Literary Terms AP English Language

anaphora

(Greek, "carried again," also called epanaphora): The intentional repetition of beginning clauses in order to create an artistic effect. For instance, Churchill declared, "We shall not flag or fail. We shall go on the end. We shall fight in France. We shall fight on the seas and oceans. We shall fight with growing confidence and growing strength in the air. We shall defend our island, whatever the cost shall be." The repetition of "We shall..." creates a rhetorical effect of solidarity and determination. A well-known example is the Beatitudes in the Bible, where nine statements in a row begin with "Blessed are." ("Blessed are the poor in spirit, for theirs is the kingdom of heaven. Blessed are they that mourn, for they shall be comforted.") Anaphora is the opposite of epistrophe, in which the poet or rhetorician repeats the concluding phrase over and over for effects. Often the two can be combined effectively as well. For instance, Saint Paul writes to the church at Corinth, "Are they Hebrews? So am I. Are they Israelites? So am I. Are they the seed of Abraham? So am I. Are they the ministers of Christ? I am more." Here, artful use of anaphora and epistrophe combined help Paul make his point more emphatically. Both anaphora and epistrophe are examples of rhetorical schemes. They serve to lend weight and emphasis. For the AP exam discernment between parallelism and anaphora will not be an issue; the two terms are very closely related. Merely identifying that the author is using this rhetorical strategy, especially when asked to identify elements of language, diction or rhetoric in an essay is of chief importance.

equivoque

(ek weh vohk) A type of pun involving a word being used so that it means two different things at once. In Romeo and Juliet Mercutio says as he dies, "Ask for me tomorrow and you will find me a grave man."

metonymy

(mĕtŏn′ ĭmē) A term from the Greek meaning "changed label" or "substitute name," metonymy is a figure of speech in which the name of one object is substituted for that of another closely associated with it. For example, a news release that claims "the White House declared" rather than "the President declared" is using metonymy; Shakespeare uses it to signify the male and female sexes in As You Like It: "doublet and hose ought to show itself courageous to petticoat." The substituted term generally carries a more potent emotional impact. Metonymy should not be confused with synecdoche. See synecdoche (pg. 9).

litotes

(pronounced almost like "little tee") a form of understatement that involves making an affirmative point by denying its opposite. For example, to say "Not a bad idea," instead of "Good idea," or "Not many," instead of "Few" or "She is no fool" instead of "She is wise" are all examples of litotes. Meiosis, a near synonym, employs understatement to give the idea that something is less important or smaller than it really is: "That was a pretty good movie." Hyperbole, the use of exaggeration, is an antonym of litotes.

synecdoche

(seh nek deh-key) a figure of speech in which a part of something is used to represent the whole or, occasionally, the whole is used to represent a part. Examples: To refer to a boat as a "sail"; to refer to a car as "wheels"; to refer to the violins, violas, etc. in an orchestra as "the strings." **Different than metonymy, in which one thing is represented by another thing that is commonly physically associated with it (but is not necessarily a part of it), i.e., referring to a monarch as "the crown" or the President as "The White House." See metonymy (pg. 6).

synesthesia

(sehn-es thee-zia) when one kind of sensory stimulus evokes the subjective experience of another. Ex: The sight of red ants makes you itchy. In literature, synesthesia refers to the practice of associating two or more different senses in the same image. Red Hot Chili Peppers' song title, "Taste the Pain," is an example.

Zeitgeist

(zight-gighst) From German, the "spirit of the age"; the moral, emotional, or intellectual climate or tendency characteristic of a period or era. For instance, moral earnestness, restraint, respectability, smugness, and hypocrisy could be said to constitute the zeitgeist of Victorian England.

antithesis

1. A figure of speech in which opposing or contrasting ideas are balanced against each other in grammatically parallel syntax, as in the following sentence from //The Story of My Life by Helen Keller//: "There is no king who has not had a slave among his ancestors, and no slave who has not had a king among his." 2. In reasoning by means of argument, known as dialectic, the antithesis is the statement of the opposing viewpoint: Thesis: The money should be spent on a new gymnasium large enough to host tournaments. Antithesis: No, the money should be spent on an auditorium. Synthesis: Let's build a new gymnasium and make the old gym into an auditorium. See chiasmus below.

anecdote

A brief narrative of an entertaining and presumably true incident. Anecdotes are used in biographical writing, essays, and speeches to reveal a personality trait or to illustrate a point. Pay attention, as anecdotes abound on the AP English Language and Composition exam.

