Literary Terms
scansion
A close, critical reading of a poem, examining the work for meter. The process of marking lines of poetry to show the type of feet and the number of feet they contain
irony (verbal, situational, dramatic)
A contrast between expectation and reality. Situational: a relationship of contrast between what an audience is led to expect during a particular situation within the unfolding of a story's plot and the situation that ends up actually resulting later on. Be careful : Just because something is surprising does not necessarily mean that it is ironic Occurs when the opposite of what you were logically led to expect happens Ex. In the Pardoner's Tale, the rioters say throughout the story how they're as close as brothers, however in the end they turn on each other and kill each other. Ex. In "The Canterbury Tales", irony is used when describing the Prioress. She is a member of the Ecclesiastical group, so you would expect her to be holy. But, she wears a broach that says "Amor Vincit Omnia" (line 160), meaning "Love Conquers All". Knowing what we know about the nun, that broach does not symbolize love for G-d. It symbolizes lust. The Prioress is also more concerned with her dogs and other petty things than she is with humans, when it should be the other way around for a person like her. Ex. In Murder On The Orient Express the murder ends up being 12 of the passengers on the train rather than one single person. Verbal: where the writer or speaker says one thing, but means another. Verbal Irony + Overstatement The speaker may draw extra attention by using overstatement / hyperbole From hyperbole - to exceed, hit beyond the mark, From "hyper" over + "ballein" to throw, cast Verbal Irony + Understatement The speaker may downplay the situation by using understatement Litotes a special form of understatement in which we affirm something by negating its contrary Sarcasm All sarcasm is verbal irony, but not all verbal irony is sarcastic The term comes directly into English from the Greek sarkasmos, which in turn derives from the verb sarkazsein, " to tear the flesh". Ex. In Beowulf, Ironically calling Unferth his "my friend" Dramatic: a relationship of contrast between a character's limited understanding of his or her situation in some particular moment of the unfolding action and what the audience, at the same instant, understands the character's situation actually to be. In other words, when you (the audience/ reader) know something that one or more of the characters does not know. pushes audience attention into the future because it creates anticipation about what is going to happen when the truth comes out. The anticipation is known as ironic tension, and it is bracketed by a scene of revelation (the moment the audience is given information of which a character is unaware) and recognition (the moment when the character discovers what the audience has already known) Ex. The Pardoner attempts to create a fake image for himself as he tells his Tale of the three rioters, trying to win over the trust of the other pilgrims, while we know as readers that he's being hypocritical.
wit
A brilliance and quickness of perception combined with a cleverness of expression. Example: In the eighteenth century, wit and nature were related; nature provided the rules of the universe; wit allowed these rules to be interpreted and expressed. Example: Chaucer uses wit to make a humorous situation more comical with ironic comments. The narrator, for example says, "I'm short of wit as you will understand" (Prologue line 752).
setting
General location, historical time and social circumstances in which the action of the work occurs. One of the settings of Pardoner's Tale is a tavern in Flanders The Strange Case of Jekyll and Hyde took place in Nineteenth century London. The Murder on The Orient Express take place on the Simplon Orient Express and they get stuck in snow on the middle of the track for most of the tale.
tone
The attitude a writer takes toward his or her subject, characters, or audience. Tone is found in every kind of writing. It is created through the choice of words and details. Ex. "There was a Knight, a most distinguished man, who from the day on which he first began to ride abroad had followed chivalry, truth, honour, generousness and coutesy." Chaucer's overall tone on the knight seems to be praising and respectful.
climax
The moment in a play, novel, short story or narrative poem at which the crisis reaches its point of greatest intensity and is thereafter resolved. It is also the peak of emotional response from a reader and often the turning point in the action. Example 1: In Beowulf, the climax is Beowulf's final battle, where he sustains the fatal blow and hands over the reigns to Wiglaf. Example 2: In the Strange case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde the climax can be when Dr. Jekyll realizes he does not of that will or power to change back and forth from Mr. Hyde to himself. Example 3: In the Murder on The Orient Express the climax can be when Poriot discovers that all thirteen passengers killed Ratchett.
