate of death anxiety; expectations for long lives makes them not worry/think about death Middle Adulthood: report most fear of death among other adult age groups, caretaking responsibilities contributes to death anxiety; often provides assistance to young children &/or older adults and have anxiety about leaving them Late Adulthood: lower rates of death anxiety; not worried about leaving family members to care for themselves, have had more time to complete activities they planned; often have experienced other death of loved ones contributing to less anxiety of their own death; more concern toward controlling how they die

Life Expectancy vs Lifespan (ch.9)

Lifespan / Maximum Lifespan: greatest age reached by any member of a population or species; human lifespan is between 120-125 Life Expectancy: average # years that members of pop./ species live - before COVID-19 life expectancy for those born in 2019 was 72 - women live longer around the world & been this way since 1990 - life expectancy in low-income countries is 62.7 years, 18.1 years lower than high-income countries; most people who died in high-income countries were old, in low-income countries 1 in 3 death were children under 5 - overall life expectancy for those born in 2020 is 77 years, (decreasing 1.8 years due to COVID-19 & it's impacts); male life expectancy decreased to 74.2 in 2020, & females dropped to 79.9 years in 2020 Ethnic - Hispanics had largest decline from 81.86 (2019) to 78.16 - non Hispanic Black pop. went from 74.76 (2019) to 71.54 - the non Hispanic White pop. decreased 1.38 years, 2019-2020 - higher # of deaths due to COVID-19: disproportionately represented in essential workers (healthcare, security, retail, farming, factories, food service, construction, transportation) - racial/ethnic minorities disproportionately represented in places w high outbreaks of COVID-19: correctional facilities, homeless shelters, long-term care facilities, multigenerational houses Gender Biological: females (XX) have ability to select "better" X chromosome & inactivate other one, while males (XY) receive 1 X - estrogen levels in women seem to have a protective effect on heart & circulatory systems; men have higher levels of testosterone which is linked to greater risk of cardiovascular & immune disorders & aggression/violence - frontal lobe develops slower in men, potentially leading to lack of judgement: smoking, drinking, accidents, drunk driving, violence

Neurocognitive Disorders (ch.9)

Major Neurocognitive Disorder: significant cognitive decline from previous level of performance in 1+ cognitive domains & interferes w independent functioning Minor Neurocognitive Disorder: modest cognitive decline from previous level of performance in 1+ cognitive domains & doesn't interfere w independent functioning Alzheimer's Disease: leading cause of death,US; gradual onset w subtle personality changes & memory loss differing from age-related problems: confusion, difficulty w change, deterioration of language, problem-solving skills, & personality; late stages, loss of physical coordination& inability to complete everyday tasks, loss of ability to respond to environment, carry conversation, & control of movement; greatest factor: age, but there are genetic/environmental factors: traumatic brain injury, obesity, hypertension, high cholesterol, diabetes; - Erber & Szuchman problems occurring w Alzheimer's Disease due to death of neurons, breakdown of connections between them & build up of plaques (abnormal formations of protein pieces called beta-amyloid) & tau interfering w neuron survival & functioning; plaque appears to block cell communication & triggers inflammatory response in immune system leading to more neuron death; when tau malfunctions it twists in to strands called tangles that disrupt transport system Vascular Neurocognitive Disorder: 2nd most common; associated w blockage of cerebral blood vessels that affect 1 part of brain; personality is not affected & more males are affected; comes on abruptly & shorter course before death; factors: smoking, diabetes, heart disease, hypertension, history of strokes Neurocognitive Disorder w Lewy bodies: Lewy bodies are microscopic protein deposits found in neurons postmortem; affect chemicals in brain leading to difficulties thinking, moving, behavior & mood

Relationships in Young Adulthood Pt. 2 (ch.7)