figure of speech

A device used to produce figurative language. Many compare dissimilar things. Figures of speech include apostrophe, hyperbole, irony, metaphor, oxymoron, paradox, personification, simile, synecdoche, and understatement.

allusion

A direct or indirect reference to something which is presumably commonly known, such as an event, book, myth, place, or work of art. Allusions can be historical, literary, religious, topical, or mythical. Their power lies in suggestion and connotation. They serve to evoke emotions, convey information concisely, and establish character, mood, and setting. Often an allusion may be central to the reader's understanding and response. Robert Frost's poem "Out, Out—" is about the accidental death of a young boy. Its theme is the unpredictability of life and the waste of premature death. As you know, Frost's title is an allusion to the key phrase of Macbeth's famous soliloquy in Act V, scene v, of Macbeth: "Out, out, brief candle!" Frost's brief allusion evokes the scene in which Macbeth mourns the death of his wife and the brevity, uncertainly, and meaninglessness of life.

onomatopoeia

A figure of speech in which natural sounds are imitated in the sounds of words. Simple examples include such words as buzz, hiss, hum, crack, whinny, and murmur. If you note examples of onomatopoeia in an essay passage, note the effect

personification

A figure of speech in which the author presents or describes concepts, abstract ideas, plants, animals, or inanimate objects by endowing them with human attributes or emotions. Personification is used to make these abstractions, animals, or objects appear more vivid to the reader.

apostrophe

A figure of speech that directly addresses an absent or imaginary person or a personified abstraction, such as liberty or love. It is an address to someone or something that cannot answer. The effect may add familiarity or emotional intensity. William Wordsworth addresses John Milton as he writes, "Milton, thou shouldst be living at this hour: / England hath need of thee." Another example is Keats' "Ode to a Grecian Urn," in which Keats addresses the urn itself: "Thou still unravished bride of quietness." Many apostrophes imply a personification of the object addressed. Note: for an apostrophe asking a god or goddess for inspiration, especially at the beginning of an epic, see invocation (pg. 5).

simile

A figure of speech that uses like, as, or as if to compare two essentially different objects, actions, or attributes that share some aspect of similarity. In contrast to a metaphor, in which a comparison is implied, a simile expresses a comparison directly.

hyperbole

A figure of speech using deliberate exaggeration or overstatement. (The literal Greek meaning is "overshoot.") Hyperboles often have a comic effect; however, a serious effect is also possible. Often, hyperbole produces irony. The opposite of hyperbole is understatement or meiosis.

metaphor

A figure of speech using implied comparison of seemingly unlike things or the substitution of one for the other, suggesting some similarity. Metaphorical language makes writing more vivid, imaginative, thought provoking, and meaningful.

chiasmus

A form of antithesis (a grammatically balanced statement of contrasting or opposing ideas) in which the second half of the statement inverts the word order of the first half, as in: "Ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country." Notice that antithesis refers to contrasting ideas, whereas chiasmus refers to inverting the actual words. See antithesis above.

clause

A grammatical unit that contains both a subject and a verb. An independent, or main clause expresses a complete thought and can stand alone as a sentence. A dependent, or subordinate clause, cannot stand alone as a sentence and must be accompanied by an independent clause. The point that you want to consider is the question of what or why the author uses subordination. You should also become aware of making effective use of subordination in your own writing. See subordinate clause handout. See also loose and periodic sentence (pg. 6 & 7).

extended metaphor

A metaphor developed at great length, occurring frequently in or throughout a work.

analogy

A similarity or comparison between two different things or the relationship between them. An analogy can explain something unfamiliar by associating it with or pointing out its similarity to something more familiar. For example, the work of a heart is explained by comparing it to a pump. Although the two items being compared in an analogy may be similar in a number of ways, they are not identical. Bear in mind that an effective metaphor or simile differs from an analogy in that they make an imaginative, often unexpected, comparison between basically dissimilar things.

paradox

A statement that appears to be self-contradictory or opposed to common sense but upon closer inspection contains some degree of truth or validity. (Think of the beginning of Dickens' Tale of Two Cities: "It was the best of times, it was the worst of times....")

voice

A term used in literary criticism to identify the sense a written work conveys to a reader of its writer's attitude, personality, and character. As is the case with the closely related term tone, voice reflects the habit of thinking of writing as a mode of speech. Inexperienced writers are often instructed to "get more of your own voice into your writing."

