Literary Devices Cards

Anecdote

2. Definition: A brief account of a personal incident or event 3. Effects: Introduce a point or topic, allow the readers to feel involved, generate an emotional response, reveal a general truth, sometimes satirical 4. Example: Soon enough, it was summer. Teens were enjoying the sun, and adults lounged near the swimming pool, basking in the balmy weather. Suddenly, I heard a shriek somewhere near the beverage table, and soon, a crowd grew around that vicinity. Getting closer, I realized that they were surrounding a woman who had passed out, a victim of heatstroke. 5. Analysis: This anecdote is an interesting introduction to the subject of heatstroke and the methods of preventing it, giving the readers a scene to imagine and be involved in. It allows the readers to be more receptive to the following information because the story underscores the importance of learning about a particular topic.

Rhetorical Question

2. Definition: A question or statement in the form of a question that is not expected or supposed to be answered and is solely for effect. 3. Effects: -Get the reader thinking -Involve the reader -Emphasize the author's purpose -Subtly make the reader agree with the author 4. Example: "How many licks does it take to get to the center of a Tootsie Pop?" 5. Analysis: There is no real answer for this question and it is not meant to be answered. The question was posed in Tootsie Pop commercials to endorse the chewy center of their lollipops as everyone on the commercial who tried to count the licks ended up biting the lollipop to get to the center.

Asyndeton

2. Definition: A rhetorical device that omits conjunctions between words, phrases or clauses. 3. Effect: Asyndeton gives the effect of unpremeditated multiplicity. Asyndeton cannot be pegged to one effect. The lack of a conjunction also gives the impression that something is missing. The device also can be used for strong and climatic emphasis as opposed to the interruption of a conjunction. 4. Example: They spent the day wondering, searching, thinking, understanding. 5. Analysis: The omission of the "and" before understanding makes the sentence so much more powerful as there is no break in action. The sentence lists a flurry of verbs which gives it a more emphatic effect. Rather than having the word "and" destroying the flow, the omission allows the sentence to flow freely and retain its boldness.

Pronoun

2. Definition: A substitute for a noun, a proper noun, or a noun phrase. The noun/noun phrase that is replaced is called the antecedent. There are seven types of pronouns: personal, demonstrative, interrogative, relative, indefinite, reflexive, and intensive. 3. Effects: -Establishes common ground/a feeling of unity -Simplifies writing and speaking - Avoids repetition -Links two phrases or clauses together -Emphasizes its antecedent 4. Example: "John gave the candy to Susan" When replaced with pronouns: "He gave the candy to her" 5. Analysis: The antecedents are John and Susan and the pronouns are He and Her. This is an example of a personal pronoun. If the whole piece of writing is about John and Susan, using pronouns helps avoid repetition of "John and Susan" in every sentence.

Facts

2. Definition: A truth by actual experience or observation; something known to be true; an actual or alleged event. 3. Effect: Facts bring credibility to the speaker. 4. Example: President Obama is the current president of the United States. 5. Analysis: This is a fact; Obama is our president currently.

Dialectical Journal

2. Definition: A type of note-taking in which a T-shaped chart is created, one for the quotation from the text, and the other for the significance of the selected quote. 3. Effect: It helps students develop critical reading skills as well as reflective questioning. 4. Example: Lady Mary Wortley Montagu Prompt: Dialectal Journal Quotation: "...I showed her that they were taken from Randolph's poems, and the unfortunate transcriber was dismissed..." LINE 10-11 Significance She wanted to show how vulnerable people are when they are not knowledgeable, that her companion was almost tricked if it weren't for her knowledge 5. Analysis: This is a straightforward concept that is meant to help one realize what is important in the passage and what is not. By only selecting certain quotes to analyze, the reader will better understand the author's intent as well as the main idea.

Straw Man

2. Definition: A weak argument set up to be easily refuted. The straw man argument deliberately misinterprets the opposing side's argument to weaken their argument. 3. Effects: -Weaken opposing argument -Make refuting opposing side's argument easier 4. Example: Child: "Can we get a dog?" Parent: "No." Child: "It would protect us." Parent: "Still, no." Child: "Why do you want to leave us and our house unprotected?" 5. Analysis: The child in the above conversation is making a straw man argument as the parent's reason for not getting a dog may have nothing to do with protection but other factors. Also, not wanting a dog does not mean they want to leave the house unprotected as there are other ways to ensure their safety and getting a dog does not necessarily provide protection.

Modifier

2. Definition: A word, phrase, or clause that functions as an adjective or adverb to limit or qualify the meaning of another word or word group (called the head); a word that provides description in a sentence. There are many different types of modifiers, including absolute phrases, participial phrases, and appositive phrases. 3. Effect: Modifiers put emphasis and offer further explanation on the word or phrase being modified. 4. Example: Martha, a young medical student from New York, decided to take a year off from school to travel with her friends. 5. Analysis: In this sentence, the phrase "a young medical student from New York" serves to modify the subject, Martha, providing further details on the noun to give a more vivid description.

Credible

2. Definition: Able to be believed; convincing. 3. Effect: Credibility can lead to assertiveness, where someone can quickly and logically refute counter-arguments. It establishes the qualifications as a speaker. 4. Example: Diaries, journals, eyewitness accounts, and things approved and published experts, etc. 5. Analysis: All the examples above can be seen as credible because the author's motivation is pure, meaning there is no reason to lie. Unbiased sources are also found to be credible because information is not shifted to convince the reader of one argument over another.

Annotation

2. Definition: An annotation is a circling or marking of specific lines, sentences, or words that have a literary significance. The reader then writes brief notes in the margins or somewhere else in the page as to why the lines, sentences, or word are particularly significant. 3. Effect: Annotation focuses the readers' attention on what they are reading while they are reading it. It also provides a record of what the reader was thinking while reading, providing a resource when the reader has to refer back to the reading. 4. Example: Some examples of topics that can be annotated include, but are not limited to, literary devices (imagery, symbolism, metaphors, syntax, etc.), characters, personal reactions, references to other parts of the text, and summary of some part of the text. 5. Analysis: The use of annotations in reading can greatly help the reader comprehend what is present in the passage, and also help with critical analysis of a passage. Authors use specific words or phrase sentences in a specific way for a reason, and when that reason is known, the reader is able to reach a deeper understanding of the passage. Aside from literary and rhetorical devices, annotations are useful when the reader needs to refer back to a specific place in the text, allowing him to pinpoint the spot with ease.

Assumption

2. Definition: Assumption is an opinion, a perspective, or a belief that a writer or speaker thinks the audience holds. Writers and speakers hope or assume their target audiences will take the argument for granted as true or logical. 3. Effects: If the statement is warranted, justified, or proven to be true, the argument will be recognized as sound. However, if writers miscalculate their audience's acceptance of their statement, that is, if the audience judges it as unwarranted, untrue, or based purely on opinion, the argument will be built on a weak foundation and may fail. 4. Example: "We think a problem is weakness, mental laziness, and intellectual inflation, but an issue is deep-rooted, interior, and personal." - Allison Amend 5. Analysis: If the audience agrees and accepts the author's assumption that a problem is weakness, mental laziness, and intellectual inflation, it will concur with the second part of the statement. Since the first part of the statement is a belief the audience holds to be true, the author's assertion that an issue is deep-rooted, interior, and personal will seem to be true as well, and the argument that the author makes for the statement will be accepted.