antagonist
a person or force opposing the protagonist; a rival of the hero or heroine Example: Grendel is Beowulf's antagonist in the epic poem Beowulf. Example: Mr. Hyde is Dr. Jekyll's antagonist in Strange case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde
lyric poetry
a type of emotional songlike poetry, distinguished from dramatic and narrative poetry ex - Beowulf
textual evidence
evidence/support used to support an argument/position, and is derived from drawing or reading from other text. Example: The Squire is the son of the Knight. "He had his son with him, a fine young Squire." (line 75) [textual evidence supports the fact.]
plot
the main events of a play, novel, movie, or similar work, devised and presented by the writer as an interrelated sequence. The plot in each novel we have read: Beowulf - Beowulf's journey to kill Grendel. The Canterbury Tales - A pilgrimage to St. Thomas à Becket's shrine in Canterbury. Murder on the Orient Express - Taking place on a Train that is stuck in a snow storm, Detective Hercule Poirot is determined to find out who killed Ratchett. The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde - A doctor in late 19th century England, drinks a potion that brings out his inner evil.
aphorism
A concise, pointed statement expressing a wise or clever observation about life. Example - "It is one thing to mortify curiosity, another to conquer it. " (Strange Case 6.13)
elegiac tradition // elegy
A poem written in elegiac meter, which is alternating hexameter and pentameter lines. Example: Elegaic Tradition This type of poem mourns the passing of better times because Anglo-Saxons knew life was short "The Seafarer" (p.35) is an example because it talks about the terror and wonder an old sailor feels for the sea
duality
It is the two-sidedness of the world -- the fact that everything has an "opposite," a polar complement. It is the quality of being two-fold. Jekyll has duality because he is composed of both good and evil. Definition - an instance of opposition or contrast between two concepts or two aspects of something; a dualism. Example: the entire story of The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll & Mr. Hyde is an example of duality because it brings to life both the good and evil sides of a person Example: Light vs. Dark, God vs. Devil, Good vs. Evil In Beowulf: Herot is described as being beautiful, light, and having a connection to Heaven. Grendel's home is then described as the dark, cold, Hell on Earth.
miracle, mystery, morality plays
MIRACLE PLAY: A popular religious drama of medieval England. Miracle plays were based on stories of the saints or on sacred history. For instance, characters named Mercy and Conscience might work together to stop Shame and Lust from stealing Mr. Poorman's most valuable possession, a box of gold labeled Salvation. MYSTERY PLAY: A religious play performed outdoors in the medieval period that enacts an event from the Bible, such as the story of Adam and Eve. MORALITY PLAY: An outgrowth of miracle plays. Morality plays were popular in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. In them, virtues and vices were personified.
meter
Meter - a definite and systematic rhythm established in a poem. The principle kinds are: monometer (one foot to a line), dimeter (two feet to a line), trimeter (three), tentameter (four), pentameter (five), hexameter (six).
literal meaning // interpretation
The literal meaning of something is in accordance with, involving, or being the primary or strict meaning of the word or words; not figurative or metaphorical: To interpret something literally would be to understand something as being nothing more than the ordinary meaning of the words. For example, the literal meaning of "He knew of every judgement, case, and crime / Ever recorded since King William's time" (Man of Law, CT line 327-328) is that the Man of Law actually knew all of the things mentioned; however, this line is meant to be interpreted figuratively and the hyperbole is supposed to suggest that the Man of Law is well educated in his field.
resolution
The moment when the conflict ends and the outcome of the action is clear. Jekyll and Hyde- When we find out that Jekyll and Hyde are actually one person and he dies. Murder on the Orient Express- When we find out that everyone on the train committed the murder.
understatement
The presentation of something as being smaller, worse, or less important than it actually is. Ex in Beowulf After Beowulf battles the 9 sea monsters and they are found on the shore, the are described to be "sleeping" "Sleep" is actually death, but it seems lesser than death
touchstone line
Touchstone Line- pinpoints the essence of a character Example- "A true, a perfect gentle-knight."