aphorism

A terse statement of a principle or truth, usually an observation about life; a maxim. Aphorisms can be witty as well as insightful. Hippocrates, who first used the term in his Aphorisms, provides perhaps the most famous example: "Life is short, art is long, opportunity fleeting, experimenting dangerous, reasoning difficult."

loose sentence/non-periodic sentence

A type of sentence in which the main idea (independent clause) comes first, followed by dependent grammatical units such as phrases and clauses. If a period were placed at the end of the independent clause, the clause would be a complete sentence. A work containing many loose sentences often seems informal, relaxed, or conversational. Generally, loose sentences create loose style. The opposite of a loose sentence is the periodic sentence. Example: I arrived at the San Diego airport after a long, bumpy ride and multiple delays. Could stop at: I arrived at the San Diego airport. See also periodic sentence on the following page.

caricature

A verbal description, the purpose of which is to exaggerate or distort, for comic effect, a person's distinctive physical features or other characteristics.

transition

A word or phrase that links different ideas. Used especially, although not exclusively, in expository and argumentative writing, transitions effectively signal a shift from one idea to another. A few commonly used transitional words or phrases are furthermore, consequently, nevertheless, for example, in addition, likewise, similarly, on the contrary, etc. More sophisticated writers use more subtle means of transition.

parody

A work that closely imitates the style or content of another with the specific aim of comic effect and/or ridicule. It exploits peculiarities of an author's expression (propensity to use too many parentheses, certain favorite words, etc.) Well-written parody offers enlightenment about the original, but poorly written parody offers only ineffectual imitation. Usually an audience must grasp literary allusion and understand the work being parodied in order to fully appreciate the nuances of the newer work. Occasionally, however, parodies take on a life of their own and don't require knowledge of the original. Fans of The Simpsons or Family Guy will notice several characters, even entire episodes that are parodies.

satire

A work that targets human vices and follies or social institutions and conventions for reform or ridicule. Regardless of whether or not the work aims to reform human behavior, satire is best seen as a style of writing rather than a purpose for writing. It can be recognized by the many devices used effectively by the satirist: irony, wit, parody, caricature, hyperbole, understatement, and sarcasm. Satire my also be classified as Horatian satire (after Horace) or Juvenalian satire (after Juvenal). Horatian satire is gentle, amused, and mildly corrective. In contrast, Juvenalian satire is harsh, biting, bitter, full of moral indignation and contempt. The effects of satire are varied, depending on the writer's goal, but good satire, often humorous, is thought provoking and insightful about the human condition. Classic examples include Geoffrey Chaucer (The Canterbury Tales) and Jonathan Swift (Gulliver's Travels). Some modern satirists include Joseph Heller (Catch 22) and Kurt Vonnegut (Cat's Cradle, Player Piano).

parallelism

Also referred to as parallel construction or parallel structure, this term comes from Greek roots meaning "beside one another." It refers to the grammatical or rhetorical framing of words, phrases, sentences, or paragraphs to give structural similarity. This can involve, but is not limited to, repetition of a grammatical element such as a preposition or verbal phrase.(Again, the opening of Dickens' Tale of Two Cities is an example: "It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of believe, it was the epoch of incredulity....") The effects of parallelism are numerous, but frequently they act as an organizing force to attract the reader's attention, add emphasis and organization, or simply provide a musical rhythm. See parallelism handout. See also anaphora (pg. 1).

pedantic

An adjective that describes words, phrases, or general tone that is overly scholarly, academic, or bookish (language that might be described as "show-offy"; using big words for the sake of using big words).

naïve narrator

An uncomprehending character in a work of fiction (a child, a simpleminded adult) who narrates the story without realizing its true implications. The result is that the reader knows more about what is actually going on than the narrator does; the effect is often a sense of irony or pathos.

cliché

Any expression that has been used so often it has lost its freshness and precision. Expressions like "tried and true," "sharp as a tack," "nipped in the bud," "the last straw," and "sadder but wiser" are clichés. By extension, cliché has also come to mean a hackneyed, or timeworn, plot, theme or situation in fiction, drama or film.