Hortatory

2. Definition: Exhortation or advice. 3. Effects: urge audience to follow or not follow a course of action 4. Example: So let us not rest all our hopes on parchment and on paper, let us strive to build peace, a desire for peace, a willingness to work for peace in the hearts and minds of all our people. -John F. Kennedy 5. Analysis: "Let us" urges for peace and fulfillment of the vision Kennedy has for the country.

Coordination

2. Definition: The grammatical connection of two or more words, phrases, or clauses. 3. Effect: To give the words, phrases, or clauses equal emphasis and importance. 4. Example: "He is a common man or he could not go among common people." -Raymond Chandler, "The Simple Art of Murder" 5. Analysis: By using "or" as the coordination for the two clauses, the writer emphasizes that only common people can associate with other common people.

Deduction

2. Definition: The process of logic in which a thinker takes a rule for a large, general category and assumes that specific individual examples fitting within that general category obey the same rule. 3. Effect: The opposite of induction, deduction determines the truth about specific examples using a large general rule. It is also called syllogistic thinking. 4. Example: Objects made of iron rust. Shovels are objects made of iron. Therefore, shovels rust. 5. Analysis: This device is most effective in formulating an argument, for it creates a logical path of reasoning. Rather than coming right out and saying that shovels rust, deduction places more emphasis on the fact by coming to that conclusion with the reader.

Polysyndeton

2. Definition: The use of a number of conjunctions in close succession. 3. Effect: it can increase the rhythm of prose, speed or slow its pace, convey solemnity or childlike exuberance, creating a sense of being overwhelmed 4. Example: Sam is so puzzled, so perplexed, so bewildered, so befuddled by English grammar. 5. Analysis: The repetition of the conjunction "so" increases the rhythm of the sentence and gives the reader no place to breathe. It overwhelms the reader's breath and gives a sense of urgency because of the placement of "so".

Satire

2. Definition: Used to ridicule a human weakness often with the intent to expose and/or correct it. While satire can be funny, its aim is usually to evoke contempt. 3. Effects: -Evoke contempt and indignation in the hope of fixing the problem. -Expose a problem in society -Make the problem seem so silly and ridiculous readers set out to correct it. 4. Example: "Casa Bonita"- South Park 5. Analysis: In this episode of South Park, Cartman, who is obese, goes to the length of tricking his friend into thinking a meteor had hit earth and that the new world was filled with zombies so that he would get invited to a birthday party at his favorite restaurant, Casa Bonita. The show ridicules the nation's obesity, exaggerating the struggles and habits of overweight and obese people.

Inversion

2. Definition: A sentence in which the verb precedes the subject. 3. Effect: An inversion calls attention to the sentence because its pattern contrasts significantly with those around it. It is used to emphasize a point, control sentence rhythm, and increase tension, or create dramatic impact, as well as avoiding monotony. 4. Example: -Lonely was he. -Over the bridge was a big dog. 5. Analysis: In the sentences above, the structure is inverted so that the subject comes after the verb. This style creates more emphasis on the description of the subject because it appears first.

Source

2. Definition: An indication of the specific location of direct quotations from a literary work. It can also be formulated with a citation page. 3. Effects: -enables readers to locate the sources used in the work. -indicates the specific location of direct quotations from a literary work ( place the author's last name and exact page number(s) in parentheses at the end of your quotation or sentence.) -To document lines of poetry ( the same rules applies, except that line numbers replace page numbers in parentheses. For the first reference to a line of poetry, place the word "line(s)" in parentheses with the number of the line(s). Subsequent references to the same poem are documented with the line numbers alone in parentheses. 4. Example: Foreshadowing is evident when the boys "[make] a great pile of stones in one corner of the square and [guard] it against the raids of the other boys" (Jackson 245). 5. Analysis: From this literary documentation, the reader knows that Jackson is the name of the writer and 245 is the page the quote is found on.

Elegiac

2. Definition: Mournful, lamenting, especially for something that has past or someone who is dead. It is also a type of couplet in which the first line is written in dactylic hexameter and the second line is written in dactylic pentameter. 3. Effect: express sorrow, set a melancholy mood 4. Example: O Captain! My Captain! Our fearful trip is done; The ship has weathered every rack; the prize we sought is won; The port is near, the bells I hear, the people all exulting, While follow eyes the steady keel, the vessel grim and daring: But O heart! Heart! Heart! O the bleeding drops of red, Where on the deck my Captain lies, Fallen cold and dead. "Oh Captain, My Captain!" - Walt Whitman 5. Analysis: Whitman's elegy for President Lincoln expresses Whitman's sorrow toward Lincoln's death.

Metonymy

. Definition: A figure of speech in which a word or phrase is substituted with another word or phrase that is closely associated with or related to the original meaning 3. Effects: Parallel comparison of the two items gives a mental image for readers; substituted term's connotation provides more insight to the original object, highlighting an important aspect of the original object 4. Example: Hollywood has been producing many films with Byronic heroes. (Hollywood is the metonymy for US cinema). 5. Analysis: By placing the original with a close substitute, the large emphasis on that particular aspect of the original can lead to a prediction and assumption of the author's intended meaning or opinion. For example: a car can be substituted with "wheels", which highlights the importance of the tires on the car. The substitute contributes a larger range of understanding or a bigger picture by emphasizing a single important item of the original indirectly. In the example, the Hollywood sign is chosen to replace US cinema because the sign is a significant visual and landmark of moviemaking.

Archaic Diction

2. Definition: 1) A word, expression, spelling, or phrase that is out of date in the common speech of an era, but still deliberately used by a writer, poet, or playwright for artistic purposes. 2) Of, relating to, or characteristic of words and language that were once in regular use but are now relatively rare and suggestive of an earlier style or period. 3. Effect: Used as a more suitable term for meter, rhyme, alliteration, or its associations with the past, but also can be used as a part of specific jargon, like in the area of law or religious context. Archaic diction is most frequently encountered in poetry, law, ritual writing, and speech. 4. Example: President John F. Kennedy used archaic diction in one of his speeches, saying "We are the heirs of that first revolution." 5. Analysis: Kennedy's statement to Americans creates a patriotic feeling as a reference to the founders of America. As all American citizens can relate to revolutionary times through the Constitution and the Declaration of Independence, Kennedy uses archaic diction to create a United America through national heritage, achieving his purpose to establish a trusting and firm relationship with the citizens of the country. (Archaic because "heirs" is an older term for "descendants")

Voice

2. Definition: A characteristic of speech or writing pattern that demonstrates the author's attitude toward a subject. This includes but is not limited to: syntax, word choice, structure, imagery. 3. Effects: The way an author presents his or her work of literature sets the tone for the work of literature. By choosing the correct voice, and author is able to create a mood or attitude without having to blatantly state his or her intentions. 4. Example: "Many obesity sufferers have expressed frustration over the medical community's inability to cure them." -theonion.com 5. Analysis: The voice of this sentence is satirical, because it presents the topic, obesity, in a humorous, mocking light, using phrases such as "expressed frustration" that is usually associated with a public discontent to make fun of the public that does express such a frustration. By appearing angered at the medical community's failure to cure obesity, the Onion is able to parody American attitudes towards obesity, attempting to show that obesity is a personal problem and should be dealt with individually.