heroic couplet
Two successive rhyming lines of iambic pentameter. The second line is usually end-stopped . It was common practice to string long sequences of heroic couplets together in a patterns of aa,bb,cc,dd,ee,ff (so on) Also called the Neoclassic Couplet for poems written during Neoclassic Period (1600 - 1790) Example: The General Prologue in Canterbury Tales A knight there was, and he a worthy man, (a) Who, from the moment that he first began (a) To ride about the world, loved chivalry,(b) Truth, honor, freedom and all courtesy. (b) Full worthy was he in his liege-lord's war, (c) And therein had he ridden (none more far) (c) As well in Christendom as heathenesse, (d) And honored everywhere for worthiness. (d)
imagery (literal and figurative)
Words or phrases that create pictures. or images, in the reader's mind. Canterbury Tales: speaking of the Knight, "He wore a fustian tunic stained and dark with smudges where his armor had left mark" (71-12) - The reader is able to imagine that when the Knight takes off his armor there would be an outline of his armor made by dirt. Pardoner: This Pardoner had hair as yellow as wax (662) - it allows the reader to paint a picture of the pardoner's hair being very thin and greasy like the yellow wax
frame tale
a narrative technique whereby a main story is composed, at least in part, for the purpose of organizing a set of shorter stories, each of which functions as a story within a story. Serves as a companion piece to a story within a story. EX: In the Canterbury Tales, as a group, the tales are woven into the framework of the pilgrimage to the shrine of St. Thomas à Becket, at Canterbury, with Chaucer the narrator reporting the tales he heard from his various fellow pilgrims.
personification
giving non-human things human characteristics or capabilities
mood / emotional tone
mood - the atmosphere a writer creates for the reader emotional tone - the writer's attitude towards what he/she is writing about ex - The mood in chapter 1 of Grendel is depressing and melancholy. ex - The tone in MOTOE, the narrator is amused by the passengers aboard the Orient Express and seems to take pleasure in describing their predicament.
dramatic triangle
...
allusion
A casual reference in literature to a person, place, event, or another passage of literature, often without explicit identification. Allusions can originate in mythology, biblical references, historical events, legends, geography, or earlier literary works. Example: In The Canterbury Tales, Chaucer references how the Oxford Cleric is highly interested in Aristotle. This is an example of an allusion because Aristotle was a famous and still is a well known Philosopher. Another allusion in The Canterbury Tales is in The Wife of Bath's prologue when Chaucer references Genesis I. Example: In Canterbury Tales, The Man of Law is referenced for "knowing every case since King William's time."
foils
A character that serves by contrast to highlight or emphasize opposing traits in another character. Ex. Hyde- Murderer, Jekyll- Doctor (Hyde kills and Jekyll saves) Hyde's evil contrasts with Jekyll's goodness. Ex. Grendel-evil and Beowulf-good Grendel: big, monsterous, evil, stupid, kills many people Beowulf: small, kind, good, smart, saves the people Ex. The Knight in Canterbury Tails ~honorable, wise, courteous, generous An ideal character that was put into the story to contrast the corrupt others.
metaphor
A figure of speech that makes a comparison between two things that are basically dissimilar. Unlike a simile, a metaphor does not use a connective words such as like, as or resembles in making the comparison. Ex Simile: He was as tall as a tree Ex Metaphor: He was a towering tree Metaphor from Canterbury Tales: The Parson calls his followers his "sheep". They are not literally sheep, but it shows that they are helpless (not derogatory) Ex: And that a monk uncloistered is a mere / Fish out of water, flapping on the pier (Canterbury Tales lines 177-178). Extended Metaphor: a comparison between two unlike things that continues throughout a series of sentences in a paragraph or lines in a poem. It is often comprised of more than one sentence and sometimes consists of a full paragraph Example: The Canterbury Tales (The Miller) "He had a thumb of gold"
satire
A kind of writing that holds up to ridicule or contempt the weaknesses and wrongdoings of individuals, institutions, or humanity in general. The aim of satirists is to set a moral standard for society, and they attempt to persuade the reader to see their point of view through the force of laughter. Ex. Chaucer stated "And I agreed his views were sound; was he to study till his head went round pouring over books in cloisters" (line 181) Chaucer is using satire here, instead of living by the oath he made to stay in seclusion and study his religion he is hunting and only spending time with the people of the higher class. Chaucer is trying to convey that the church members such as the monk and friar must become more religious figures and practice what they preach as opposed to doing things a religious member shouldn't be doing when they are outside of the church.