Other Possibilities Liking: intimacy & sense of closeness w partner is present, passion & commitment are not; partners can be themselves & disclose personal info; these partners are friends Infatuation: immediate, intense physical attraction to someone; a person who is infatuated might find it hard to think of other things; short-lived & tends to be based on physical attraction & the image one thinks the other is about Fatuous Love: passion & commitment, but no intimacy & the commitment is premature; rarely have serious talks and share ideas; focus on their intense physical attraction, however one or both are talking of making lasting commitment often out of insecurity & to make sure partner is secured w them Empty Love: possibly found later in a relationship that was formed to meet needs other than intimacy & passion, i.e. financial, childrearing, attaining/maintaining status; committed to staying together b/c religious conviction, relationship w children, or due to lack of alternative options; do not share ideas/feelings & have to physical attraction to one another Romantic Love: intimacy & passion w no commitment; spend time w one another & enjoy closeness, but have no plans to continue; might not be in a position to make commitments or b/c they're searching for passion/closeness & are afraid the commitment will cause it to die out Companionate Love: intimacy & commitment; love & respect one another & are committed to staying together; but physical attraction may have never been strong or faded over time; still good friends Consummate Love: intimacy, passion, & commitment are present; often seen as "ideal"; share passion, spark has not died, & closeness is still there; feel like best friends as well as lovers & are committed to staying together

Relationships with Peers and Parents (ch.6)

Parents Autonomy vs. Attachment: most adolescents get along w/ their parents but begin to spend less time w/ them reflecting adolescent's desire for autonomy (independence); this new autonomy is likely good as it prepares the teenager for adulthood, both parents & teenager need to find a balance of autonomy & close familial relationships for support - demand for independence might cause conflict typically centering around chores, homework, curfew, dating, & personal appearance - parents tend to be more controlling of daughters, especially if they have develop earlier - teenagers who have secure attachment to their parents thru adolescence are less likely to engage in risky behaviors Peers - in adolescence, less time is spend w/ families & more time is spent w/ peers - adolescent friendships increasingly focus on intimate exchanges of thoughts/feelings homophily: teenagers who are similar to each other spend time together - more time spent w/ same people, the more similar they become in attitudes and behaviors - negative peer pressure might lead to risky decisions & engaging in problematic behaviors Deviant Peer Contagion: process where peers reinforce problem behavior by laughing &/or giving signs of approval that increase likelihood of repetition or future behaviors - peers could also serve as social support/companionship cliques: groups of people that frequently interact crowds: characterized less by interactions & more so by reputations Romantic Relationships - dating during adolescence involves having fun, companionship, status, socialization, sexual experimentation, intimacy, partner selection - romantic relationships help w identity formation, emotional/behavior adjustment, changes in family/peer relationships relationship inauthenticity: incongruence of thoughts/feelings/ actions in relationship

Relationships in Young Adulthood (ch.7)

Parents & Siblings - parents who are reluctant/unable to accept child's status as an adult may hinder the young adult's identity development - more pronounced when young adult lives w parents - leaving home often promotes independence & psychological growth - nature of sibling relationships change, as adults can choose whether or not to maintain relationship/bonding - siblings close in childhood are more likely to be close in adulthood Erikson: Intimacy vs. Isolation - intimate relationships are increasingly difficult if one is struggling w identity at the same time - intimate relationships include acquaintances, friendships, & long-term romantic relationships Attraction Consensual Validation: others liking/believing in the same things we do validates our beliefs Self-Disclosure: tendency to communicate frequently, w/out fear of retaliation, & in an accepting/empathetic manner Proximity: extent to which people are physically near us - mere exposure (tendency to prefer stimuli [including, but not limited to people] that we see more frequently Friendships - intimacy may be met w friendships rather than romantic relationships - male friendships tend to include sharing info, solutions, & focus on activities instead of emotions or problems - friendships among women often focus on sharing weakness, emotions, problems Sternberg proposed 3 main components of love - Passion: intense, physical attraction partners have toward each other - Intimacy: ability to share feelings, psychological closeness, & personal thoughts w each other - Commitment: conscious decision to stay together

Personality (ch.7)

