Logic (Chapter 1)

Conditional statement: Necessary and sufficient conditions

"If you are a dog, then you are an animal." 1. Because a dog is a sufficent conditon for being an animal because being a dog is all that is needed for being an animal to occur 2. Being an animal is necessary for being a dog, because you cannot be a dog without being an animal

Validity of a deduction argument is determined by its form.

- Arguemnt Form is an arrangment of letters (a,b,c, etc) and words (all, are, some, is, etc) in such a way tht the uniform substitution of words or phrases in the place of the letters results in an argument. Ex. All A's are B All C's are C, all C's are B change to All sporting events are engaging pastimtes. All baseball games are sporting events. All baseball games are engaging pastimtes. This argument is called a substitution instance of the argument form; any substitution instance of a valid argument form is a valid arugment. - Form represents the argument's internal structure or pattern of reasoning. If the form/pattern of reasoning is good, its valid. If not, its invalid.

Valid Deductive argument? Invalid Indecutive argument?

- Argument where it is impossible for the conclusion to be false, given that the premises are true. - Invalid Deductive argument: Argument where it is possble for premises to be true and conclusion false.

Theoretical Definiton; Persuasive Definiton

- Assigns a meaning to a word by suggesting a theory that gives a certain charcterization to the entites that the term denotes. Applies to many terms in science and philosophy. Funcitons as a proposal to see or view a phenomenon in a certain way. - Its purpose to give rise to a favorable or unfavorable attitude to whats being definined. It does this by using emotionally charged or value-alden menaing to a word while making it appear that the word really has (or ought to have) that menaing in its anguage.

Identify premises and conclusion: Carbon Monoxide molecules happen to be just the right size and shape, and happen to have just the right chemical properties, to fit neatly into cavaties within hemoglobin molecules in blood that are normally reserved for oxygen molecules. Consequently, carbon monoxide diminishes the oxygen-carrying capacity for blood.

- Premise: CM molecules happen to be just the right size and shape to fit neatly within hemoglobin molecules in blood that are normally reserved for oxygen. - Premise: CM molecules happen to have just the right chemical properties to fit neatly into cavaties within hemoglobin molecules in blood that are normally reserved for oxygen. - Conclusion: Carbon monoxide diminshes the oxygen-carrying capacity for blood.

Identify Premise and Conclusion: Radioactive fallout isn't the only concern in the aftermath of a nuclear explosion. Some nations have nukes with power that is equivalent to more than a million hiroshima bombs. Stuides suggest that only half of these weapons could produce enough soot, smoke, and dust to blanket the Earth, bloack out the sun, and bring on a nuclear winter that could threaten the survival of the human race

- Premise: Some nations have nukes with power that is equivalent to more than a million hiroshima bombs - Premise: Studies suggest that only half of these weapons could produce enough soot, smoke, and dust to blanket the Earth, block out the sun, and bring on a nuclear winter that could threaten the survival of the human race. - Conclusion: Radioactive fallout isn't the only concern in the aftermath of a nuclear explosion.

Identify premises and conclusion: When individuals voluntairly abandon property, they forfeit any expectation of privacy in it they might have had. Therefore, a warrantless search or seizure of abandoned property is not unreasonable under the 4th amendment.

- Premise: When individuals voluntarily abandon property, they forfeit any expectation of provacy in it they mighy have had - Conclusion: A warrantless search or seizure of abanoned propety is not unreasonable under the 4th amendment.

Identify premise and conclusion: Anyone familiar with our prison system knows that there are some inmates who behave little better than brute beast. But the very fact that these prisoners exsist is a telling argument against the efficantcy of capital punishment as a deterrent. If the death penealty had truly been effective as a deterrent, such prisoners would have long ago vanished.

- Premise:Anyone familiar with our prison system knows that there are some inmates who behave little better than brute beast. - Premise: If the death penealty had truly been effective as a deterrent, such prisoners would have long ago vanished. - Conclusion:But the very fact that these prisoners exsist is a telling argument against the efficantcy of capital punishment as a deterrent.

Contrary to the tales of some scuba divers, the toothy, gaping grin on the mouth of an appraoching shark is not necessairly anticipatory. It is generally accepted that by constantly swimming with its mouth open, the shark is simply avoiding suffiction. This assures a continuous flow of oxygen-laden water into their mouths, over their gills, and out through their gill slits.