persuasion
A kind of writing that is intended to influence people's actions. Ex - In The Canterbury Tales, multiple social classes, genders, and perspectives are represented and each teller of tales has ample time to entertain, incite, or persuade the listener to adopt his or her point of view. Chaucer was also intending on persuading his audience to bring change to the Medieval Church by exposing the evil and corruption in his work.
caesura
A pause somewhere in the middle of a verse, some are strong some are weak. Example: Sing a song of sixpence,// a pocket full of rye. Example 2: The entirety (every line) of Beowulf has medial caesuras "The fort/unes of war fav/oured Hroth/gar." In line (64), the first stressed syllable of the second part of the line (the first syllable of "favoured") alliterates with the first stressed syllable of the first part: "fortunes"). Each line is really two half-lines, separated by a caesura or pause.
heroic tradition
A popular poetic tradition that emphasizes the hero and celebrates loyalty, courage, bravery, and adventure. ex - Beowulf is classic poem of the heroic tradition. Beowulf is a brave character who, with the support of his loyal men, seeks out Hrothgar and Herot to conquer the ferocious Grendel.
rising action
A set of events/conflicts that lead up to the climax (turning point) of the story. Example - In Strange Case... the rising action consists of Utterson's attempts to discover the truth about the Jekyll-Hyde relationship. This builds up to the turning point/climax which could either be the moment when Utterson breaks down the door of the lab and sees Hyde's corpse or when Lanyon witnesses Hyde's transformation. Example - In MOTOE, rising action is when Hercule Poirot goes to Stamboul and must return to London on business, and he rides the Orient Express back to London, the train stops in a snow bank. The climax occurs afterwards when Ratchett is murdered.
exemplum
A short narrative that serves to teach by way of example. Especially a short story embedded into a longer sermon. It illustrates a moral principle. Example: In the Pardoner's Tale, the story serves as an exemplum because it conveys the moral that "Greed Is The Root Of All Evil" or in latin "Radix Malorum Est Cupiditas"
symbol
A word, place, character or object that means something beyond what it is on a literal level. In Beowulf, Grendel's cave is a symbol of his life as an outcast. Ex: In Beowulf: The Herot banquet for beating Grendel symbolizes rebuilding and the restoration of order. Example: In the Pardoner's Tale the Old Man is interpreted to be a symbol that represents either death or wisdom. He symbolizes death because he leads the three Rioters to where he claimed to find death last which was the tree. He also is representing wisdom since he warns the Rioters that they do not have to go on this journey to find and kill death, he is giving them an option.