Personality: characteristic manner of thinking, feeling, behaving, & relating to others - personality traits refer to characteristics of personality Five Factor Model (OCEAN) - Openness includes general appreciation for art, emotion, adventure, unusual ideas, imagination, curiosity, & variety of experience; individuals tend to have unconventional/unique decor in homes, likely to have wide variety of books, diverse music, & art on display - Conscientiousness includes tendency to show self-discipline, act dutifully, aim for achievement; individuals are likely to prefer planned behaviors & activities - Extraversion includes tendency to have positive emotions & seek stimulation from the company of others; enjoy being w people, talk, assert/draw attention to themselves in groups - Agreeableness includes a tendency to compassionate & cooperative rather than suspicious/antagonistic; individual differences in concern for social harmony; value getting along w others, generally considerate, friendly, helpful, & willing to compromise their interest w others - Neuroticism includes tendency to experience negative emotions (anger, anxiety, depression), often referred to as "emotional instability"; likely to interpret ordinary situations as threatening & minor stressors as hopeless & difficult; trouble thinking clearly, making decisions, & coping w stress

Physical & Sensory Changes in Middle Adulthood (ch.8)

Physical - graying caused by loss of melanin pigment in hair follicles; hair loss comes w aging as hair follicles stop producing hair & strands become thinner, men show signs of balding around 30 - skin dries out & is prone to wrinkling, especially on sensitive skin of face, lose underlying layer of fat making face appear unsmooth, thinner skin & muscle tone loss cause face to appear droopy; smoking & sun exposure cause premature wrinkles; blood vessels become more apparent - sarcopenia (loss of muscle mass/strength from aging); significant contributor of frailty/functional impairment; potentially caused by decline of growth & anabolic hormones, especially testosterone, & decreased physical activity; can start at 40 & cause significant decrease in quality of life, increase in health care costs, & earlier death - thinning of bones might change rib cage shape & cause loss in lung expansion; changes in muscles, weakened diaphragm, can contribute to reduced lung capacity, lowering oxygen levels & increasing levels of carbon dioxide in blood Sensory Vision: presbyopia - loss of elasticity in lens of eye making it harder for eye to focus on objects that are closer in person, anyone over 35 is at risk for presbyopia; floaters - little spots floating in field of vision, those who're nearsighted, diabetic, or had cataract surgery are more at risk for floaters; scotopic sensitivity - ability to see in dimmer light, loss of scotopic sensitivity w age, by 60: retina receives 1/3 the light it saw when 20, eyes are more sensitive to lights making it difficult to drive at night; dry eye syndrome - eye does not produce tears properly or tears evaporate too quickly b/c wrong consistency Hearing: hearing loss accumulates after exposure to loud noises, exacerbated by cigarette smoking, high blood pressure, diabetes, stroke

Physical & Sensory Changes in Late Adulthood (ch.9)

Physical - w age: heart muscles thicken, arteries less flexible, lung capacity diminishes, bladder loses ability to store urine, kidneys less efficient in removing waste from blood, brain cells lose some functioning (neurons are still produced) Body: after 30, people tend to lose lean tissue, & some cells from muscles, liver, kidney, & other organs; tissue loss can reduce water in body causing bones to be less dense & lose minerals (early stages osteopenia, later stages osteoporosis); amount of body fat goes up after 30, fat tissue builds toward center of body & around internal organs Skin, Hair, Nails: skin is thinner, loses fat & elasticity; veins/ bones easier to see & scratches, bruises, bumps longer to heal; gravity causes sag/wrinkle; many hair follicles stop producing new hair, facial hair grows courser (women on chin/upper lip), men's eyebrow, ear, nose hair can grow longer; nails (especially toe) become thicker Height & Weight: tendency to become shorter occurs among all races & sexes, related to changes in muscles, bones, & joints; men gain weight until 55 & lose weight in later life, women usually gain weight till 65 Sarcopenia: loss of muscle tissue (natural part of aging); most noticeable in men; loss of stamina can decrease physical activity & further shrink muscles; factors: reduction of nerve cells that send signals to muscles to move, decrease of ability to turn protein to energy, not enough calories or protein to sustain muscle mass