Subordinate Clause

2. Definition: A clause, typically introduced by a conjunction, forms part of and also is dependent on a main clause. 3. Effects: A subordinate clause is often used to include information that is necessary to the understanding of a work of literature, but not as important as the details in the independent clause. The use of subordinate clauses allows the author more freedom in syntax as well as a way of conserving sentences for more important details, the minor ones going in the subordinate clauses. 4. Example: "When I saw England for the first time, I was a child in school sitting at a desk." - "On Seeing England for the First Time" by Jamaica Kincaid 5. Analysis: Acting as an adverb, the subordinate clause "when I saw England for the first time" establishes the occasion and limits the duration. By establishing the occasion and time in the subordinate clause, the author avoids emphasizing those details as the focus of the sentence. Instead, she can place focus on the more important aspect, her childhood in a school on her native island.

Counterargument

2. Definition: A counter-argument is an argument opposing your thesis, or part of the thesis. It appeals to a person who disagrees with your position. 3. Effect: It can be used to test the persuasiveness of a certain idea, capture your reader's attention, and cause them to take into consideration your idea. Counter-arguing often shows that you have debated between both sides to a given statement or idea, making your essay more persuasive. 4. Example: Students should learn what causes racism, but should not be constantly lectured that "racism is bad." Instead, they should be taught the causes and history in a way that they find interesting and that lets them decide their own values. 5. Analysis: The rebuttal to the original thesis claiming that "students should learn what causes racism" expresses that the writer has taken both sides of the argument into consideration and debated the pros and cons of each, making the author seem reasonable. By reflecting on the negatives of the subject, the author captures readers' attention as he or she patches any doubts the reader has toward the idea.

Authority

2. Definition: A credible source of information or citations/quotations from such a source, used in augmenting an argument from the writer or speaker. 3. Effect: It puts an emphasis on the truth and validity of the statement to support a claim as well as giving credibility. 4. Example: "In a sense we have come to our nation's capital to cash a check." - Quotation from authority figure Martin Luther King Jr.'s "I have a Dream" speech. 5. Analysis: In quoting Martin Luther King Jr.'s "I Have a Dream" speech, the author adds a stronger base to his argument because King Jr., a figure of high authority, also holds similar beliefs with the author. With this, it becomes more difficult to refute the author's argument, as now a counterargument against both the author and King Jr.'s speech must be made in order to create a successful counterargument.

Aristotelian Triangle

2. Definition: A diagram showing the relationship of a writer's argument through logos, pathos, and ethos. 3. Effects: It reveals the motives and validity of a writer's or speaker's argument. 4. Example: When a speaker like Martin Luther King Jr. makes a speech, he or she presents an argument using these three appeals. In King's "I Have a Dream" speech, he employs these three appeals to make his argument more effective. 5. Analysis: King uses ethos in his "I Have a Dream" speech by showing respect to everyone including his opponents. He presents himself as a respectable person so that the opposition to his views will at least consider his argument. Also, King employs pathos by relating to his fellow African Americans so that his words will have more meaning to his intended audience. Finally, King uses logos in his argument when he presents facts about how long African Americans have been living under oppression to give his argument more credibility.

Simile

2. Definition: A directly expressed comparison of two unlike things using like, than, or as. On AP MC, the definition of a simile can be expanded to any comparison between two unlike things. 3. Effect: -Creating an image in the author's mind -Help the reader relate and understand better 4. Example: "Your explanation is as clear as mud" 5. Analysis: This simile is saying that the explanation is not clear at all. The "explanation" is compared to mud which is something most people have seen before and would be able to visualize. By visualizing the dark and opaque mud, readers know that the explanation is confusing and hard to understand.

Explication of Text

2. Definition: A form of literary criticism when seemingly irrelevant details are examined and analyzed to understand both the literal and figurative meanings of why it is in the written work. Explicating a piece of writing is an in-depth way of annotating. 3. Effect: Explicating the text allows the reader to more thoroughly understand the subject matter and is useful to the reader when forming an opinion about the writing with sharp focus on the author's purpose. 4. Example: The explication of text begins with annotating and asking specific questions about certain quotes of a passage, poem, book, etc. 5. Analysis: The example above demonstrates that explication of text is an in-depth type of annotation.

Audience

2. Definition: A group of people who participate in a show or encounter a work of art, literature (in which they are called "readers"), theatre, music (in which they are called "listeners") or academics in any medium. 3. Effect: An audience reveals the author's purpose, as well as the format and type of diction of the author's writing. 4. Example:"Marley died in 1981 at the age of 36. There has long been a rumor that Marley's decline in health began with a lesion on his foot that he suffered during a soccer match. Not true." 5. Analysis: The quote is from an article titled "Remembering Bob Marley." The audience is people who have some prior knowledge to Bob Marley; therefore, the author does not scrutinize the rumor, and instead just indicates which rumor is discussed. Also, deeming the rumor "not true" to this specific audience, suggests that the author is compelling others to reminisce about Bob Marley.

Juxtaposition

2. Definition: A literary device wherein the author places a person, concept, place, idea or theme parallel to another 3. Effects: Juxtaposition highlights the contrast between two directly or indirectly related entities and compares them. It is used for etching out a character in detail, creating suspense or lending a rhetorical effect. 4. Example: "My house was at the very tip of the egg, only fifty yards from the Sound, and squeezed between two huge places that rented for twelve or fifteen thousand a season. The one on my right was a colossal affair by any standard-it was a factual imitation of some Hotel de Ville in Normandy, with a tower on one side, spanking new under a thin beard of raw ivy, and a marble swimming pool, and more than forty acres of lawn and garden."..."My own house was an eyesore, but it was a small eyesore, and it had been overlooked, so I had a view of the water, a partial view of my neighbor's lawn, and the consoling proximity of millionaires-all for eighty dollars a month." 5. Analysis: In this excerpt from The Great Gatsby, the narrator juxtaposes his home with its surroundings to illuminate his financial and social standings as compared to his wealthy neighbors. The effect of this device makes his the surrounding grandeur even more enviable and the narrator's current status even more inferior in comparison.