simile
An analogy or comparison implied by using an adverb such as "like" or "as" Examples: In Beowulf: He could shout so loudly that men felt the cry like a hammer on their heads In The Canterbury Tales: (The Summoner): "A garland had he set upon his head, Large as a tavern's road sign on a stake;"/ "he was as hot and lecherous as a sparrow" (The Reeve): "He was feared like the plague" (Line 621). "his legs were lean, like sticks they were" (squire) "with locks as curly as if they had been pressed"/ "he was embroidered like a meadow bright"/ "He slept as little as a nightingale" (Monk): "His head was bald and shone like looking-glass; so did his face, as if it had been greased"/ his eyeballs "glittered like the flames beneath a kettle"/ "his palfrey was as brown as is a berry" (franklin): "a little purse of silk white as morning milk"/ "white as a daisy petal was his beard" (miller) : "red as the bristles in an old sows ear"/ "mighty mouth like a furnace door" (pardoner): "hair as yellow as wax"/ "thinly it fell, like rat-tails"/ "bulging eyes like a hare"
kenning
An elaborate phrase that renames persons, things or events in a metaphorical and indirect way. A kenning is a much-compressed form of metaphor, originally used in Anglo-Saxon and Norse poetry. In a kenning, an object is described in a two-word phrase, such as 'whale-road' for 'sea'. Some kennings can be more obscure than others, and then grow close to being a riddle. Example- "The shepherd of evil, guardian of crime" (Beowulf line 405) Examples: Bone Crusher- Grendel, The Geatish Hero- Beowulf Example: "Storm of swords"-Beowulf Beowulf Example: "Oh shelterer of warriors and your people's loved friend" (p.18, line 185) - Hrothgar Beowulf Example: "The famous ring giver" (p.21 line 328) - Hrothgar Beowulf Example: "Gold-shining hall" (p.23 line 369) - Herot Beowulf Example: "So mankind's enemy continued his crimes" (p.15 line 99) - Grendel Beowulf Example: "Infamous killer" (p.24 line 415) - Grendel Beowulf Example: "Almighty's enemy" (p.24 line 338) - Grendel Beowulf Example: "Sin-stained demon" (p.25 line 454) - Grendel Beowulf Example: "Afflictor of men" (p.25 line 461) - Grendel Beowulf Example: "Mighty protector of men" (p.25 line 443) - Beowulf Beowulf Example: "their shield" (p.29 line 566) - Beowulf Beowulf Example: "Hrothgar's gold ringed queen" (p.22 line 333) - Welthow Beowulf Example: " Bracelet-wearing queen" (p.22 line 342) - Welthow
motif
An object or idea which reoccurs throughout a work of literature In the Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, there is a reoccurring theme of the duality of good vs. evil. In The Canterbury Tales there is a reoccurring theme of corruption within the church.
prologue
An opening of a story that establishes the setting and gives background details. -Generally speaking, the main function of a prologue tells some earlier story and connects it to the main story. Similarly, it serves as a means to introduce characters of a story and throws light on their roles. Example: The Canterbury Tales Prologue written by Chaucer that introduced each character and laid the setting.
litotes
An understatement where something is stated as less important than it really is. It forms of ironical understatement meant to draw attention to the subject and expresses an idea by denying its opposite For Example: A student got an F on a test Literal reality: He failed Litotes = He didn't pass Examples from Beowulf: "The hall he scanned. By the wall then went he; his weapon raised high by its hilts the Hygelac-thane, angry and eager. That edge was not useless to the warrior now." This is a Litotes because the phrase is stating that Beowulf's sword is "not useless", yet he was getting ready to slay enemies.
falling action // dénouement
French for "unknotting or unwinding". It is the outcome or result of a complex situation or sequence of events, an aftermath or resolution that usually occurs near the final stages of the plot. MOTOE: Once Poirot discovers all of them took part in the murder (climax), he gathers all of them to explain his two theories for the crime Jekyll and Hyde: when Mr. Utterson begins to read the Narratives of both Dr. Lanyon and Dr. Jekyll after the truth has come out
symbolism
Frequent use of words, places, characters or objects that mean something beyond what they are on a literal level. In "The Canterbury Tales", symbolism is used when describing the Prioress. She is a member of the Ecclesiastical group and should be holy. But, she wears a broach that says "Amor Vincit Omnia" (line 160), meaning "Love Conquers All". Knowing what we know about the nun, that broach does not symbolize love for G-d. It symbolizes lust.
narrator / POV
Narrator - person telling the story 1st Person POV - When the narrator is a character in the story. Often uses pronouns like I, we, my, etc. ex - Chapter 1 of Grendel - Grendel narrates in the first person, conveying his inner thoughts and observations; occasionally he narrates from the point of view of another character 3rd Person POV - the narrator is not a character in the story, and his knowledge is limited to one person's thoughts or feelings. But he may be omnicient "all - knowing" meaning he knows the thoughts and feelings of all the characters in the story) ex - Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde - The narrator is anonymous and speaks in the third person. Dr. Lanyon and Dr. Jekyll each narrate one chapter of the novel via a confessional letter.