- Premise:It is generally accepted that by constantly swimming with its mouth open, the shark is simply avoiding suffixion. - Premise: This assures a continuous flow of oxygen-laden water into their mouths, over their gills, and out through their gill slits. - Conclusion: Contrary to the tales of some scuba divers the toothy, gaping grin on the mouth of an appraoching shark is not necessairly anticipatory.

Identify premise and consluon: Punishment, when speedy and specific, may supress undeseriable behavior, but it cannot teach or encoruage deseriable alternaitves. Therefore, it is crucial to use positive techniques to model and reinforce positive behvaior.

- Premise:Punishment, when speedy and specific, may supress undesirable behavior - Premise:it cannot teach or encoruage deseriable alternaitves. - Conclusion:it is crucial to use positive techniques to model and reinforce positive behvaior.

Identify premise and conclusion: It really does matter if you get enough sleep. We need sleep to think clearly, react clearly, and create memories. Studies show that people who are taught mentally challenging tasks do better after a good night's sleep. Other research suggest that sleep is needed for creative problem solving.

- Premise:We need sleep to think clearly, react clearly, and create memories - Premise:Studies show that people who are taught mentally challenging tasks do better after a good night's sleep. - Premise:Other research suggest that sleep is needed for creative problem solving. - Conclusion: It really does matter if you get enough sleep.

Are the following definitions stimulative, lexical, premising, theoritical, or persuaive? - Blind means, for income tax purposes, the inability to see better than 20/200 - Different means lacking confidence in one's self; characterized by modest reserve - Politican means a person of unquestioned honesty and intergrity, elected by the people to do their bidding - Sound means a compressive wave in air or some elastic vaccum

- Premising - Lexical - Persuaive - Theoretical

Sound and unsound deductive argument

- Sound: valid deductive argument AND has all true premises. Aka a good decutive argument, in its fullest sense. - Unsound: deductive arugment that is invalid, has one or more false premises, or both. Note: If its a false premise, it must be NEEDED to support the conclusion. If a conclusion is validly supported by true premises, its sound; if previously sound, an additon of a false premise wont make it unsound.

Premises vs Conclusion

- Statements that set up the reasons or evidence - The statment that the evidenced is claimed or implied to support; aka the statment that follows form the premises. - Examples of argument (good): "All film stars are celeberties; Clint Eastwood is a film star. Therefore, Clint Eastwood is a celeberty. - Example of argument (bad): Some film stars are men. Penelope Cruz is a film star. Therefore, Penelope is a man. *The premises do not support the conclusion, so this is a bad arugment.*

Inference

- The reasoning process expressed by an argument; can be used interchangably with argument. - Proposition: meaning or informaiton content of a statement; can be used interchangably with statement.

Strong deductive argument; weak deductive argumentv

- argument where its improbable for conclusion to false, given that the premises are true - Argument where the conclusion probably does not follow from the premises, even through its claimed to - Deductive arguments depend upon the uniformity of nature: belief that the future replicates the past and regularities that prevail in one spacial region tend to prevail in other regions. Ex. Chocolate taste sweet in the past and will continue to in the future. Chocolate is sweet in Switzerland, as well as in every other place. Good deductive arguments are in accordance with the uniformity of nature, having conclusions we naturally expect to be true.

Is it an argument? A mammal is a vertebrate animal that nurses its offspring. Thus, cats and dogs are mammals, as are sheep, mokeys, rabbitts, and bears.

Nonargument An illustration.

Criteria for lexical definitions: 6-8

6. Avoid figurative, obscure, ambiguous, or vague langauge: - figurative means it insolves a metaphor or paints a picure instead of exposing an essential meaning of a term (ex. Architechture means frozen music." or or camel means a ship of the desert) - Obscure if it meaning is hidden as a result of defective or innapropriate language: can be inaaporaiite if needlessly technical language is used, unless only a technical defintion is absolutely necessary. - Vauge if it lacks precison or if its meaning is blurred: Ex. Democacy is a kind of government where its people are in control."Fails to identify the people in control, how they excercise it, and who they control. 7. Avoid affective terminology: any kind of word usage that plsays on the emotions of the reader or listenrer 8. Should indicate the context to which the defintion pertains: when a word is a thing that means different things in different context, context is important. Ex. "Strike means (in baseball) a pitch in which the btter swings and misses."

What is an argument?