Theories of Aging (ch.9)

Programmed Theories: follow a biological timetable, possibly continuation of childhood development Damage or Error Theories: emphasis on environmental factors causing cumulative damage in organisms Genetics: based on animal models, some genes promote longevity & some don't; to determine the difference in genes; researchers scan entire genome & compare genetic variants in those who live longer & those w average shorter lifespan; likely a combo of many genes Evolutionary Theory: emphasis on natural selection: genes allowing one to survive/reproduce are more likely to be given to offspring Cellular Clock Theory: suggests biological aging due to normal cells not being able to divide indefinitely (aka Hayflick limit); telomere - at end of each chromosomal strand is sequence of DNA that doesn't code for particular protein, but protects rest of chromosome, once the telomere gets too short: cellular senescence - stops replicating by turning itself off, can lead to increased risk of disease while still able to interact w other cells OR apoptosis - stop replicating by dying OR continue to divide becoming abnormal & leading to possible development of cancer

Relationships in Middle Adulthood (ch.8)

Sandwich Generation: adults who have at least one parent 65 or older are either raising their own children or providing support for grown children Kinkeeper: person(s) that keep family connected & promote solidarity & continuity in family Empty Nest: time period when children are grown up & have left home Empty Nest Syndrome: great emotional stress experienced by parents, particularly mothers, after children leave home Boomerang Kids: young adults who return home after having lived elsewhere independently Linked Lives: idea that people in important relationships mutually influence each other's developmental pathways

Stress (ch.8)

Stress: pattern of physical & psychological responses in an organism after it perceives a threatening event disturbing its homeostasis & taxes abilities to cope w event Stressor: stimulus causing stress on the body General Adaptive Syndrome: three-phase model of stress including a mobilization of physiological resources phase, coping phase, & exhaustion phase (organism fails to cope w stress adequately & depletes its resources)

Attachment in Young Adulthood (ch.7)

Secure: relatively easy to get close to others & comfortable depending on others & others depending on them; don't often worry of being abandoned or someone getting to close Avoidant: somewhat uncomfortable getting close to others; difficult to trust completely & allow themselves to depend on others; nervous when people get too close, & romantic partners wish for more intimacy than is comfortable for them Anxious/Ambivalent: others are reluctant to get as close as they would like; often worries about partners not really loving them or that they won't stay w them; wants to merge completely w another person which could scare people away Attachment-Related Anxiety: extent to which an individual worries if their partner really loves them Attachment-Related Avoidance: whether an adult is capable of opening up to others & whether they trust or can depend on others - adults w insecure attachments report having lower satisfaction w their relationships - high scores in attachment-related anxiety report daily conflict w/in their relationships - avoidant attachment individuals support their partners less - younger adults tend to have greater attachment-related anxiety than those in middle/late adulthood - younger adults w secure relationship to parents, transition into adulthood more smoothly - majority of research suggests that secure people are more likely to be w secure people and insecure people are more likely to be w insecure people - early experiences are important in shaping future experiences, however they do not determine a person's fate

Self-Concept and Self-Esteem in Adolescence (ch.6)

Self-Concept - adolescent's new ability to think about all of the possibilities and to reason w/ abstract ideas might explain the continuing differentiation of the self - adolescent's ideas of themselves often contradict, e.g. young teens may see themselves as smart but uncool; these ideas seem to change depending on who the teenager is around leading them to feel fake - emphasize their "better" traits, such as kindness, patience, and consideration more than younger children do which shows their concern with how others may see or judge them Self-Esteem - self-esteem seems to drop as adolescents move from school to school, e.g. the transition from middle school to high school; however, this is usually temporary except when their are additional stressors, such as family conflict or friend issues - self-esteem tends to rise from mid to late adolescence, especially if they are happy w/ their peer relationships, appearance, and abilities