external conflict
Opposition between two characters (often protagonist and antagonist), two large groups of people, or between the protagonist and larger problems such as forces of nature, ideas, public mores, etc. Example: The external conflict in Beowulf was between Beowulf and Grendel. Example 2: The conflict between Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde appears to be an external conflict (man v. man) until we find out at the end that it was realistically an internal conflict -- as listed in Conflict (Internal) below --
protagonist
The main/leading character. Example: The protagonist in Miller's Tale are Nicholas and Alisoun. The protagonist may also have all or some cases happening to them: 1. He or she has a problem that needs solving 2. Has the ability to act and react to a situation 3. Has reasons to act 4. Has something to lose 5. Has something to gain 6. Has a compelling quality 7. Has a flaw of some sort and are not ALWAYS perfect 8. Is hiding something 9. And they have someone or something trying stop them Examples of protagonist in each of the independent readings: Murder on the Orient Express: Hercule Poirot Beowulf: Beowilf The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde: Dr. Jekyll Grendel: Grendel The Canterbury Tales: There is no protagonist
exposition
The part of a narrative or drama in which important background information is revealed. Example: In Beowulf, it begins by describing Herot and its background. It continues to talk about how great of a leader Hrothgar, but the unfortunate events of the monster Grendel terrorizing the people in Herot. Once the story starts to pick up, we have a greater knowledge of what is happening and who the characters are.
parallelism
When the writer establishes similar patterns of grammatical structure and length. Ex.
maxim
a SHORT, EASILY REMEMBERED EXPRESSION of a BASIC PRINCIPLE, general truth, or rule of conduct. This is similar to a moral of a story. Example: RADIX MALORUM EST CUPIDITAS. In the Pardoner's tale, the Pardoner gives a moral statement "GREED IS THE ROOT TO ALL EVIL" that sums up the tale and gives us insight to a basic moral principle.
epic hero
a brave and noble character in an epic poem, admired for great achievements or affected by grand events. Example: Beowulf because he fought for a group of people and is greatly admired.
epic poem
a poem that is a long narrative about a serious subject which is told in elevated style of language. An epic poem is focused on exploits of a hero who represents cultural values of his nation, race and religious group. Most likely, the hero's success will be interrelated to the success or failure of a nation, and the hero usually owns a high status occupation. An epic poem focuses more on kings than peasants. An Epic Poem has a supernatural power or god(s) involved, and starts in media res (in the middle of chronological order). example- Beowulf is an example of Anglo Saxon Epic Poem. The Odyssey and The Iliad are examples of Greek epic poems.
allegory
a tale in verse or in prose in which the characters, actions, and/or settings represent abstract ideas or moral qualities. Thus an allegory is a story with two meanings, a literal meaning and a symbolic meaning. Example: In the case of "The Pardoner's Tale," the three rioters represent the deadly sins avarice, gluttony, and sloth. They meet an old man, who seems to symbolize death; in other words, these vices lead invariably to spiritual death.
fate (wyrd)
according to modern usage, is an agency or power that orders and predetermines a future course of events. Fate is also seen as gods will. Wyrd is the Anglo-Saxon word for fate Example: When Beowulf decides to fight Grendel he chooses not to bring any weapons and to let his fate take over whether he survive or Grendel. Grendel's pre-determined fate was to be killed by Beowulf.
conflict
any kind of issue, struggle, obstacle, problem, or adversity that takes place in literature. Conflict can either me major or minor and there are 4 classifications of conflict: 1. Character vs. Self: where the person who faces conflict is having an internal struggle within themselves. Ex: Dr. Jekyll battling his evil persona Mr. Hyde 2. Character vs. Character: where two different people in a story are battling each other. Ex: Beowulf vs. Grendel 3. Character vs. Nature: where the people in a story face struggles with the forces of nature. Ex: Beowulf vs. the sea when he is lost 4. Character vs. Society: when any character is pitted against society. Ex: In The Pardoner's Tale where a large population is killed off by Death from the Black Plague The conflict in the Strange Case of Jekyll and Hyde the conflict of the novella is that Jekyll cannot accept that there is evil inside of him no matter what. By taking the potion that turns him into Hyde, Jekyll thinks that he will lose his evil side, but it never goes away. Beowulf: In "Beowulf," the central conflicts are external -- man versus the supernatural. The poem is divided into three parts, each defined by its own central conflict: Beowulf's battle with Grendel, his battle with Grendel's mother and his battle with the dragon. Also there is character vs. character conflict with Beowulf and Unferth.