A group of statements, one of more of which (premises) are claimed to provide support for, or reasons to believe, one of the others. - Good arugment: where the premises actually support the conclusion. Bad argument: where the premises do not support the conclusion. - Statement: sentence that is either true of false, so its typically a declaritve sentence (ex. Chocolate almonds are loaded with calores; creatine helps give me strength); NOT "Lets go to a movie tonight" or "Have you seen the remote?"

Is it an argument? For organims at the sea surface, sinking into deep water usally means death. Plant cells cannot photosyntheize in the dark depths. Fishes and other animals that descend lose contact with the main surface food supply and themselves become food for strange deeo-living predators.

Argument: For organism at the sea surface, sinking into deepwater usally means death.

Using vs mentioning words

Many terms that are not normally terms can become terms when they have qutation marks placed around them. In this sense, its not be used in its ordinary sense and is being metioned (and thus can be a term)

Is it an argument? Bear one thing in mind before you begin to write your paper: Famous literary works regarded as classics, have thoroughly stuided to the point wher prevailing opinion on them has assumed the charcter of orthodoxy.

Non argument Noninferential: piece of advice

Argument? It is usally easy to decide whether or not something is alive. This is because living things share many common attributes, such as capacity to extract energy from nutrients to drive their functions, the power to actively respond to changes in their enviroment, and the ability to grow and repodruce.

Non argument; explanation

Is it an argument? Any unit of length, when cubed, becomes a unit of volume. Thus, the cubic meter, cubic cenimeter, and cubic millimeter are all units of voume.

Non-argument Illustration.

Nations are made in two wats, by the slow working of history and force of ideas. Most nations are made the former way, merging slowly form the mist of the past, gradually coalescing within concentric circles of shared syamthathies, with an acceleration of consensual institutions. But a few nations are formed and defined by the citizen's assent to a shared philosphy.

Nonarugment Loosely associated statments.

Is it an argument? Five college students who were accused of sneaking into the Zoo and trying to ride the camels pleaded no contest in a criminal trespass yesterday. The students scaled a fence to get into the zoo and then clibmed another fence to get into the camel pit before security officals caught them, zoo officals said.

Not an argument... a report.

Is it an argument? The turkey vulure is called by that name because its red featherless head resembles the head of a wild turket.

Not an argument... an explanation

Logic

The science that evaluates arguments. -Aim of logic: develop a system of methods and pirnciples that we may use as criteria for evaluating the arguments and guides for contructing arugments of our own.

Truth value

The truth or falsity of a statement. This is what distinguishes statemetns from sentenfes that are neither true nor false. - Ex. "No husbands ever cheat on wives." has a truth falue that is false.

Truth of premises

Total evidence requirement: The premises must not exclude or overlook some crucial piece of evidence that undermines the stated premises and requires a different conclusion -

Particular and general statements

Traditionally, inductive arguments proceed form the particular to the general, and vice versa for deductive'. This does not always have to be the case. - Particular statement: makes a claim about one or more members of a class - General statement: makes a claim about all members of a a class

Testing strength of inductive argument

- Assume premises are true, and then determine if conclusion probably follows from premises. This is determined by linking up the premises with regularities that have occured in our experience (ex. if casual arugment, link with known casual patterns; if a sign argument, use what we know about which signs are trustworthy and whih are not. - Ex. "All dinosaur bones discovered to this day have been at least 50 million years old. Therefore, probably the next dinosaur bone to be found will be at leat 50 years old." Since thousanfs of dinosaur bones have been found and all over 50 million, uniformity of nature dictates that this is probbaly true and thus a strong argument - Ex. "All meterories found to this day contain salt. Therefore, probably the next metorite will contain salt." Assuming the premise is true, this is a strong arugment - " Don Champange, which is made in France, sells for over 100 per bottle. Lon champange is also made in France. Therefore, its probably over 100 per bottle too." Expanaiton: weak; background experince tells us that two wines from same country doesn't mean they'll be same price - "During the past 50 years, inflation has consistently reduced the value of the American dollar. Therefore, indsutiral productivity will probably increase in the years ahead." Explanation: Becuase no direct connection between inflation and increased industrial productivty, premise is irrelevant to conclsuion and no probablisitc support for it. Weak - *note* Like deductive arguments, truth value of premises and conclusion do not determine validity, rather what matters is rather the conclusion is probably supported by the premises. An argument with a false conclusion and true premise does not exsist (because by defintion an argument with true premises and a probably false conlsusion[it IS false] is weak)

Cogent vs Uncognent Inductive Argument

- Cognent: An inductive argument that is strong and has all true premises (in the sense of the total evidence requirement) -Uncognent: inductive argument that is weak, has one or more false *necessary* premises, fails to meet total evidence requirement, or any cominination - Example of total evidence requirement: "Swimming in the lake is usally a lot of fun. Today the water is warm, the surf is gentle, and on this shore there are no currents. Therefore, it would be fun to go swimming right now." If it overlooks the fact that the lake is filled with alligaotrs, then its uncognent.

