Linguistics FInal Flash Cards
Gullah
(a.k.a. Sea Island Creole) Superstrate: English, Substrate: West African slave languages This is a language spoken in the Sea Islands off of Georgia and South Carolina that originated when slave traders settled there, but the white settlers were soon killed by foreign diseases and the blacks were left there alone. These islands were left virtually isolated until after WW2, and Gullah developed in that time. It has been included in literature since the late 1800s and is still spoken today. Nulla copula, completed "done," serial verb construction
Four modes of identifying the Social Identity of a literary character
1. Author's identity 2. Stereotypes 3. Situational context 4. Politics of Orthography
Slang is NOT
1. Expressing a new idea 2. Geographically restricted 3. All colloquialisms or informal language 4. Obscene
First and Second Waves of Asian Immigration
1. First Wave (1880-1930) inspired by the Gold Rush, mainly young single men of low education and socioeconomic status, wanted to return to China, didn't retain language well, divided based on nationalism 2. Second Wave (1949- 1980s): Caused by communist revolution in China, more families/skilled workers/higher socioeconomic status. More language retention, more urban.
Reasons to use slang
1. Group membership/identity 2. Social Status 3. Rebellion 4. Convenience 5. Humor
List of American Pidgins and Mixed Languages
1. Mobilian Jargon [mostly Choctaw and Chickasaw, N.A. lingua franca] 2. Chinook Jargon [Pacific NW, trade language of tribes and Europeans, Chinook/Nootka/English/French] 1. Michif [only known mixed language in USA, combination of French and Pains Cree, from Great Plains on America/Canada border]
Characteristics of Slang
1. enters and leaves vocab quickly 2. Uses informal, spontaneous language/ colloquial 3. Identifies user with a group/attitude 4. Irreverence/defiance of proper 5. Colloquial, normal words in different contexts
Number of Native American Languages in the USA
169
Number of People Using a Language Other Than English at Home
19.6% of the population (a little over 55 million people)
Meyer vs. Nebraska
1932: a teacher taught stories in German when only English was allowed. She was convicted and it was upheld at first, but later overturned as a violation of the Fourteenth Amendment
Lau vs. Nichols
1973: Class action lawsuit against the San Francisco School Board by Chinese students who weren't getting language help (based on the Civil Rights Act and Fourteenth Amendment). Was supported by the Supreme Court because language is super closely related to national origin, so much so that they can be connected under law.
Mixed Languages
A combination in which two languages come together, but each is still distinct and can be separated. The speakers of mixed languages speak the parent languages.
Jewish English
A combination of Yiddish and English that arose in the USA due to bad learning of second languages and traditional words. It is usually used in tandem with a standard English dialect.
Creole
A combination of two languages that has been more fully-developed, including a more complex morphology, phonology, and lexicon. There are native speakers of Creoles.
Pidgin
A combination of two languages that results when speakers of two languages need to communicate but lack a common language. They are rudimentary, having simple phonology and morphology in comparison to full-fledged languages. They have no native speakers
Lingua Franca
A common language that is used to communicate when two groups that have different first languages come together.
Geographic Distribution of Arabic Speakers in the USA
Almost half of all Arabic speakers live in NYC/NJ/California/Michigan/Florida Almost every state experienced an increase in Arab population between 1990 and 2000
Heritage Language
Any language present in an area where it is not the dominant language, whether it is indigenous or immigrant.
Immigration Act of 1924
Banned immigration of anyone who couldn't become a citizen (which it had previously been decreed that Asians could not be). Significantly decreased immigration, but didn't stop it.
Imbalanced Bilingualism
Better at one language than another- one is used far more often than the other, one usually requires a specific context for use
Misunderstandings in Ebonics Resolution
Big problem was the name Ebonics ("black sounds") that wasn't known very well and was seen as confusing and racist, was perceived as Oakland giving up on the students and accepting AAE when in reality they were using it as a teaching manner.