invocation

At the beginning of an epic, an appeal to a god or goddess for inspiration. In Book I of The Odyssey Homer states the following invocation, "Sing to me of the man, Muse, the man of twists and turns driven time and again off course, once he had plundered the hallowed heights of Troy." A more recent example has Grateful Dead lyricist Robert Hunter invoking the muse in "Terrapin Station": "Let my inspiration flow in token rhyme suggesting rhythm that will not forsake me, till my tale is told and done...Inspiration move me brightly, light the song with sense and color, hold away despair. More than this I will not ask, faced with mysteries dark and vast, statements just seem vain at last."

in media res

From Latin, meaning "in the middle of things." The term describes the narrative practice of starting a story in the middle of the action to involve the reader, and then using one or more flashbacks to fill in what led up to that point. The Iliad, for example, begins near the end of the ten-year Trojan War; The Odyssey, near the end of Odysseus' ten-year journey home from that war. See also foreshadow (pg. 4).

euphemism

From the Greek for "good speech," euphemisms are a more agreeable or less offensive substitute for a generally unpleasant word or concept. The euphemism may be used to adhere to standards of social or political correctness or to add humor or ironic understatement. Saying "earthly remains" rather than "corpse" is an example of euphemism.

rhetoric

From the Greek for "orator," this term describes the principles governing the art of writing effectively, eloquently, and persuasively.

oxymoron

From the Greek for "pointedly foolish," an oxymoron is a figure of speech wherein the author groups apparently contradictory terms to suggest a condensed paradox. Simple examples include "jumbo shrimp" and "cruel kindness." This term does not usually appear in the multiple-choice questions, but there is a chance that you might find it in an essay. Take note of the effect that the author achieves with the use of oxymoron.

syllogism

From the Greek for "reckoning together," a syllogism (or syllogistic reasoning or syllogistic logic) is a deductive system of formal logic that presents two premises (the first one called "major" and the second called "minor") that inevitably lead to a sound conclusion. A frequently cited example proceeds as follows: major premise: All men are mortal. minor premise: Socrates is a man. conclusion: Therefore, Socrates is a mortal. A syllogism's conclusion is valid only if each of the two premises is valid. Syllogisms may also present the specific idea first ("Socrates") and the general second ("all men").

sarcasm

From the Greek meaning "to tear flesh," sarcasm involves bitter, caustic language that is meant to hurt or ridicule someone or something. It may use irony as a device, but not all ironic statements are sarcastic (that is, intended to ridicule). When well done, sarcasm can be witty and insightful; when poorly done, it is simply cruel.

didactic

From the Greek, didactic literally means "teaching." Didactic words have the primary aim of teaching or instructing, especially the teaching of moral or ethical principles.

symbol/symbolism

Generally, anything that represents itself and stands for something else. Usually a symbol is something concrete - such as an object, action, character, or scene - that represents something more abstract. However, symbols and symbolism can be much more complex. One system classifies symbols into three categories: (1) natural symbols are objects and occurrences from nature to symbolize ideas commonly associated with them (dawn symbolizing hope or a new beginning, a rose symbolizing love, a tree symbolizing knowledge). (2) conventional symbols are those that have been invested with meaning by a group (religious symbols such as a cross or Star of David; national symbols, such as a flag or an eagle; or group symbols, such as a skull and crossbones for pirates or the scale of justice for lawyers). (3) literary symbols are sometimes also conventional in the sense that they are found in a variety of works and are more generally recognized. However, a work's symbols may be more complicated, as is the jungle in Heart of Darkness. On the AP exam, try to determine what abstraction an object is a symbol for and to what extent it is successful in representing that abstraction.

ambiguity

In common conversation, ambiguity is a negative term applied to a vague or equivocal expression when precision would be more useful. Sometimes, however, intentional ambiguity in literature can be a powerful device, leaving something undetermined in order to open up multiple possible meanings. When we refer to literary ambiguity, we refer to any wording, action, or symbol that can be read in divergent ways. As William Empson put it, ambiguity is "any verbal nuance, however slight, which gives room for alternative reactions to the same piece of language" (qtd. in Deutsch 11).

thesis

In expository writing, the thesis statement is the sentence or group of sentences that directly expresses the author's opinion, purpose, meaning, or position. Expository writing is usually judged by analyzing how accurately, effectively, and thoroughly a writer has proven the thesis.

flashback

In fiction and film, a way of presenting scenes or incidents that took place before the opening scene. (see also in medias res pg. 5)

motif

In literature and film, a recurring image, word, phrase, action idea, object, or situation that appears in various works or throughout the same work. When applied to several different works, motif refers to a recurrent theme. When applied to a single work, motif (sometimes leitmotif) refers to any repetitions that tend to unify the work by bringing to mind its earlier occurrences and the impressions that surround them.