Deductive vs Inductive Arguments

- Deductive rest on necessary reasoning; if the premises are true, it is impossible for the conclusion to be false. Ex. The meerkat is a member of the mongose family. All members of the mongoose family are carnivores. Therefore, it necessairly follows that the meerkat is a carnivore. - Inductive rest on probablistic reasoning; it is improbable for the conclusion to be false given that the premises are true. Ex. The Meerkat is closely related to the suricat. The suricat survives on beetle larve. Therefore, probably the Meerkat survives on bettle larve.

Since we've discussed types of definitions and their purposes, what are some of the tecniques used to produce those defintions?

- Extensional defintion: definition that assigns a meaning to a term by indicating the members of the class that the term denotes. This can be done by: pointing to the members (demonstrative), naming them individually (enumerical) and naming them in groups (subclass) 1. Demonstrative: "Chair means this and this and this" as I point to chairs. The most premitive, and thus most limited defintions: requires objects to be avaliable to be pointed at. The motion of point is technically considered a word in the defintion. Definton may be partial or comolete, depeding on how many members of the class you can point at 2. Enumerative: "Actresses include Emma Watson, Lilly Collins, Daisy Riddley, and Leslie Jones." Since you can rarely name every individual of a class, this is likley to be incomplete. 3. Subclass: May be partial or complete. "Tree means oak, pine, spruce, maple, etc. OR "Flower means rose, lilly, daisy, geranium, zinna, etc." - Extensional defintions are mainly used in producing lexical and stipulative defitons. For lexical, since you're communicating how a word is actually used, one of the ways of doing so is by metnioning members of the class it denotes. For stipulative, if for exmaple, a astronomer is naming a new star system, he might point to stars within it. - Why they cant be precising defintons: its funciton is to clairify vague words, because vaguness is an intensional problem: because why dont have concrete qualities and attributes that make a definton so, the extension is infintie. Intension stermines exteniosn, not vice versa.

Terms can be put in the order of increasing intension, increasting extension, decreasing intension, and decreasing extension.

- Increasing intension: when each term in the series (except the first) connotes more attributes than the proceeding (aka the terms keep getting mre specific, or connotating more attributes). Vice versa for decreasing intension. Ex. animal, mammal, feline, tiger - Increasing extension: when each term in the series, expcept the first, denotes a class having more members than the class denoted by the term proceeding it. Ex. tiger, feline, mammal, animal. - Note: For an empty extenison, the extension will not increase or decrease by adding more desriptive phrases. Since it does not exsist, it remains unchanged.

Identify Premise and conclusion: Since private property helps people define themselves, since it frees people from mundane cares of daily subsistence, and since it is finite, no individual should assumulate so much property that others are prevented from accumulating the necessites of life.

- Premise/subconclsion:private property helps people define themselves - Premise:since it frees people from mundane cares of daily subsistence - Premise: it is finite -Conclusion:no individual should assumulate so much property that others are prevented from accumulating the necessites of life.

Identify premise and conclusion: Poverty offers numerous benefits to the nonpoor. Antipoverty programs provide jobs for middle-class professionals in social work, penology, and public health. Such worker's future advancement is tied to the continued growth of buereaucracies depedent on the exsistence of poverty.

- Premise: Antipoverty programs provide jobs for middle-class professionals in social work, penology, and public health. - Premise: Such worker's future advancement is tied to the continued growth of buereaucracies depedent on the exsistence of poverty. - Conclusion:Poverty offers numerous benefits to the nonpoor.