Sex
Biological definition as male or female
Native American Language Preservation
By the time these languages were studied, most of them were either gone or had declined greatly in popularity. It is projected that in 90 years, 90% of the 700 Native American languages will be gone. The twentieth century was a time of legislative successes for the Native Americans in terms of preservation of language and culture, but many are still dying out as younger generations learn more mainstream languages.
Native American Languages Act of 1992
Changed the view of the government, asserted that native Americans have the right to maintain, proliferate, and use their languages
Linguistic formation of slang
Comes from normal words used in different contexts, often in music and social situations, associated with rebellion
Immersion as an ESL tactic
Complete jumping in to a new language with no maintenance of the heritage language. Could lead to loss of the heritage language, and is not an effective way to learn because there is no foundation for new language learning
1970's Language and Gender Studies
Correlation between linguistic forms and sex, womens' language, use of gender-neutral language (epicene pronouns like "na")
Cure vs. Care
Cure= results-oriented, focuses on the way that doctors and patients communicate information Care= socio-relational approach, looks at how education/gender/ethnicity/socioeconomic status/power effect the delivery of healthcare [Cure is the ends, care is the means]
Slang
Deliberate alternative vocabulary that sends social signals and is widely used
Black ASL
Developed from AAE during segregation, more 2-handed signs and repetition, much larger signing space, more conservative about language change
Voice of Medicine
Doctor-centered talk, more large world and official terms that make it hard for most people to understand (causes doctor/patient disconnect), lots of close-ended questions/directions/decisions
A Successful Bilingual Education Program Needs...
Early Start, Funding, Assessments, Framework, Buy-in, Teacher Education, Strong Policy, Language Maintenance
Why non-native speakers learn English
Economic Opportunity, Academic Success, National Unity, Societal Pressure
Balanced Bilingualism
Equal proficiency in two languages, either can be used in any situation and both are used often
How People Learn English
Family, Personal Interaction, Community Activities, Teaching in Schools, ESL Classes, Media (?)
Why don't linguists use the term Ebonics?
Has too many negative connotations, and people focus on the controversy rather than any other issue at hand
Separate Classroom ESL
Help for students with a first language besides English, isolating but concentrated
Slang and identity
Highly group-identifying ("talk the talk"), more individualistic to make up own words, refers to people/relationships/social behavior/ judgments
Key Bilingual Education Points
How will children learn English if not in schools? Very expensive Can we provide for every language in the school system? Why do immigrants need accommodation now but not in the past? Might end up speaking two languages ok, but neither well. This could discourage assimilation if we do/don't teach
Civil Rights Act of 1964
Illegalizes discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin (in 1980 expanded to include language as a part of national origin), looked over by the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission
Characteristics of Adolescence
In-between childhood and adulthood, time of self-discovery, unique to industrialized nations, largely in schools
California Proposition 227
June 2, 1998: Wanted to eliminate bilingual education and do the whole naturalization in a maximum of one year and completely in English. This has become a huge controversial issue in recent history, and one third of all immigrants in the USA live in California
Relationship of Identity and Language
Language use constructs identity. Identities form around practices, and people may have many practices that join together to create their identities and shape their language.
1819 Civilization Fund Act
Mandated that Native Americans be integrated into the general population and culture, done largely through institutionalized boarding schools
US immigration history and English-only ideologies
May attempts have been made to make English an official language at the federal level (ex: English Language Empowerment Act), 30 states have their own immigration legislation, as more immigrants come more legislation is attempted as insecurity increases
1980's Language and Gender Studies
Multicultural Feminism (embracing ethnicity as a contributing factor to feminine identity and language), Difference and Domination (gender equality in language while maintaining distinction)
Purpose of the Oakland Ebonics Resolution
Oakland was a predominantly African American and had low performance, decided to treat AAE as bilingual education to teach SAE more effectively, wanted to involve school board and have monthly checkups
Number of Languages Spoken in the USA
Officially: 325 Is probably far higher than that (an estimated 700 or so in NYC alone) due to self-reporting and categorization of languages
Hebrew
Originally the sacred language of Judaism, the language of written scholarship. It is now spoken, especially in Israel and as a secular language originating in the 1870s. When in doubt, the answer is Hebrew. In the mid 1800s there was a controversy about whether to keep all services in Hebrew or switch them to vernacular, dividing the religion.