Cumulative Sentence

2. Definition: A main clause followed by a series of subordinate clauses to build effect; also known as loose sentence 3. Effect: to create unity and emphasis if used with parallelism, to increase specificity, and to create balance and rhythm 4. Example: I am sitting at my computer, with a box of tissues, and a cat in my lap. I came, I saw, I conquered. 5. Analysis: In the first sentence it is used to increase the specificity of what "I" am doing. While "I am sitting at my computer," I also have a "box of tissues" and "a cat in my lap," adding to the details. In the second sentence, it is used to create unity and emphasis. It unifies what "I" am doing and it also puts an puts an emphasis as to what "I" am doing.

Omniscient Narrator

2. Definition: A narrative mode where the narrator presents the story in an overarching point of view, seeing and knowing everything, including each character's thoughts and feelings, even if they are unspoken; "god-like" point of view. 3. Effects: An omniscient narrator allows the reader to know things that the characters themselves do not know, giving the reader a particular insight on the plot line, character development, and/or other information that might be vital to the story. The knowledge acquired through an omniscient narrator might also act to make the reader feel a certain way about the characters and trigger feelings like pity, contempt, or exasperation, since the reader knows more about the story than the characters. 4. Example: J.R.R Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings is written with an omniscient narrator, as are many epic stories like it. 5. Analysis: There are many plot developments in The Lord of the Rings using the effects of omniscient narration, but there is only one that lasts throughout the entire book, and is the most prominent: Frodo decides to trust Gollum in leading him and Sam to Mordor, but through an omniscient narrator, the reader sees that Gollum is secretly planning to lead Frodo and Sam to their deaths and steal the Ring back. This piece of information (to which Gollum's two victims are pretty much oblivious, and at the best, a little suspicious) gives the reader insight on Gollum's actions and creates a sense of doom and pity around Frodo and Sam.

Premise: Major, Minor

2. Definition: A proposition upon which an argument is based or from which a conclusion is drawn. The major premise forms the predicate of the conclusion, and the minor premise forms the subject of the conclusion. 3. Effects: -each term is a category -the reader can draw a conclusion 4. Example: Major premise: All mammals are warm-blooded. Minor premise: All black dogs are mammals. Conclusion: Therefore, all black dogs are warm-blooded. 5. Analysis: The major premise forms the predicate, "are warm-blooded." The minor forms the subject, "all black dogs." Thus, the reader is able to draw a logical conclusion.

Declarative Sentence

2. Definition: A sentence in the form of a statement that ends with a period. The subject normally precedes the predicate. 3. Effect: A declarative sentence states a fact, argument, or idea without requiring either an answer or action in response. It does not give a command or request, nor does it ask a question. 4. Example: The purpose of Queen Elizabeth's speech at Tilbury was to rally her troops. 5. Analysis: My argument is made very direct and clear with the use of a declarative sentence. It stands by itself, and does not engage the reader in any way.

Simple Sentence

2. Definition: A sentence that contains a subject and a verb while also expressing a complete thought. They are also called independent clauses. 3. Effects: -Eliminates possibility of ambiguity -Emphasizes the content -Communicate clearly and to the point 4. Example: The man is watching TV. 5. Analysis: The subject of the sentence is the "man" and the verb, or the action he is performing is "is watching". The effect of the simple sentence usually depends on the context it is used in.

Imperative Sentence

2. Definition: A sentence that gives instructions or advice, expressing a request or command. It has a "you" understood as a subject. 3. Effect: They can be persuasive or manipulative, enhancing one's emotions and the way one acts. It gives instructions or advice, expressing a request or command. 4. Example: Listen to Mr. Lee. 5. Analysis: The sentence above is imperative because it represents a command and the verb is in the base form.

Topic Sentence

2. Definition: A single controlling idea that is expressed in a sentence and developed in the paragraph; usually appears at the beginning of a paragraph and advises the reader of the subject to be discussed. 3. Effects: It directs the order of the sentences and unifies the paragraph under one specific subject. The topic sentence is usually a narrower form of the thesis, for each paragraph is only part of a whole argument while the thesis covers the whole argument. 4. Example: Canada is perhaps the best country in the world because of its virtually universal health care system. 5. Analysis: By stating that "universal health care" is the reason for this opinion, the author can focus on just the aspects of Canadian health care in the rest of the paragraph. By narrowing the focus of the paragraph, the topic sentence acts as a restraint from rambling, keeping the author organized and specific in the analysis that follows.

Antimetable

2. Definition: An antimetabole is a loosely chiastic structure in which the order of words or phrases of a sentence are reversed between successive clauses. It is a specific type of Chiasmus but differs only in that the two clauses are reversed in the exact same words. 3. Effect: Antimetaboles place great emphasis on its latter clause through its reversed structure. The reversal of words often creates a thought-provoking effect on the audience and it also gets them to see the subject on a different point of view. This emphasizing effect occurs because the direct object of the first clause is then changed to the subject in the subsequent clause. 4. Example: "Ask not what your country can do for you, but what you can do for your country" 5. Analysis: Antimetaboles are especially powerful in speeches and other persuasive works. The audience is not only left wondering at the miraculously cohesive effect of the inverted clauses but is also forced to see the subject with a different perspective. In the antimetabole example stated above by John F. Kennedy in his inaugural speech, "you" is shifted from being the object to the subject in the next clause and this syntactical change further strengthens Kennedy's message that the people should stop being passive, represented by the object "you", and start being active, represented by the subject "you", for their country.

Assertion

2. Definition: An emphatic statement; declaration. (An assertion supported by evidence becomes an argument.) 3. Effects: to emphasize a point, to enhance certain emotions, to express attitude 4. Example: The Great Depression sent the auto industry into a period of massive unemployment and clashes between workers and police. 5. Analysis: The use of assertion emphasizes the author's views on the time period of Great Depression. The straightforward tone of the assertion draws reader attention to the view displayed in the assertion.

Rhetorical Triangle

2. Definition: An equilateral triangle made up of ethos, pathos, and logos, suggesting that the three should be balanced within a text. Logos appeals to reason, ethos appeals to credibility, and pathos appeals to emotion. 3. Effects: -Make your argument plausible -Move the audience -The balance of ethos, pathos, and logos evokes emotion in the audience but also establishes credibility so it doesn't seem as if the author is making things up to move them. 4. Example: "My honorable opponent" 5. Analysis: This phrase is used during heated debates. It shows the opponent that they are respected so they might lower their guard. But it also refers to the other side as opponents to show that they are firm in their decisions and not just resorting to flattery.