Determine whether the following arguments are inductive or deductive. If an argument is inductive, determine whether strong or weak. If deductive, valid or invlaid. 1. Since Tom is the brother of Agatha, and Agatha is the mother or Raquel, it follows that Tom is uncle of Raquel. 4. Since Christmas is always on Thursday, it follows that the day after Christmas is always on a Friday. 7. After taking LSD, Alice said she saw a flying saucer land in the shopping center. Since Alice always has a reputation for always telling the truth, we must conclude that it really did land there. 10. Circle A has exactly twice the diameter of cirucle B. From this we may conclude that circle A has exactly twice the area of Circle B. 13. The cash register drawer contains over 100 coins. Three coins selcted at random were found to have dates earlier than 1960. Therefore, probably all of the coins in the drawer have daes earlier than 1960. 16. Since X + y=10, and x=7, it follows that y=4 19. Stats reveal that 86% of those who recieve flu shots do not get the flu. Jack recieved a flu shot one month ago. Therefore, he should be immune, even though the flu is going around.

1. Deductive (defintion?). Valid 4. Deductive (definition?). Valid 7. Inductive (arugment from knowledge about past to claim about future). Invalid*acutal strength of inferential link says that this is at best probable, not that it msut follow 10. Deductivel 13. Indeductive (arguent form sample to a group); Weak, 16. Deductive (arguemnt from math); invalid 19. Indutive; strong

Deducive or inducitve? What criteria can I use to make my decision? 1. Because triangle A is congruent with Triangle B and Traingle A is isoceles, it follows that triange B is iscolcles 4. No email messages are eloquent creations. Some love letters are eqloquent creations. Therefore, some love letters are not email messages. 7. Paying off terrorists in exchange for hostages is not a wise policy, since such action will only lead them to take more hostags in the future. 10. The Wall Street Journal has an article on the new banking regulations. The financial times, like the wallstreet journal, is a highly respected business publication. Therefore, it too probably has an article on banking reatultions 13. Stephen Hawking says that the condition of the universe at the instant of the big bang was more highly ordered than it was today. Therefore, we should conclude that this is correct

1. Deductive: argument from mathematics (geometry) 4. Dedutive. Follows necessairly from premises. Caterogial syllogism 7. Inducitve. Makes a casual argument. Does not ncessairly follow from premises. 10. Inductive; indicator words, doesnt follow necessialy from premises; anaology 13. Inductive; doesn't follow necesaily from premsies; argument from authoirty.

Two questions to answer when evaluating an argument

1. Do the premises support the conclusion? 2. Are all the premises true?

Two ways that language having cognitive meaning can be defective: Vagueness and Ambiguity

1. Expression that allows for borderline cases in which it is impossible to tell if the expression applies or does not apply; allow for a continuous range of interpretations. Meaning is hazy, obscure, or imprecise. Words like fresh, rich, normal, etc are vague because we cannot tell whthr they apply to a given situation or not (ex. How fresh does something have to be to be called fresh?). Can arise in statements form combined words; "Today our job situation is more transparent." What is a job situation (is it finding a job, having a job, etc?)? What is meant by transparent? 2. Can be internpreted as having more than one distinct meaning in a given context. Ex. The beer is light. Is it light in calories? Light in color? Light in alcohol? Can also affect entire statements when words are combined: "Tuna are biting off the Washington coast?" Are the eating the beach or are the fishermen catching them? - Vaguness vs ambiguity: vaguness allows for a continuous range of interpretaions, and ambiguity allows for multiple discrete inrepretations. - Many words can be amigutous in one context and vague in another: Slow could mean retarded or physically not able move fast, but it could be vague when it refers to physcial slowness. Other words include light, fast, and rich.

Since intension determines extension (the qualities and attibutes determines who belongs in a class), what about terms like proper names? INCOMPLETE

1. Names are short-hand descriptions or bundles of decripstions. Ex. David could be short hand for the person who lives next door or the person who drives a chevy. 2. Intension consist of casual chain of events leadng from the point at whcih the name is first assigned to the point at which a person learns about a name. Ex. David is given to an infant

Types of Terms: Proprer noun, common name, descriptive phrase

1. Noun or phrase that denotes a particular thing 2. Identifies an indivisual object by denoting the class to which the object belongs 3. Identiiftes an object by providing a description of it. aka a noun in a phrase "sandwhich" with some adjectives Nonterms: verbs, adverbs, prepositons, conjunctions, etc. **Think: Can this be the subject of a sentence?**

Deciding whether or not an argument is deductive or inductive. 3 Tips

1. Occurrence of special indicator words ("probably;" "necessairly"); DONT follow these if they dont line up with other criteria. 2. Actual strength of the inferential link between premises and conclusion. Does it really follow with necessitty or is it just porbable? (All enternatners are extroverts. Bill Maher is an entertainer. Therefore, he is an extrovert. VS The vast majority of entertainers are extroverts. Bill Maher is an entertainer. Therefore, he is an extrovert.) 3. Form of style of argumentation. *Because many actual arguments are incomplete, it may be impossible to decide.*

Vartaoins of horiozontal and vertical argumentation:: Conjointly; two or more premises support multiple conclusions.