1990's Language and Gender Studies
Queer linguistics (more gay/lesbian studies, also some queer/transvestite ones), Intragender variation acknowledges that different factors cause variation within the language of one gender, Individual Agency (the ability to use language to one's advantage despite cultural constraints)
Door Handle Questions
Questions that patients ask as the doctors are leaving the room -May have procrastinated on asking due to confusion or embarrassment -Usually seen by the doctors as stressful because they go over the allotted time of the appointment -Can include the missing symptom that puts everything in place
Barriers to Learning English as a Second Language
Shortage of ESL Classes, Shortage of Resources and Trained Teachers (only 30%), No way to practice outside of class, Lack of time and transportation, lack of motivation (when language is common), age, fear of losing native tongue
Executive Order 9066
Signed by FDR in 1942, this put 120,000 Japanese Americans in internment camps during World War Two
Signed vs. Spoken Languages
Similar: All are not mutually intelligible, individual languages, dialectical variations Different: Visual structures (not sounds), different socially acceptable topics (ASL=more direct)
ASL vs. Oralism in School
Since the 1880s, there has been far more focus on oralism in schools because it allows for easier survival in the greater world (reading lips)
Difficulty in Minority Language Maintenance
Social Stigma, Lack of People to Converse with, Increased concentration on learning English could lead to neglect of heritage language.
Gender
Social and cultural definition as either male or female
Reasons to use dialects in film/literature
Sociolinguistic Representation Relationship of Standards and Vernaculars
Languages Spoken by over 500,000 people in the USA (besides English)
Spanish, Mandarin, Tagalog, French, Vietnamese, German, Russian, Italian, Arabic, Portuguese, French Creole, Polish, Hindi
Louisiana Creole
Superstrate: French, Substrate: West African Slave Languages This originated during colonization and the early slave trade, mainly in South and Southwest Louisiana. It had 70,000 speakers as of 1985. It is very similar to French aside from the fact that there are no reflexive verbs or tenses, and adjectives and the article "la" have no gender
Hawaiian Creole
Superstrate=English, Substrate=Japanese, Tagalog, Spanish, Hawaiian, plus more Originated during contact with native Hawaiians and Europeans (missionaries starting 1778, sugar plantations in the 1800s, important stopover between Asia and USA). Important second language in Hawaii today as it is used in schools and public forums such as government. Nulla copula, "ste"=now, "wen"= past
Substrate
The "inferior" language in any pidgin or creole. These are usually indigenous or non-European languages, and they contribute most of the grammar of the new combination.
Superstrate
The "superior" language in any pidgin or creole. These are usually European languages, and they contribute most of the vocabulary in the new combination. They are also known as lexifiers.
Dual Immersion as an ESL tactic
The combination of two languages in one classroom so that each are used equally. This helps speakers of both languages improve, and stimulates brain function
Language Maintenance
The continued use of a heritage language by an individual or group (usually done by the older generations in an area/family)
Melting Pot vs. Salad Bowl
The idea that America is a combination of many cultures in one setting can be expressed as either a melting pot (we all come together to create one homogeneous culture) or a salad bowl (we all come together to create something greater than the sum of its parts, but this is done so that all of the ingredients still retain elements of their original state).
Dzhudezmo
The language of the Sefardic Jews who lived on the Iberian Penninsula. It is superficially really similar to Spanish. It has been increasingly dying out as it has been absorbed into the Ashkenazic sect of Judaism and its speakers have not been passing it down to future generations.