Occasion

2. Definition: An event or happening; something that brings on or precipitates an action, condition, or event, especially the immediate cause 3. Effect: The occasion creates a better understanding of the goal and context of the event. 4. Example: A breeze ruffled the neat hedges of Privet Drive, which lay silent and tidy under the inky sky, the very last place you would expect astonishing things to happen. Harry Potter rolled over inside his blankets without waking up. One small hand closed on the letter beside him and he slept on, not knowing he was special, not knowing he was famous, not knowing he would be woken in a few hours' time by Mrs. Dursley's scream as she opened the front door to put out the milk bottles, nor that he would spend the next few weeks being prodded and pinched by his cousin Dudley... He couldn't know that at this very moment, people meeting in secret all over the country were holding up their glasses and saying in hushed voices: "To Harry Potter- the boy who lived!" - Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone by J.K. Rowling 5. Analysis: This short passage marks the occasion that something astonishing is about to happen in this suburban area. The usage of occasion creates an effect that amazing things are about to occur and implies that all the things listed Harry Potter did not know, he would find out eventually. Marking the occasion is especially important in writing because it makes a clear connection with the unique purpose of the occasion.

Documentation

2. Definition: An indication of the specific location of direct quotations from a literary work. It can also be formulated with a citation page. 3. Effects: -enables readers to locate the sources used in the work. -indicates the specific location of direct quotations from a literary work (place the author's last name and exact page number(s) in parentheses at the end of your quotation or sentence.) -To document lines of poetry (the same rules applies, except that line numbers replace page numbers in parentheses. For the first reference to a line of poetry, place the word "line(s)" in parentheses with the number of the line(s). Subsequent references to the same poem are documented with the line numbers alone in parentheses. 4. Example: Foreshadowing is evident when the boys "[make] a great pile of stones in one corner of the square and [guard] it against the raids of the other boys" (Jackson 245). 5. Analysis: From this literary documentation, the reader knows that Jackson is the name of the writer and 245 is the page the quote is found on.

Bias

2. Definition: An opinion on a subject that the author supports with evidence in favor of a certain view. It may be difficult to identify bias unless the reader has more knowledge about the subject than just what the author presents. 3. Effects: • Sways the reader to favor a certain point of view • May not provide complete and truthful information about a topic • May exaggerate or understate 4. Example: "With satanic joy in his face, the black-haired Jewish youth lurks in wait of the unsuspecting girl whom he defiles with his blood, thus stealing her from her people. With every means he tries to destroy the racial foundations of the people he has set out to subjugate ... [with] the clear aim of ruining the hated white race". - Mein Kampf by Adolf Hitler 5. Analysis: Hitler's opinions are obviously biased against the Jewish race, and this is evident through the way he describes Jewish people. He depicts them with "satanic joy", associating them with the champion of evil and applying this description to all of the members of the Jewish race. To portray the Jews as the "bad guys", Hitler claims that they seek to "destroy the... white race" and that something must be done to stop them.

Close Reading

2. Definition: Close reading is a process to understand a passage by noting facts and details in the text of a passage while piecing together the collected data reading precisely. The first step is to annotate the passage, noting any patterns, similarities, contradictions, or significant details. The next step is to gather the information from reading the passage and form an interpretation of the passage using all the gathered observations. 3. Effects: Close reading helps create the building blocks for larger analysis that forms a larger view of the passage from the smaller observations and thoughts that were developed from reading the passage. 4. Example: Some things to note while close reading are literary devices (diction, imagery, syntax, etc), rhetorical devices (metaphor, simile, symbols, etc), theme, tone, and any parts of the passage that strikes the reader as significant or surprising. 5. Analysis: By noting all these literary and rhetorical devices, the reader will gather all this information in order to produce an interpretation of the passage by asking questions about "how" and "why" these devices were used in their respective locations, repeating the process until a clear understanding of the passage is formed.

Concession

2. Definition: Concession in literature is the acceptance of an idea that seemingly opposes the author's opinion of a subject matter. 3. Effect: Concessions are meant to appease opposition of the author's opinion on a certain matter. By providing a concession in his piece of writing, the author can portray himself as objective, having taken in multiple views of the matter and having derived his own opinion after doing so. This strengthens the author's argument, because if his audience perceives the writing as objective, it will be more willing to listen to his argument. 4. Example: While I agree that babies are human and the killing of a human is unethical, I believe that fetuses are not developed enough to be considered human. Fetuses lack the working senses and thoughts of a human and therefore abortion should not be considered as murder. 5. Analysis: By agreeing to an extreme opposing viewpoint, the argument appears to be more rational. Instead of ignoring criticism of an opinion, the sentence tackles it head-on and because of this appears to be open to disagreement, objective. This in turn makes the author's opinion as a whole appear more based on logic than emotion. As a result, the argument seems more valid to opposition to it.

Antithesis

2. Definition: Contrasting adjacent words or ideas in balanced phrases or clauses 3. Effects: Emphasizes the contrast between the two ideas, creates a balanced sentence, dramatic effect 4. Example: "The world will little note, nor long remember, what we say here, but it can never forget what they did here."-- Abraham Lincoln, Gettysburg Address 5. Analysis: The shift in attitude occurs because of the presence of an antithesis; Lincoln, at first, is dismissive of the words that will be exchanged on that day. By contrast, he emphasizes the importance of their actions, stating that "the world" will "never forget" what happened here. The actions greatly outshine the words, so the world will forever remember what they have done.

Scheme

2. Definition: Figure of speech that deals with word order, syntax, letters, and sounds, rather than the meaning of words 3. Effects: Scheme can create rhythm, rhyme, and organization. It can also emphasize a word, phrase, or sentence. Different aspects of scheme obviously affect different parts of how the writing sounds. For example, parallelism is mostly used to establish a relationship between objects through the creation of a rolling rhythm while chronological narration as a means of organization can be used to strengthen a piece of literature from the first person point of view. Because of such a variety of parts that make up scheme, it is difficult to pinpoint a specific effect that results from having a scheme other than modifications to the piece of literature's style and voice. 4. Example: The bigger they are, the harder they fall. 5. Analysis: Parallelism is the type of sentence scheme that is used in the example above. The structuring of clauses suggests a different correlation (proportional) between size and the negatives that come with size. The parallelism in the sentence also emphasizes the negative elements of being larger and adds balance and clarity to the sentence's meaning. Syntactically, the parallelism in the sentence creates a rolling rhythm which helps emphasize the correlation between size and its drawbacks. By sounding similar rhythmically, the phrases in the sentence appear more related to each than initially, thus strengthening the correlation between size and its drawbacks.

Syllogism

2. Definition: Form of deductive reasoning that contains a major premise, a minor premise, and a conclusion. 3. Effects: The use of syllogism establishes a connection rationally, thus making the author's claim seem more valid. Instead of asserting that something equals something else, the author is able to explain why he or she believes in it, giving a more convincing justification for his or her argument or belief. 4. Example: Blacks are bigoted Bigoted people have not been given enough chances to succeed Therefore, blacks have not given enough chances to succeed. 5. Analysis: This is an example of how syllogism can be used to rationalize controversial ideas such as affirmative action. By preying on beliefs in the first two statements, the author is able to form a new, but ideologically similar theory to the previous statements. Going through his reason, the author helps his audience understand why he holds such beliefs. This method of reasoning is affective because he provides a solid argument rather than pure emotion and preconceived bias.