1. Occurs when the premises depend on one another in such a way that if one were omitted, the support the others provide would be dimished or destroyed. Ex. Getting poor people off welfare rolls requires that we modify their behavior patterns. The vast majority on welfare are highschool dropouts, single parents, or addicts. These behavior patterns furstrate any dsire ppor people may have to get a job and imporve the conditon of their life." Taken seperately, each premise provides little support for the conclusion, hene conjointly. 2. "Dropping out of school and bearing children outside of marraige are two of the primary causes of poverty in this country. Therefore, to eliminate poverty we must offer incnetives to stay in highschool. We must also find some way to encoruage people to get married before haivng children. Since no single argument can have more than one conslusion, this is technically two arguments.

Two kinds of cognitive meanings of terms: intensional and extensional

1. Qualities or attributes that the term connotes. Intetional meaning is otherwise known as connotation. Ex. Intensional meaning of cat is fur, 4 legs, purring, etc 2. members of the class that the term denotes. Extensional meaning is known as denotation. Extensional meaning is all the cats in the universe - Conventional connotation: the attributes that the term commonly calls forth in the minds of competent speakers of a language. Avoids the problem of connotative qaulites being subjective (ex. Different qualities appear in the heads of cat lovers vs haters when they think of cats) - Denotation of a term typically reamins the same form person to person, but it may change over time (For the term "currently living cats", the amount of cats currently living fluctuates over time; cats, on the other hand remians constant because it denotes all cats living and past). - Empty extension: denotation of a class that currently does not exsist (King of France). Things that have an empty extension do not have an empty intension. Intension determines extension. the intensional meaning of a term serves as the criterion for deciding what the extension consist of...Because we know the intensional (qualities and attributes) of Leprechauns, we know it is an empty extenison.

Inductive arguments: Note whether each is strong or weak and note relationship between your answer and the truth or falsity or the premise(s) and conclusion. Determine whether cogent or uncogent: 1. Grave marker at Arlington says JFK is buried there. It must be the case that he is really buried in that cemetary. 4. FDR said we have nothing to fear but fear itself. Therefore, people have no reason to fear serial killers. 7. People have been listening to rock and roll music for over a hundred years. Probably people will be listening to it one hundred years from now. 10. Coke is an extremely popular drink consumed all over the world. Therefore, probably someone, somewhere is dirnking a coke right now. 13. Children love green M and Ms. But brussell sprouts are green too. Therefore, it must be the case that children love brussell sporuts.

1. Strong(grave markers usually a reliable sign); cognet; true premise; true conclusion 4. Weak, uncognent. True prmeise; probably false conclusion 7. Strong; uncogent. False premise; probably true conclusion 10. Strong; cognent. True premise; probably true conclusion 13. Weak; uncogent. True premises; probaly false conclusion

Determine whether the following ae demonstrative defintions, enumerative, definions by sublcass, synonmous, etymoligcal, operational, or genus and diffence 1. Plant means something such as a tree, flower, vine, or cactus 4. State means something such as ohio, NC, SC 7. House means this: *points* 10. "Hot" electric iron for an electric iron means it rips skin off if you put your finger to it 13. "Hurricane" means a storm having constant wins of at least 74 mph that orginiates at sea. 16. Poginant is a word derived from the latin... 22. Rapier means sword 25. Professional person means a doctor, lawyer, or architect 28. Truck means a vechicle used for hauling

1. Subclass 4. Enumerical 7. Demonstrative 10. Operational 13. Genus and differnce 16. etymological 17. Synonmous 25. Subclass 28. Genus and diffenece

Is it a good lexical definition? 1. A sculupture is a three-dimensional image made of marble." 4. A cynic is a person who knows the price of everything and the value of nothing. 7. A theist is anyone who is not an atheist or agnositc 10. Feminism is a militant movemnet orginiated by a gorup of deviant women for .... 13. Truculent is if you're curel or fierce 16. A carpenter's square is a square used by a carpenter 19. "Normal" means an attribute possed by people who are able to get on in the world. 22. "Schooner" means sort of like a sail boat.