foreshadow

In literature and film, the technique of giving hints or clues that suggest or prepare for events that occur later in a work.

point of view

In literature, the perspective from which a story is told. There are two general divisions of point of view, and many subdivisions within those. (1) first person narrator tells the story with the first person pronoun, "I," and is a character in the story. This narrator can be the protagonist, a secondary character, or an observing character. (2) third person narrator relates the events with the third person pronouns, "he," "she," and "it." There are two main subdivisions to be aware of: a.) third person omniscient, in which the narrator, with godlike knowledge, presents the thoughts and actions of any or all characters. b.) third person limited omniscient, in which the narrator presents the feelings and thoughts of only one character, presenting only the actions of all the remaining characters. In addition, be aware that the term point of view carries an additional meaning. When you are asked to analyze the author's point of view, the appropriate point for you to address is the author's attitude.

deus ex machina (day es eks mak ee nah)

In modern drama and fiction, any forced or artificial device introduced by an author to solve some difficult problem with the resolution of a plot. For example, a last minute reprieve saves the hero from wrongful execution. An unexpected inheritance from a long-lost aunt rescues the family business from bankruptcy. An outlaw holsters his guy when he recognizes a birthmark that identifies the sheriff as his twin brother. Considered a weakness in a serious drama, the deus ex machina is a common element in melodrama. Literally, the Latin phrase means "god from the machine." In ancient Greek drama, when the gods were introduced to intervene in a difficult situation, they were lowered to the stage by a mechanical device, or "machine." Consider finally the brilliant use of this device in Toy Story 3: A LIGHT from above shines in Woody's face. He opens his eyes. A giant mechanical Claw lowers towards them. The Claw plunges into the trash around them, closing them in its grip, then raises them up. They soar into the air, away from the ROARING incinerator. Woody looks around in disbelief. The Claw spins, passing in front of the crane booth. INT. CRANE OPERATOR'S BOOTH - NIGHT In the booth, the Aliens man the joysticks. ALIENS The Clawwwww!!! They lean into the joystick, steering the Claw to safety. EXT. DUMP - DAWN The Claw lowers and opens, dropping the Toys to earth. They spill out, COUGHING and GROANING like shipwreck survivors. Woody sits up, looks around. Rex pops up through trash. REX Whew...! They have faced death and survived, and are profoundly shaken. Potato Head stares at the sky. MR. POTATO HEAD Y'know all that bad stuff I said about Andy's attic? I take it all back.

diction

Related to style, diction refers to the writer's word choices, especially with regard to their correctness, clearness, or effectiveness. For the AP exam, you should be able to describe an author's diction (for example, formal or informal, colloquial or slang, ornate or plain) and understand the ways in which diction can complement the author's purpose. Diction, combined with syntax, figurative language, literary devices, etc., creates an author's style. See syntax (pg. 9).

tone

Similar to mood and voice, tone describes the author's attitude toward his material, the audience, or both. Tone is easier to determine in spoken language than in written language. Considering how a work would sound if it were read aloud can help in identifying an author's tone. Some words describing tone are playful, serious, businesslike, sarcastic, humorous, formal, ornate, sardonic, somber, etc. (See separate tone handout).

verisimilitude

The appearance of truth, actuality, or reality; what seems to be true in fiction. For example, Daniel Defoe achieved such verisimilitude in his Journal of the Plague Year, a fictional account of the outbreak of bubonic plague in England in 1665 that many believed it to be an eyewitness report of actual events. And the verisimilitude of Orson Welles's 1938 radio dramatization of H.G. Welles's novel War of the Worlds, in which Earth is invaded by spaceships from Mars, was so strong that it caused widespread panic in the United States.

semantics

The branch of linguistics that studies the meaning of words, their historical and psychological development, their connotations, and their relation to one another.

theme

The central idea or message of a work, the insight it offers into life. Usually theme is unstated in fictional works, but in nonfiction, the theme may be directly stated, especially in expository or argumentative writing.

consonance

The close repetition of identical consonant sounds before and after differing vowel sounds: leave/love, short/shirt. A number of familiar compound words are consonant: pingpong, fulfill, tiptop.