Fragment

2. Definition: Fragments are incomplete sentences that do not form an independent clause. They either lack a subject or a verb, or cannot stand on their own. However, many authors use fragments to describe something with more depth or to add emphasis. 3. Effects: Fragments can help highlight points and create pauses in the flow of the writing in order to add style. 4. Example: Drip. Drip. Drip. Matthew flinched as the drip of water fell upon his head. 5. Analysis: Although most teachers tell their students to avoid fragments and to fix them, fragments can be used to create depth, and can develop a stronger visual by adding sounds and colors.

Sentence Variety

2. Definition: Includes various types: -Loose (Paratactic): an unstructured sentence that sometimes copies the way people speak. -Structured (Periodic): follow regular patterns, use limited punctuation, and don't have any unnecessary words. -Varied Beginnings: use different words and some different sentence structures to make sure the beginnings of sentences aren't all the same. -Long and Short: a mixture of long and short sentences - and a few medium-length ones, of course - will make the writing more interesting. -Rhetorical Questions: questions which don't require answers. 3. Effects: -keeps reader interested -focuses the reader's attention on certain areas of the text 4. Example: Why do students need to learn about literary devices? 5. Analysis: This is an example of a rhetorical question, which doesn't require answers. It makes a long, dry paragraph more interesting, and keeps the reader focused.

Thesis Statement

2. Definition: One or two sentence condensation of the argument or analysis that follows. It tells the reader how you will interpret the significance of the subject matter. 3. Effects: Structures the essay, providing a format for each paragraph. This helps the author avoid digressions in his or her body paragraph, because the thesis statement reflects what will be said in the following paragraphs. Clear and organized sentences ply that the author is knowledgeable as well as educated, giving a good impression to the reader. 4. Example: While both Northerners and Southerners believed they fought against tyranny and oppression, Northerners focused on the oppression of slaves while Southerners defended their right to self-government. 5. Analysis: The thesis states possible reasons for the civil war and compares Northern and Southern beliefs, making it arguable in the coming paragraphs. The thesis sentence also mentions the conflict between the North and South over the "oppression of slaves," providing more focus to an otherwise general sentence. By doing so, the author avoids having to discuss all aspects of the North and South, and just the debate of the South's "right to self-government."

Polemic

2. Definition: Polemic is an argument against an idea (usually pertaining to philosophy, politics, or religion), that deals with refuting or attacking a controversial topic or opinion. 3. Effects: It persuades people to think a certain way by refuting a point 4. Example: Martin Luther's On the Bondage of Will is an example of a polemic piece because he is arguing in response to Desiderius Erasmus' Freedom of the Will. Erasmus believes that humans posses free will and that the concept of predestination has no correlation to the Bible. He strongly believes that God's foreknowledge of specific events does not affect the actual events. In response to this, Luther's literacy piece On the Bondage of Will argues the religious ideas of Erasmus, by drawing forth his idea that humans are incapable of reaching God themselves. Martin refutes that there is no free will because if there was then it would be overwhelmed with sin. He also believes that people do not choose whether they are good or evil because everyone is naturally evil and salvation is God's way of selecting who he wants to be good. Martin specifically wrote On the Bondage of Will to argue the points that are brought up in Freedom of the Will, therefore making it polemic. 5. Analysis: The fact that Martin Luther wrote On Bondage of Will specifically to refute Freedom of the Will really exemplifies the purpose of this device. Luther clearly wants his point to overwrite the points of Erasmus; therefore he uses polemic to persuade readers into siding with his beliefs.

Anaphora

2. Definition: Repetition of words or phrases in the beginning of successive clauses, phrases, or sentences 3. Effects: Anaphora builds towards a climax and emphasizes the repeated words. It underscores the idea, image, or attitude repeated, or the differences in the subsequent words to contribute to an overall purpose. 4. Example: "Now is the time for action. Now is the time to take up arms. Now is the time to fight for your country." 5. Analysis: The repetition of "now" emphasizes the importance of acting immediately, highlighting the haste that must take place. It implies that they can no longer delay their actions, building up to the final cry to fight. This kind of repetition builds tension, pointing the readers' attention towards the last sentence, the most important one.

Induction

2. Definition: The assumption that what is true for one example is true for all examples of the same type. It makes a large, general rule from a specific example, which can risk generalization. 3. Effects: Because an induction makes a large generalization from a small piece of evidence, it may be a logical fallacy. It can weaken the author's argument because of a lack of evidence to support the points. 4. Example: A man goes into a city and the first person he meets is nice. Because of this, he assumes that everyone in the city is nice. 5. Analysis: This type of reasoning is not very logical, as the evidence, one nice person, is not strong enough to support such a general conclusion, a city of nice people. As a result, induction can hurt the author's argument or credibility.

Purpose

2. Definition: The author's purpose is the author's reason for writing about a specific topic. The three types of author's purposes are: to persuade, to inform, and to entertain. 3. Effects: -Persuade -Inform -Entertain 4. Example: 1) Joining the tennis team would help you improve your coordination. 2) Playing tennis has been scientifically proven to help your coordination. 3) As I was playing tennis, I tripped over my shoelace and face-planted into the ground. 5. Analysis: The purpose of the first sentence is persuasion as the author is using being able to improve your coordination to convince you to join the tennis team. The second sentence is informative as it just states a fact about tennis. The last sentence is to entertain as it tells a story to interest the reader.

Common Ground

2. Definition: The common endpoints in an argument or in an attempt at persuasion in which both parties agree. 3. Effect: By establishing common ground in an argument, the arguer is able to persuade his opponent, instead of attacking, by revealing the similarities in their objectives. This similarity convinces the opponent that perhaps, despite their ideological differences, the both of them are trying to achieve the same goal and so the opponent will be less likely to object to the arguer. 4. Example: (A hypothetical situation between a student and a teacher) The student is arguing with the teacher about why his late homework should still be accepted. The student argues, with common ground, by stating "But we both want to boost the school's grades, don't we? I just felt that taking a little extra time on my homework would accomplish this." 5. Analysis: The student takes advantage in this argument by knowing that the teacher's ultimate object is to improve his or her classes' grades. The common ground being established is that the student's extra time was being used in effort to achieve the same goals as the teacher. This will appeal to the teacher because he or she will be convinced that the student was taking the extra time in order to support a greater and more important cause and so the teacher will be more likely to excuse the student for his late work.

Claim

2. Definition: The main point made to support an argument, the purpose behind the argument 3. Effects: to answer what the point is in the argument and gives proof to support that assertion. 4. Example: Joe, you need to walk the dog today because I took him out two days ago. 5. Analysis: The speaker asserts that Joe needs to walk the dog "today" and proves that claim by stating that he/she walked the dog "two days ago," which creates a flowing line of logic and emphasizes the assertion because the reason is placed right after it.