1. Too narrow 4. Figurative language used 7. Its negtive when it could be affirmative 10. Uses affective terminology 13. Improper grammar 16. Circular 19. Vague 22. Too broad

Deductive arguments: Valid? Sound? 1. Since Moby Dick was written by Shakespeare, and Moby Dick is a science fition novel, it follows that shakespseare was a science ficiton author. 4. The longesr river in South America is the Amazon, and the Amazon flows through Brazil. Therefore the longest river in South America Flows through Brazil. 7. All leopards with lungs are carnivores. Therefore, all leopards are carnivores. 10. Every providence in Canada has exactly one city as its capital. Therefore, since there are thirty providences in Canada, 13. Since some fruits are green and some fruits are apples, it follows that some fruits are green apples

1. Valid; Unsound. False premise; flase conclusion 4. Valid; Sound; true premise; true conclusion 7. Invalid. Unound; true premise; true conclusion 10. Valid; Unsound; false premise; false conclusion 13. Invalid; unsound;both premises true; true con

Deductive or inductive? Criteria? 16. Each element, such as hydrogen and iron, has a set of gaps (wavelengths that it absorbs rather than radiates). So if those wavelength are missing from the spectrum, you know that the element is present in the star you are observing. 19. When the Romans occupied England, coal was burned. Since coal produces quite a bit of soot and sulfur dioxide, there must have been days almost 2,000 years ago when the air in the larger towns has polluted badly. 22. Lense function by refracting light at their surfaces. Consquently, their action depends not only on the shape of the lens surface, but also on the indices of refraction of the lens material and the surrounding medium. 25. The Simpson incident had shown me that a dog was kept in the stables, and yet, though someone had been in and had fethced a horse, he had not barked enough to arouse he two lads in the loft. Obviously, the midnight visitor was someone the dog knew well. 28. Animals that live on plant foods must eat large quantites of vegitation, and this consumes much of their time. Meat eaters, by contrast, have no need to east so much or so oftern. Consquetently, meat-eating homines may have had leisure time avalible to explosre and manipulate their enviroment; like lions and leopars, they would have time to spend lying around and playing.

16. Deductive; follows necesairly from premises 19. Inductive; doesnt follow necessairly from premises; casaul inference 22. Deductive; conclusion follows necssairly from premsies 25. Inductive; doesn't follow necessairly; casual infernece 28. Inductive; indicator words; doesn't follow necessairly; casual argument

Expository passages:

A kind of discourse that begins with a topic sentence followed by one or more senteces to develop the topic sentence. If the object is not exapnd and elaborate on topic sentce and not prove it, then its not an argument. - Ex. Matter comes in three forms: solid, liquid, gas. Solids are hard. Liquids flow. Gas floats around." OR "There is a stylized relation of artist to mass audience in the sports, especially in baseball. Each player develops a style of his own-the swagger as he steps to the plater, the unique windup a pitcher has, the clean-swinging and hard-driving hits, the precision quickness and grace of infeild and outfeild, the sense of surplus power bbheind whatever is done." - Unlike noninferitail passages, it can be an expositityo passage and an argument if it flehses out the topic sentence AND also aims to prove it. Ex. Skin andt he mucous membrane lining the the respitory and digestive tracts serve as mechinical barriers to entry by microbes. Oil grand secreations contain chemicals that weaken or kill bacteria on skin. The respritory tract is lined by cells that sweep mucous and trapped particles up to the throat where they may be swallowed. The stomach has acidic PH, which inhibits the growth of much bacteria." **In this passafe, the topic sentece is stated first and the purpose of the remaining sentences is not only to show how the skin and mucous membranes serve as barriers to microbes but also to prove that they do this.** - In determining whether it also serves as an argument, if the topic sentence is something most people already accept as fact, its probably not.