Physical/Sensory Changes Pt.2) (ch.9)

Sensory Vision: cataracts - clouding of lens of eye, cause discoloration of lens (yellow/brownish) lead to trouble distinguishing black, brown, dark purple, or dark blue, risks: diabetes, high blood pressure, obesity, smoking, ultraviolet sunlight, family history, previous eye trauma; age-related macular degeneration - loss of clarity in center of field of vision, dry-type: most common, occurs when tiny pieces of fatty protein (druses) form under retina, wet-type: caused by abnormal development of blood vessels beneath retina, vessels may leak fluid or blood causing rapid loss of vision, risks: smoking, race (Caucasians more common), high cholesterol, family history; glaucoma - loss of peripheral vision due to build up of fluid in eye damaging optic nerve, most common cause of blindness in US Hearing: 1 in 4 adults 65-74 & 1 in 2 older than 75 have disabling hearing loss; presbycusis - common form of hearing loss resulting in a gradual loss of hearing, runs in families & affects both ears; tinnitus - ringing, hissing, roaring sound in ears, cause unknown but related to hypertension & allergies, more common for men worldwide; balance is controlled by (auditory system) brain receiving info from shifting of hair cells in inner ear about position/orientation of body Taste & Smell: after 50, we lose some sensory cells but many do not notice change in taste till after 60; presbyosmia - loss of smell from aging; anosmia - total loss of smell; problems w chemical senses linked to Parkinson's, Alzheimer's, or multiple sclerosis Touch: reduced/changed sensations of vibrations, cold, heat, pressure, or pain; aligned w diabetes but happens among healthy adults; ability to detect roughness/smoothness or hardness/softness does not show w age; increased sensitivity to pressure, temp, or pain are at risk for injury

Sexual Development and Activity (ch.6)

Sexual Maturity Primary Sexual Characteristics: adolescents experience developments in their reproductive organs Spermarche: males first ejaculation of semen Menarche: females first menstrual cycle Secondary Sexual Characteristics: physical changes (i.e. development of breasts in females or deeper voice in males) that signal sexual maturity but have nothing to do with reproduction - girls who experience puberty earlier are more likely to engage with older people who are more likely to participate in risky behaviors (i.e. substance use and sexual behaviors) - boys who experience puberty earlier were more likely to smoke cigarettes or use substances Sexual Activity - around 10 or 11, most children experience some degree to sexual attraction to their peers & by the end of high school more than half report having sexual intercourse at least once - however, adolescents seem to be less sexually active than their counterparts in previous years & adolescents that are sexually active are using protection

Relationships in Late Adulthood (ch.9)

Social Network: consists of people w whom an individual is directly involved (family, friends, acquaintances); as people age changes occur w/in social networks Convoy Model of Social Relations: suggests that social connections people accumulate differ in levels of closeness & are held together by exchanges of social support Socioeconomic Selectivity Theory: focuses on changes in motivation for actively seeking social contact w others Relationships w Adult Children: many older adults still provide financial/housing support for adult children; more support is given to younger adults from older adults than other way around; older parents who report providing emotional support to children had greater satisfaction w life Friendships: most elderly people have one or more close friends; may provide emotional & physical support; those who were widowed but had a close friend reported less somatic depressive symptoms Loneliness or Solitude: loneliness - discrepancy between social contact a person has & contact a person wants & a lack of companionship; can result from emotional (more often men) or social (more often women) isolation; can be accompanied by lack of self-worth, impatience, desperation, & depression; solitude - gaining self-awareness, taking care of the self, being comfortable alone, & pursuing one's interests Marriage: most common living situation was w spouse, however more common for older men than older women Widowhood: loss of spouse of many years can result in feeling adrift thru life; must remake identity after years of seeing themselves as a wife/husband; widowhood mortality effect - higher risk of death after death of spouse

Identity Development in Adolescence Pt. 2 (ch.6)