assonance

The close repetition of middle vowel sounds between different consonant sounds: fade/pale. Assonance is usually used within a line of poetry for unity or rhythmic effect, as Edith Sitwell uses it in this line from "The Drum": "Whinnying, neighed the maned blue wind."

malapropism

The comic substitution of one word for another similar in sound but quite different in meaning. Although the technique was used well before the 18th century (Shakespeare used it to great effect in creating the character of Dogberry in Much Ado About Nothing), the term derives from Mrs. Malaprop, a character in Richard Brinsley Sheridan's comedy of manners The Rivals.

style

The consideration of style has two purposes: (1) An evaluation of the sum of the choices an author makes in blending diction, syntax, figurative language, and other We can analyze and describe an author's personal style and make judgments on how appropriate it is to the author's purpose. Styles can be called flowery, explicit, succinct, rambling, bombastic, commonplace, incisive, laconic, etc. (2) Classification of authors to a group and comparison of an author to similar authors. By means of such classification and comparison, we can see how an author's style reflects and helps to define a historical period, such as the Renaissance or the Victorian period, or a literary movement, such as the romantic, transcendental, or realist movement.

irony/ironic

The contrast between what is stated explicitly and what is really meant, or the difference between what appears to be and what is actually true. Irony is often used to create poignancy or humor. In general, there are four major types of irony used in language: (1) verbal irony - when the words literally state the opposite of the writer's (or speaker's) meaning (2) situational irony - when events turn out the opposite of what was expected; when what the characters and readers think ought to happen is not what does happen. (3) dramatic irony - when facts or events are unknown to a character in a play or piece of fiction but known to the reader, audience, or other characters in the work. (4) Socratic irony - named after Socrates, who used the device in Platonic dialogues—is the feigned ignorance of another's point of view in order to draw that person out and refute his or her arguments. One who pretends a willingness to learn ("I am not sure I understand; would you please explain...") for the sake of exposing an opponent's errors is a Socratic ironist. On the AP Exam you may find an author or essayist implementing Socratic irony as part of their rhetorical strategy. For instance, Mark Twain's extensive use of Socratic irony in his masterwork The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn is a classic example of Socratic irony. As Twain scholar, Shelley Fishkin points out: "It is impossible to read Huck Finn intelligently without understanding that Mark Twain's consciousness and awareness is larger than that of any of the characters in the novel, including Huck. Indeed, part of what makes the book so effective is the fact that Huck is too innocent and ignorant to understand what's wrong with his society and what's right about his own transgressive behavior. Twain, on the other hand, knows the score. One must be skeptical about most of what Huck says in order to hear what Twain is saying" (Teaching Mark Twain's The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn; Shelley Fishkin).

allegory

The device of using character and/or story elements symbolically to represent an abstraction in addition to the literal meaning. The allegorical meaning usually deals with moral truth or a generalization about human existence. The characters are often personifications of such abstractions as greed, envy, hope, charity, or fortitude. Thus, allegory sustains interest on two levels: first, in the characters and actions described by the surface story; second, in the ideas symbolized by them. For example, John Bunyan's The Pilgrim's Progress allegorizes a Christian's journey from the City of Destruction (his conversion) to the Celestial City (his death and salvation). He carries a heavy bundle (his sins) on his back, he struggles with giants (doubts), and he is guided by a chart (his Bible).

repetition

The duplication, either exact or approximate, of any element of language, such as a sound, word, phrase, clause, sentence, or grammatical pattern.

atmosphere

The emotional mood created by the entirety of a literary work, established partly by the setting and partly by the author's choice of objects that are described. Even such elements as a description of the weather can contribute to the atmosphere. Frequently atmosphere foreshadows events. Perhaps it can create a mood.

genre

The major category into which a literary work fits. The basic divisions of literature are prose, poetry, and drama. However, genre is a flexible term; within these broad boundaries exist many subdivisions that are often called genres themselves. For example, prose can be divided into fiction (novels and short stories) or nonfiction (essays, biographies, autobiographies, etc.). Poetry can be divided into lyric, dramatic, narrative, epic, etc. Drama can be divided into tragedy, comedy, melodrama, farce, etc. On the AP language exam, expect the majority of the passages to be from the following genres: autobiography, biography, diaries, criticism, essays, and journalistic, political, scientific, and nature writing. There may be fiction or poetry.