Subject

2. Definition: The noun, pronoun, or noun phrase that performs the action of the main verb in a sentence. A subject is one of the halves needed in every complete sentence, the other half being the predicate. 3. Effects: The subject places focus on the noun that is performing a particular action within the sentence. 4. Example: The man who had guided us through the town bought us dinner. 5. Analysis: The subject of the sentence is "the man who had guided us," serving as a noun phrase. The noun phrase previously stated is the one that "bought us dinner," which acts as the main verb in the sentence, making it the subject. The establishment of the subject is used to show that it was the "man" who bought the author dinner.

Persona

2. Definition: The persona is the narrator or storyteller that the author creates, essentially the voice that the author speaks through. The author may do this through a character of the story or an omniscient narrator, who relays the narrative. 3. Effect: A persona creates an external representation of oneself, whether it accurately reflects one's inner self or not, it usually exaggerates certain characteristics. It emphasizes that the speaker is part of the fictional work, subject to the author's particular purpose. It is often used to distinguish the writer from the character in the work. 4. Example: Come listen to me, you gallant so free, All you that love mirth for to hear, And I will tell of a bold outlaw, That lived in Nottinghamshire. 5. Analysis: In Robin Hood and Allin a Dale, an anonymous character, possibly one of Robin's "merry men," relays the events and adventures of Robin Hood. In this excerpt, the character or persona is about to begin the tale, but first creates a frame and introduces his personality. The narrator is able to illustrate the journey of Robin and Allin to save Allin's true love. This persona contributes to the tale by relaying the tale in a more genuine perspective, with a sense of knowledge and a firsthand view of the action and emotion of the tale.

Nominalization

2. Definition: The process that changes a verb into its noun form 3. Effect: The noun form often result in wordiness, stiffness, or awkward constructions 4. Example: (original) I knew very well that I spoke English poorly (revised) I had the knowledge that my speech in English was poor. 5. Analysis: By changing the verbs "knew" and "spoke" into the nouns "knowledge" and "speech," respectively, the sentence presents itself as being unnecessarily wordy. The sentence loses its conciseness as filler words such as "had the" and "that my" are added in to make the sentence make sense. The main idea now lies as a prepositional phrase, and extra modifiers distract from the purpose of the sentence. Rather than focusing on the fact that he speaks English poorly, the sentence focuses on the knowledge of it, stripping away the purpose of the sentence.

Pacing

2. Definition: The progression of the story's timeline; how fast or slow the action of the story moves along; the rhythm of the story. This organizational idea can be applied beyond novels, such as to non-fiction works. 3. Effect: Pacing affects the speed with which the author narrates his point, thus affecting the speed of the development of the story. For example, fast pacing can create an urgent tone of a speaker trying to get his points across immediately, whereas slower pacing may imply relaxedness. The pace and detail of the story have an inverse relationship; the faster the pace, the less detailed the story. This is largely an element of narration. 4. Example: She ran there as fast as she could; before she knew it, she was there. 5. Analysis: This narrative sentence displays fast pacing and a tone of urgency; because the character apparently needs to get somewhere as fast as she can, the narrator reflects this through the pacing. Usually, less details are given in fast paced narratives since there's a sense that "there's no time" to go into the details. Likewise, the action in this example happens quickly without any slowing down or pausing to explain or go into detail about anything.

Propaganda

2. Definition: The use of persuasive language with the intent to influence the ideas and actions of the reader. Outside of literature, it is defined as the spread of rumors, information, ideas, and artwork to deliberately harm or help a group or movement. Its connotations are usually negative. 3. Effects: -Manipulate the thoughts and actions of the reader to match those of the writer -Attract members and believers of a group or cause -Evoke emotion 4. Example: In the recent presidential debate, Romney accused Obama of "cutting funding for Medicare" while Obama accused Romney of "causing the death of a woman with cancer". 5. Analysis: This type of propaganda is known as Ad hominem, or mudslinging. It is usually seen in presidential debates or other competitions. The candidates attack each other rather than each other's beliefs or arguments. However, this method usually backfires as voters become upset that the important issues are not being addressed.

Speaker

2. Definition: The voice of the storyteller 3. Effects: -allows reader to relate to the author -keeps reader focused -sets author apart from other authors -allows author to write from a different perspective or viewpoint -allows reader to identify the speaker by considering age, gender, ethnicity, class, etc. 4. Example: The author of the book is Sally, but the speaker of the book is John. 5. Analysis: The author is not the speaker of the book; the character John is. Through the character John, Sally can write in a different perspective and gender.

Attitude

2. Definition: The way the author, a character, or the narrator feels about a subject; can be explicit or implied 3. Effects: Determines the style, tone, and rhetorical devices employed in the work, determines word choice and detail selection, sets a certain tone and mood 4. Example: "During the whole of a dull, dark, and soundless day in the autumn of the year, when the clouds hung oppressively low in the heavens, I had been passing alone, on horseback, through a singularly dreary tract of country. At length I found myself, as the shades of evening drew on, within view of the melancholy House of Usher . . . [with] vacant and eye-like windows." —Edgar A. Poe's "The Fall of the House of Usher" 5. Analysis: The narrator is slightly grateful to finally arrive somewhere after a long trip through "dreary tract of country", but he does not find the House of Usher to be particularly inviting, especially since it has creepily "vacant and eye-like windows" that seem like they are watching his every move. He realizes that bad things have occurred in this "melancholy" place, but they do not deter him from using it as a temporary shelter.

Context

2. Definition: The words and sentences that surround a word, clarifying its meaning; the situation/circumstances that form the setting for an idea, so that it can be fully understood. 3. Effects: Context, or context clues, can help you guess at the meaning of an unfamiliar word or statement. The context is there to help you understand the situation to set up for a certain idea. When a certain word is used in "context" it can change the meaning of the word, and also change the underlying meaning of the speaker's statement. 4. Example: I performed listlessly, my head propped on one arm. I pretended I was bored, as I was. 5. Analysis: Here the unfamiliar word is "listlessly". This word means "lacking energy or enthusiasm in their manner/habits", and one can assume that this word has this definition because the words following it indicate that the speaker is lazy because they were bored and in fact didn't perform any work at all.

Sentence Patterns

2. Definition: There are five basic sentence patterns in English. -a subject followed by a verb and a subject complement, which is a word or group of words that follows a linking verb and renames or describes the subject. -a subject followed by an intransitive verb, which is a verb that is complete by itself and does not need to have a direct object. -a subject followed by a verb and a direct object, which is a noun or pronoun that receives the action of a transitive verb. -a subject followed by a verb, a direct object, and an object complement, which is a word or group of words that renames or describes a direct object. -a subject followed by a verb, an indirect object, which is a noun or pronoun that usually precedes the direct object and identifies to what or whom or for what or whom the direct object is intended. 3. Effects: -shows causes and effects -shows what is affected by an action -defines effectively -provides evidence for an argument 4. Example: An oasis is a fertile, wet place in the desert. 5. Analysis: This is an example of a subject followed by a verb and a subject complement, the most effective pattern of defining.