Vocational Identity: takes longer to fully develop; many jobs that typical teenagers have are not jobs teens will seek as adults Gender Identity: increasingly long task as roles and views regarding gender are constantly changing; teens typically adopt stereotypical roles for genders Sexual Identity: by 14, adolescents gain interest in intimate relationships & might even begin to experiment w/ sexual intercourse & related things; many non-heterosexual teenagers struggle w/ negative feedback about their sexual exploration which could result in feelings of depression Phinney's Model of Ethnic Identity Formation 1) unexamined ethic identity - individuals who have not been exposed to their ethnic ancestry; could result in a preference for dominant culture; also individuals who give little thought to their ethnicity and issues involving it 2) ethnic identity search - individuals that are actively exploring the customs, culture, history, & practices of ethnic background; individuals at this stage will immerse themselves in their ethnic culture & could lead to rejection of dominant culture 3) achieved ethnic identity - individuals who have actively their culture are likely to have a deeper appreciation/understanding of their ethnic identities; individuals can achieve ethnic identity w/out maintaining language or customs Bicultural/Multicultural Identity: some people keep their cultural identities separate, others may combine themselves in some ways, & others may reject them entirely - bicultural identity means that an individual sees themselves as a part of the ethnic minority group and the larger society - multiracial, individuals whose parents come from 2 or more ethnic groups

How Does Aging Impact Cognitive Development? (ch.9) (Information Processing, Memory, Attention)

Working Memory: 3 major systems: phonological loop - maintains info about auditory stimuli, visuospatial sketchpad - maintains info about visual stimuli, central executive - oversees working memory, allocating resources where needed & monitoring whether cognitive strategies are effective - young adults eventually manage to learn/perform tasks w/ out loss in speed/efficiency even w considerable practice, none of older adults achieved this, having older adults learn/ perform tasks together was too taxing for central executive; tasks that don't require input from central executive, they perform similarly to young adults Long-term memory: semantic (knowledge of facts), episodic (events), & implicit (procedural skills, classical conditioning /priming); semantic & episodic require conscious effort to create/retrieve; research suggests greater decline in episodic memory; older adult's poorer performance on episodic memory relates to slower processing of info & difficulty of tasks; general knowledge (semantic) tests older adults outperform younger adults, but experience more blocks when retrieving info they know; implicit memory requires little conscious effort involving skills & habitual patterns of behavior, priming - changes in behavior as result of frequent experiences Prospective Memory: remembering things we need to remember in future, time-based prospective memories - remembering to do something at specific time, event-based prospective memory - remembering to do something when certain event occurs Attention: less able to selectively focus on info while ignoring distractors Processing Speed Theory: as nervous system slows, ability to process info declines Inhibition Theory: difficulty w inhibitory functioning or ability to focus on certain info while suppressing attention to less pertinent info tasks

Age Categories of Late Adulthood (ch.9)

Young-Old: "Golden Years" of adulthood; experience relatively good health & social engagement, knowledge & expertise, & adaptability in everyday life - strong performance in attention, memory, & crystallized intelligence - relate more to those in midlife - overall, sense of happiness & emotional wellbeing better than any other period of adulthood Old-Old: often living independently, but experiencing physical impairments & # of chronic diseases increase after 75 - half of all heart failure cases are people older than 75 - hypertension & cancer #s are increasing, but are linked to some lifestyle choices & could possibly be prevented, lessoned, &/or managed Oldest-Old: often more serious chronic ailments - fastest growing age group worldwide & projected to increase 300% & be 18 million by 2050 - common hospitalizations: congestive heart failure, pneumonia, UTIs, septicemia, stroke, hip fractures - 50% of oldest-old require some daily help; less likely to be married & living w spouse Centenarians: 100 & older; 110 & older sometimes referred to as supercentenarians - projected to grow to 3.7 million in 2050 - tended to be healthier & had delays in serious illnesses till their 90s - 25% reached 100 w/out chronic illness - likely to experience rapid decline in health in their later life