primary epic
are the earliest written versions of poems which came out of an oral tradition Sung by generations of poets and put into written form by a literate poet, scribe, or monk. Most Western European cultures have epics. They stress the battle between good and evil include superhuman feats of valor and loyalty to one's king or leader. Greatest are: • Iliad • Odyssey • Beowulf
hyperbole
exaggerated statements or claims not meant to be taken literally/ literal measure of success vs. dramatization Example: In the prologue of the Host, line 760 says, " There is no finer burgess in Cheapside" which is an hyperbole because it is exaggerated. Canterbury Tales Examples: "compared with other no man was honored more" (knight) "never borish" (knight) "he knew the whole of woodcraft up and down" (yeoman) "no morsel from her lips did she let fall" (prioress) "though there was nowhere one so busy as he" (lawyer) "and he knew all the havens as they were from Gotland to the Cape of Finisterre" (skipper)
animal imagery
figurative language in which animals are used to describe or represent something or someone Example: There was a lot of animal imagery used to describe the Pardoner in the Prologue of the Canterbury Tales. -Hair: "Thinly they fell, like rat-tails, one by one. (Line 685) -Eyes: "And he had bulging eyeballs, like a hare. (Line 690) -Voice: "He had the same small voice a goat has got. (Line 694)
cataloguing of qualities
most common rhetorical technique. For example- Wiglaf is Weohstan's son, a beloved shield warrior, a Scylfing's lord, Aelfhere's kinsman.
message or moral
serves as the lesson a story teaches, most usually revealed indirectly through the actions and events of the story. Jekyll and Hyde: Although the thriller serves as a figurative example, Stevenson is sending a message to the readers that trying to repress evil thoughts forever never works, that separating your own human nature is impossible.
rhetorical techniques
the devices used in effective or persuasive language, such as apistrophe, contrast, repetition, paradox, understatement, sarcasm, and satire For example - The Canterbury Tales is a work whose primary rhetorical technique is satire. Chaucer effectively and underhandedly attacks the Medieval Church to bring about some sort of significant change. ex - Alliteration is used often in Beowulf: "Grendel went up to Herot, wondering what the warriors would do..." (lines 52-54)
motivation
the impulse, purpose, or incentive that is responsible for the behavior of a character ex - In Grendel and Beowulf, the reader learns that Grendel is motivated to kill Hrothgar's men by his hatred for God. He wants to revenge after God banned his species for the murder of Abel.
alliteration
the repetition of sounds, especially consonant sounds (repetition of vowel can be categorized as assonance) or beginning several words with the same vowel sound. (buckets of big blue berries) example- In Beowulf when Grendel finds the warriors in Herot: "He found them sprawled in sleep, suspecting nothing" (Line 55). In Beowulf describing Herot: "Hrothgar's men lived happy in his hall" (Line 13)
theme
Central idea or statement that unifies and controls an entire literary work. Example: Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde: the inner struggle of good vs. evil Example: One theme of Beowulf is leadership: the comparison of a good warrior vs. a good leader. Example: Beowulf: Battle between good vs. evil, Beowulf vs. Grendel Example: Strange case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde: the duality of human nature. Example: Strange case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde: Appearances, the characters physical appearances reflect their inner personalities; Dr. Jekyll keeps himself put together and is attractive, Mr. Hyde is ugly.