Multilingualism
The presence and use of more than one language in any given area or by an individual
Decreolization
The process in which a Creole moves back towards and is reabsorbed back into the superstrate and is no longer used.
Language Ideology
The promotion of the needs and interests of a dominant group or class at the expense of marginalized groups by using disinformation and misinterpretation [standard ideology= bias towards an abstract, idealized, non-varying spoken language]
Yiddish
The traditional language of the Ashkenazic Jews of Eastern Europe and Asia. This has the largest number of native speakers of any of the Jewish languages, with 1 million speakers today. 6 million speakers were killed in the Holocaust. This is one of the base languages for Jewish American English
Language Shift
The transition from a heritage language to the dominant language of an area, usually swift and complete within two to three generations
History/Development of ASL
There was no system for communication for deaf in USA until late 19th century (used home signs), Gallaudet traveled to France and studied with the Royal Institution for the Deaf in Paris, brought this back to America and opened American School For the Deaf in 1817 under a different name, by 1880s there were 22 deaf schools in the USA, and starting in 1880s there was also more emphasis on lip-reading
1965 Immigration Reform Act
This significantly relaxed immigration quotas, indicating a softening in sentiments towards immigrants during this period
Language Subordination
Those who claim to have better language set themselves up as good models. Also includes mystification (one group knows the superior language best- they set themselves up as authorities) and misinformation about other dialects
Diglossic Nature of Arabic
Two forms of one language are used: one for everyday life (dialect), one for religion and education (standard) that is primarily written and is the one learned by second-language speakers
English should be the official language of the USA because...
Unifies the country, would be an incentive for immigrants to learn English, would save government money on bilingual papers and money, provides better economic opportunities, and makes communication much easier
Eye Dialect
Vernacular spellings/pronunciations that are seen as "visually incorrect," causes further subordination of language
1908 Gentleman's Agreement
Wanted to stop Japanese Visas to the USA, greatly restricted Japanese immigration
Native American English
Was inadvertently created during within the boarding schools during the naturalization process, is a combination of English and Native American terms. Pronunciations and phrases are from English, but are sometimes assigned different meanings than the norm
Voice of the Lifeworld
Way that "normal" non-medical people speak, devoid of most medical jargon, sometimes doctors don't understand non-medical descriptions of symptoms which can lead to disconnect
Polysynthetic Morphology
When a large number of affixes are attached to a word to indicate number, tense, formality, etc. (any types of morphemes)
Reduplication
When all or part of a word is duplicated and attached to the end of the word, creating repetition (ex: putt-putt)
Importance of Studying Adolescent Language
Why do we study any language? To learn what it reflects about speakers' personalities, beliefs, social influences, alignments. Also adolescence is a time of great change and therefore language change also. Also a good way to understand the things they don't communicate.
Decisions that have to be made when incorporating dialect
Yes/No To what extent What dialect to include
deaf vs. Deaf
deaf= anyone with hearing loss Deaf= anyone who identifies with the deaf culture, including the impaired but also family members, friends, doctors, workers, etc.
essentialism
emphasizes the differences between genders and suggests that the differences come from deep-seated cultural essences of masculinity and femininity
Basic Structures of ASL
fully-formed, rule-governed linguistic system, constructed by manual signs (hand/head/face/body/ movement/symmetry/ number of hands used)
English shouldn't be the official language of the USA because...
it wouldn't necessarily need to unity, could cause resentment about speakers of other languages, this is unnecessary as the generational shift already takes care of it, could cause a loss of cultural identity, and would take away help for learning English
"Yellow English"
negative stereotypes of the language skills of Asians speaking English that still exist today and are perpetuated by the media. (Long Duck Dong)
Sexuality
sexual orientation: the attraction and sexual desire, or lack thereof, that a person feels
Linguistic features of Adolescent Language
up-talk, quotative "like," creaky voice, slang, profanity, abbreviation, humor, informality