connotation

The non-literal, associative meaning of a word; the implied, suggested meaning. Connotations may involve ideas, emotions, or attitudes. For example, the word mother means literally "a female parent," but it usually connotes warmth, love, sympathy, security, and nurture. Whereas scientists attempt to hold words to their precise meanings; writers, especially poets, rely on connotations to evoke responses in their readers.

periodic sentence

The opposite of loose sentence, a sentence that presents its central meaning in a main clause at the end. This independent clause is preceded by a phrase or clause that cannot stand alone. The effect of a periodic sentence is to add emphasis and structural variety. It is also a much stronger sentence than the loose sentence. Example: After a long, bumpy flight and multiple delays, I arrived at Newark airport. See also loose sentence on previous page.

mood

The prevailing atmosphere or emotional aura of a work. Setting, tone, and events can affect the mood. Mood is similar to tone and atmosphere.

pathos

The quality in a work of art or literature that arouses feelings of sympathy, pity, or sorrow in the viewer or reader. Although pathos and tragedy both evoke such feelings, a distinction is commonly made between the pathetic and the tragic. The suffering experienced by the weak, the passive, and the innocent is pathetic, while the suffering inflicted upon the strong, the aggressive, and the heroic (who are often in part responsible for their own suffering) is tragic. See also separate Rhetorical handout.

leitmotif/leitmotiv

The repetition of a significant word, phrase, theme, or image throughout a novel or play, which functions as a unifying element; from German, meaning "guiding motif." For example, Thomas Hardy's use of the word "obscure" throughout his 1895 masterwork Jude the Obscure would be considered a leitmotif.

alliteration

The repetition of sounds, especially initial consonant sounds in two or more neighboring words (as in "she sells sea shells"). Although the term is not frequently in the multiple-choice section, you can look for alliteration in any essay passage. The repetition can reinforce meaning, unify ideas, supply a musical sound, and/or echo the sense of the passage.

imagery

The sensory details or figurative language used to describe, arouse emotion, or represent abstractions. On a physical level, imagery uses terms related to the five senses: visual, auditory, tactile, gustatory, and olfactory. On a broader and deeper level, however, one image can represent more than one thing. For example, a rose may present visual imagery while also representing the color in a woman's cheeks and/or symbolizing some degree of perfection. An author may use complex imagery while simultaneously employing other figures of speech, especially metaphor and simile. In addition, this term can apply to the total of all the images in a work. For some of the best examples of imagery read the English Romantic Poets. On the AP language exam, pay attention to how an author creates imagery and to what effect.

denotation

The strict, literal, dictionary definition of a word, devoid of any emotion, attitude, or color. For example, although the word gold may suggest riches, power, and greed, its denotative meaning is precisely, "a malleable, ductile, yellow trivalent and univalent metallic element."

narrative

The telling of a story or an account of an event or series of events.

colloquial/colloquialism

The use of slang or informalities in speech or writing. Not generally acceptable for formal writing, colloquialisms give a work a conversational, familiar tone. Colloquial expressions in writing include local or regional dialects.

speaker

The voice of a poem. The poet may be speaking as himself or herself or taking on the role of a fictional character, an animal, or even an object.

syntax

The way an author chooses to join words into phrases, clauses, and sentences. Syntax is similar to diction, but you can differentiate them by thinking of syntax as groups of words, while diction refers to the individual words. Syntax is an important element of an author's style: Ernest Hemingway's syntax may be said to be fairly simple, with few complex sentences and few modifying elements. In a more technical sense, syntax refers to the study of the "rules" for forming the grammatical sentences of a language. In the multiple-choice section of the AP exam, expect to be asked some questions about how an author manipulates syntax. In the essay section, you will need to analyze how syntax produces effects.

antecedent

The word, phrase, or clause referred to by a pronoun. The AP language exam occasionally asks for the antecedent of a given pronoun in a long, complex sentence or in a group of sentences. A question from a previous AP test as an example follows: "But it is the grandeur of all truth which can occupy a very high place in human interests that it is never absolutely novel to the meanest of minds; it exists eternally, by way of germ of latent principle, in the lowest as in the highest, needing to be developed but never to be planted." The antecedent of "it" (bolded) is...? [answer: "all truth"]

rhetorical modes

This flexible term describes the variety, the conventions, and the purposes of the major kinds of writing. The four most common rhetorical modes (often referred to as "modes of discourse") are as follows: (1) The purpose of exposition (or expository writing) is to explain and analyze information by presenting an idea, relevant evidence, and appropriate discussion. The AP language exam essay questions are frequently expository topics. (2) The purpose of argumentation is to prove the validity of an idea, or point of view, by presenting sound reasoning, discussion, and argument that thoroughly convince the reader. Persuasive writing is a type of argumentation having an additional aim of urging some form of action. (3) The purpose of description is to recreate, invent, or visually present a person, place, event or action so that the reader can picture that being described. Sometimes an author engages all five senses in description; good descriptive writing can be sensuous and picturesque. Descriptive writing may be straightforward and objective or highly emotional and subjective. (4) The purpose of narration is to tell a story or narrate an event or series of events. This writing mode frequently uses the tools of descriptive writing.