characterization
Characterization - the personality a character displays; also the means by which a writer reveals that personality. Generally, a writer develops a character in one or more of the following ways: Through the character's actions; Example: "Hyde broke out of all bounds and clubbed him to the earth. And the next moment he was trampling his victim" (60) Example: "for the man trampled calmly over the child's body" (5) Through the character's thoughts and speeches; Example: Through a physical description of the character; Example: Through the opinions others have about the character; Example: "He is not easy to describe. There is something wrong with his appearance; something displeasing, something down-right detestable" (43-44) Through a direct statement about the character telling what the writer thinks of him or her. Example:
internal conflict
Conflict within oneself (addiction, self-destructive behavior, depression) Example 1: In Beowulf: The internal conflict is within Beowulf' as he struggles with his belief in God, self-doubt, and feeling of responsibility for the Geats. Example 2: Jekyll & Hyde: The internal conflict lies within Dr. Jekyll himself as he battles with his alter-ego, the murderous, Mr. Hyde Proof/Quote #1: "For two good reasons, I will not enter deeply into this scientific branch of my confession. First, because I have been made to learn that the doom and burthen of our life is bound for ever on man's shoulders, and when the attempt is made to cast it off, it but returns upon us with more unfamiliar and more awful pressure." (10.2) Proof/Quote #2: "At that time my virtue slumbered; my evil, kept awake by ambition, was alert and swift to seize the occasion; and the thing that was projected was Edward Hyde. (10.8)
figurative language
Figurative meaning is present in a piece of writing that is meant to be understood at a deeper level. ex - The two main characters in Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde not only represent two opposing characters, but also the duality between good and evil. Figurative interpretation would be to understand text based on the idea that all the words stand for something other than their ordinary meaning. ex - One must figuratively interpret "The Pardoner's Tale" because the characters represent something more significant than themselves. The three rioters represent avarice, gluttony, and sloth. Figurative language is a tool that an author employs to help the reader visualize what is happening in a story or poem. Some common types of figurative language are: Onomatopoeia, Alliteration, Hyperbole, Simile, Personification, Metaphor, Personification, Analogy, and Euphemism. ex - Chaucer uses a simile when he says the Squire "slept as little as a nightingale" (pg 61 in textbook). This simile helps the reader understand, using a direct comparison, that the Squire doesn't sleep much as if he were a nocturnal bird.
radix trait
Focuses on a central characteristic; (radix- latin for "root". Not something that is necessarily said directly in the text. Example- The radix trait of the Yeoman is forestry. This is the only trait Chaucer truly focuses upon when he describes him. Chaucer says he wears a green hanging hood, a dagger, hunting horn, bow, and he wears the medal of St. Christopher (patron Saint of foresters). The radix trait for prioress is phony and for the monk is lazy.
verisimilitude
The realistic quality in art or literature. It makes a painting or book more believable because the audience can connect to that realistic quality. This realistic quality can be a number of different things ranging from the setting to a character. It is a way of implying the believability or likelihood in a narrative. Appearance of being true or real. Example: Verisimilitude is used in the Canterbury Tales and the Host is an example. HIs name is Harry Bailey, who was a real person in actual London who owned a tavern. This gave the people reading the prologue something to relate to because they might have gone to Harry Bailey's tavern in London. One of the main goals that Chaucer wanted to achieve in writing The Canterbury Tales was verisimilitude. He wanted to expose the reality of the society he was living in by making these characters come to life. Anothter example of verisimilitude is how Chaucer inserts himself into the story as the Narrarator
oral tradition
The transmission of cultural material through vocal utterance. (Passing down stories through word of mouth.) This was extremely important especially for Anglo-Saxons who couldn't read or write. They relied on people to remember their stories and give them orally in order to preserve their culture and history.
foreshadowing
The use of indicative words, phrases and hints that set the stage for a story to unfold and give the reader a hint of something that is going to happen without revealing the story or spoiling the suspense. Foreshadowing is used to suggest an upcoming outcome to the story. Example: In Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde we see that in chapter 1 a great example of foreshadowing, when Hyde pushes the girl into the street he has to pay money as a consequence for his actions. Mr. Einfield quotes "presently came back with the matter of ten pounds in gold and a cheque...signed with a name I can't mention...but it was a name at least very well known and often printed" (41). We see that this unknown name signed on the check hold some important value and information. It gets us to think about who possibly could have signed that check, why can't Einfield say who signed that check? It provides information that will present itself later on in the novel.
foot
units in a meter; consists of one stressed syllable and, usually one or two unstressed syllables. A line of poetry has as many feet as it has stressed syllables.