Synthesize

2. Definition: To combine two or more elements into a unified whole. Synthesis is the opposite of analysis, which involves detailed consideration of the separate elements or parts of a work. 3. Effects: To develop a stronger argument by integrating evidence from various sources that support and corroborate the central claim. 4. Example: There should not be specific texts that all students of high English must read, for a flexible curriculum is beneficial for both teachers and students. According to Clayton Eshleman, "teachers have to make their own decisions" regarding the reading material in a certain literature course because anthologies do not take in students' questions about the "nature and significance" of literature into account. As society becomes more technologically savvy, the idea of a "relatively stable [literary] canon" has grown increasingly more archaic because the proliferation of electron texts has led to a more decentralized educational system that allows students to study different subjects and read dissimilar texts (Bolter, Writing Space, 237). 5. Analysis: By weaving in concrete evidence from various credible sources, the argument to have no specific texts for high school English students is strengthened. The citation of Eshleman's opinion bolters the argument of a flexible curriculum as Eshleman, a college professor, has a high level of credibility in his viewpoint regarding curriculum. Another piece of evidence highlights the shift from printed to electronic books with the more flexible curriculum, demonstrating that anthologies are meaningless.

Refute

2. Definition: To disprove an opposing argument, theory, opinion, or testimony using countervailing evidence. 3. Effects: -Eliminates competing ideas -Emphasize the accuracy of your opinion 4. Example: My opponent argued that the death penalty decreases crime. But the death penalty actually increases crime. A nationwide study conducted by Sam Henry in 2005 showed that violent crime has increased in states with the death penalty as opposed to lower crime rates in states without the death penalty. If this study is true, then the justification of the death penalty that crime will be lowered has no merit. 5. Analysis: This paragraph states the opposing opinion then refutes it using an official study as evidence.

Trope

2. Definition: Trope is the usage of figurative language in literature, or phrases which have figurative connotations beyond their literal denotation. Tropes include but are not limited to metaphor, metonymy, irony, oxymoron, hyperbole, litotes, and synecdoche. 3. Effects: Tropes often uses tangible or understandable things to represent intangible qualities or ideas. In addition, tropes can alter or exaggerate the meanings of words or phrases because they are abstractions, not concrete objects. Tropes the essence of an object and can be used to apply that same essence to a physically different object. 4. Example: "But, soft! What light through yonder window breaks? It is the east, and Juliet is the sun." (Metaphor) 5. Analysis: By using a metaphor to associate Juliet with the sun, Romeo attaches the shining and illuminating qualities of the sun to Juliet's appearance, comparing her beautiful to the gleaming sun. Her beauty is characterized as blinding; an effect of looking directly at the sun, or in this case as if she is so beautiful Romeo cannot be in her presence for too long.

Zeugma

2. Definition: Zeugma is a case in which one part of speech is used to govern two or more parts of speech in the sentence, with the parts having seemingly no logical relationship. 3. Effects: It can be used to both establish incongruities and illustrate relationships. The use of zeugma with two logically dissimilar parts can have a humorous effect, as the relationship maybe seem so illogical that the phrase appears funny to the reader. However, zeugma can also be used in formal writing, the part of speech being stated in the first part and omitted in the second part, linking the first and second part. 4. Example: On his shoulders, he carried a big sword and in his heart, many burdens. 5. Analysis: The zeugma in this case is used to form a strong bond between two literally dissimilar ideas, linking them together by their figurative implications. By mimicking the structure of the first phrase and omitting its verb, the second half of the sentence links the concrete and abstract idea together. The implied use of "carries" hints that like the sword on his physical health, the burdens in his heart weigh him down.

Appositive

2. Definition: a noun or noun phrase that restates the noun that preceded it 3. Effects: The use of an appositive delays, and thus emphasizes, the real subject (the nominal); provides further information about the modified noun; qualifies or identifies the noun 4. Example: "The hangman, a grey-haired convict in the white uniform of the prison, was waiting beside his machine."-George Orwell, "A Hanging," 1931 5. Analysis: The appositive comes immediately after the subject ("the hangman") and describes it, providing extra information that may not be necessary to understanding the sentence. It accounts for the distinctive style of the writer because the sentence "the hangman... was waiting beside his machine" is very simple and generic.

Complex Sentences

2. Definition: a sentence containing one or more dependent clauses in addition to the main independent clause. 3. Effect: it can offer dramatic development while extending a metaphor. 4. Example: Although I am tired, I want to go to the midnight movie. 5. Analysis: In the example, "Although I am tired," is a dependent clause while "I want to go to the midnight movie" is an independent clause. The complex sentence emphasizes the person's determination to go the midnight movie because it highlights the obstacles facing this decision, then directly goes on to an assertion.

Argument

2. Definition: a statement of the meaning or main point of a literary work that is debatable. 3. Effects: This form of discussion can influence or change people's ideas or actions. It not only makes the author's point, but also stimulates a reaction from the reader. 4. Example: Charity's main purpose is to collect enough money to either benefit a cause or to help start up an organization. People choose to give money out of their own free will, whether or not there's an incentive to compel people to donate. Those who give end up helping the same cause support that same organization. In the end, money is still money and when it is given to others out of their own free will it is still charity. If an incentive is what will get people to give, the main objective is still being fulfilled if people give the money to be donated. 5. Analysis: The author is saying that offering incentives for charitable acts is acceptable because it is still benefiting a cause or organization. This view can be challenged because it takes a position. It can also stir an agreement or an objection from the reader, which is an effect of an argument.

Epigram

2. Definition: a witty, concise, ingenious, paradoxical statement 3. Effect: An epigram is most often employed in the form of a couplet at the end of sonnets (most commonly in Shakespeare's) or as separate clever remarks that stand alone. It is used as a witty, memorable ending to leave readers perplexed by the sudden turn of events or to convey a certain emphasized twist of ideas. It also provides readers with an idea to think about after finishing the literary piece. Other times it may be employed as a satirical, humorous element. 4. Example: "I can resist everything but temptation"-Oscar Wilde 5. Analysis: In the first half of this sentence, Wilde states that he can resist "everything" but twists the entire idea by later stating "but temptation," which is the one element he needs to be able to "resist everything". Because the second half contradicts the point made in the first half, this sentence is paradoxical and also leaves the reader contemplating what the main idea of this sentence is.

Cite

2. Definition: to quote by way of example, authority, or proof; to refer to in support, proof or confirmation 3. Effect: Citations can strengthen one's argument by "help[ing] readers understand the context of the argument" and "draw[ing] attention to the originality and legitimacy of your own ideas." 4. Example: Citations can strengthen one's argument by "help[ing] readers understand the context of the argument" and "draw[ing] attention to the originality and legitimacy of your own ideas." "When and Why to Cite Sources." University Libraries Univerity at Albany. Ed. Carol A. Germain. N.p., 2010. Web. 5 Feb. 2012. <http://library.albany.edu/usered/cite/citing.html>. 5. Analysis: The citation above portrays the correct MLA format for quoting a text, as a way to strengthen an argument.