generic conventions

This term describes traditions for each genre. These conventions help to define each genre; for example, they differentiate an essay and journalistic writing or an autobiography and political writing. On the AP language exam, try to distinguish the unique features of a writer's work from those dictated by convention.

homily

This term literally means "sermon," but more informally, it can include any serious talk, speech, or lecture involving moral or spiritual advice.

inference/infer

To draw a reasonable conclusion from the information presented. When a multiple choice question asks for an inference to be drawn from a passage, the most direct, most reasonable inference is the safest answer choice. If an inference is implausible, it's unlikely to be the correct answer. Note that if the answer choice is directly stated, it is not inferred and it is wrong. You must be careful to note the connotation - negative or positive - of the choices.

fable

Usually a short and fairly simple story designed to illustrate a moral lesson. The characters are often animals who exhibit human frailties. The fables attributed to the Greek slave Aesop are the most familiar.

foil

Usually, a character who, by contrast, points up the qualities or characteristics of another character. For example, a foolish character sets a wise character's wisdom in a stronger light. In Shakespeare's Henry IV, Part 1, Hotspur, with his fiery determination, serves as a foil to Prince Hal, who is reluctant to leave off sowing his wild oats and to take up his princely responsibilities.

figurative language

Writing or speech that is not intended to carry literal meaning and is usually meant to be imaginative and vivid.

pun

a form of wit, not necessarily funny, involving a play on a word with two or more meanings. See equivoque (pg. 4).

persona

a term used in literary criticism to refer to the voice (or mask), created by the author, through which a story is told. The persona is not the author, the person who sits down to write, but a "second self," an artistic creation, through whom the author speaks. The persona may be the narrator, the "I" in a first-person narrative, as is Holden Caulfield, the prep-school adolescent of J.D. Salinger's The Catcher in the Rye. However, the persona need not be a character in the story but can be what Wayne C. Booth calls the "implied author," a teller realized by the reader not directly but in and through the words on the page.

invective

an emotionally violent, verbal denunciation or attack using strong, abusive language; lacks the wit of satire. (For example, in Henry IV, Part I, Prince Hal calls the large character of Falstaff "this sanguine coward, this bedpresser, this horseback breaker, this huge hill of flesh.")

anachronism

an event, object custom, person, or thing that is out of its natural order in time. Anachronisms abound in Shakespeare. A striking clock chimes in Julius Caesar, a play set long before such clocks were invented. While this anachronism is unintentional, others are consciously used to achieve humorous or satirical effects. For example, Mark Twain builds an entire novel on the sustained anachronism of A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court.

wit

in modern usage, intellectually amusing language that surprises and delights. A witty statement is humorous, while suggesting the speaker's verbal power in creating ingenious and perceptive remarks. Wit usually uses terse language that makes a pointed statement. Historically, wit originally meant basic understanding. Its meaning evolved to include speed of understanding, and finally, it grew to mean quick perception including creative fancy and a quick tongue to articulate an answer that demanded the same quick perception.

prose

one of the major divisions of genre, prose refers to fiction and nonfiction, including all its forms. In prose the printer determines the length of the line; in poetry, the poet determines the length of the line.

Socratic irony

see irony (pg. 5).

dramatic irony

see irony (pg. 5).

verbal irony

see irony (pg. 5).

Juvenalian satire

see satire (pg. 8).

Horatian satire

see satire (pg. 9).

ethos

see separate Rhetorical handout

logos

see separate Rhetorical handout.

understatement

the ironic minimalizing of fact, understatement presents something as less significant than it is; also called meiosis. The effect can frequently be humorous and emphatic. Understatement is the opposite of hyperbole. A comically ironic example of understatement is Mark Twain's famous remark, "The reports of my death are greatly exaggerated." See hyperbole (pg. 4).