Two distinct patterns of argumentation in extended arugments: vertical pattern

A series of arguments in which a conclusion of a logically prior argument becomes a premise in a subsequent argument. - Ex. 1. The selling of human organs should be outlawed. 2. Allowing human organs to be sold will inevitably lead to a situtation in which only the rich will be able to afford transplants. 3. This is because whenever something scare is bought and sold as a commodity, the price always goes up. 4. Law of supply and demand requires it. Each statement supports the other in a vetical line inorder of the follwoing. 4 to 3 to 2 to 1

Counterexample Method

A substation instance having true premises and a flase conslion is a counterexample. - Counter example method: isolating the form of an argument and then constructing a substituion instance having true premises and a false conclusion. This proves the form invalid, which in turn proves the argument invalid. It can be used to prove the invalidity of any valid argument, but not the validity of any valid argument becuase . So, before applying it, we must think that the argument is invalid or suspect in the first place. - Ex. Since some employees are not social climbers and all vice president are emplyoees, we can conclude some vice presients are not social climbers. This is obvisouly invalid reasoning, so lets prove it. 1. Form of argument: Some E's are not SC; All VP's are E's. Some VP's are not SC. 2. Substitute the three letters with terms to that will make the premises true and the conclusion false: Some animals are not mammals. All dogs are animals. Therefore, some dogs are not mammals. Since true premises and false conlcusion, its by definiton invalid. - Tip: Caterogical syllogisms like above can be proven invlaid with counterexample method by switching around terms: cats, dogs, mamals, fish, and animals. Select two terms that yeild a false conclusion then a third term that yeilds true premises. - Example on hypothietical syllogism: If the government imposes import restrcitons, the price of automobiles will rise. Therefore, since the government will not impose import restrictions, it follows that the price of automoblies will not rise. 1. Form: If IR then PAR. No IR then No PAR. 2. Substitute letters: If Abe Lincoln committed sucicide, then he is dead. He did not commit sucicide, therefore, he isnt dead.

Conditional statements

An If, then statement. The "if" part is the antecedent, and the "then" part is the consequent. - These are NOT arguments because an argument must claim to present evidence and there must be a claim that the evidence implies something. In there statemetns there is no claim that the antecent or consequent is true, just that if the antcedent is true then so is the consequent. - A conditional statment may present evidence because it asserts a relationship between statements, but there is still not claim that the evidence implies anything. - Some can be similiar to arguments in that they express the outcome of a reasoning process. - Condtional statements may be part of an argument: "If North Korea is developing Nukes, then they are a threat to world piece. They are developing nukes, therefore they are a threat to world peice." - Conditonal statements vs arguments: 1. single condtioanl statement is not an argument. 2. Conditoanl statement can be the premise or conclsuion or both of argument. 3. The infernetial content of condtioanl statement may be reexpressed to form an argument.

Illustration

An expression involving one or more examples that is intended to show what something means or how it is done. Can be confused with arguments because it can contain indicator words like "thus." - Ex. A deciduous tree is any tree that loses its leaves during the winter. For example, maples are deciduous. This is NOT an argument becauce not it makes no claim that anyhting is being proved; it just giving an example of what a decidous tree is. - Some illustrations can, however, be arguments: "although most forms of cancer, if untreated, can cause death, not all cancers are life threating. For example, basal cell carinoma, the most common of all skin cancers, can produce disfigurement, but it almost never results in death. Since the example is intneded to claim, this is an argument. - To decide if its an argument, determine if it just shows how something is done or what something menas or whether it proports to prove something. If the claim is something most people agree with, its probably not.

Explanations

An important type of non argument. Its an expression that proports to shed light on some event or phenomen, not prove the event or phenomenon. The event or phenomenon is usally already accepted as fact. - "The sky appears blue from the Earth's surface because light rays from the sun are scattered in the atmosphere." - Two componets of exaplanation: explandum (statement that describes the event or phenomen to be explained) and explanas (statment or group of statemetns that proports to do the explaning). - It can also serve as an argument if does also prove the conlsuion in addtion to explaning it. "Bleach shuld never be mixed with ammonia because the combination releases chlorine gas, which is highly poisonous." - Distinguishing whether or not its an argument can come down to whether something is already accepted as fact, which depends upon the audience or the soruce of the passage. AKA

Term

Any word or arrangement of words that may serve as the subject of a statement. Consist of proper names, common names, and descriptive phrases (first president of the United States, author of Hamlet, etc). - Words that are not terms include: verbs, nonsubstantive adjsectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjuncitons, and all nonsyntactic arragements of words.

Is it an argument? If stem-cell research is restricted, then future cures will not materalize. If future cures do not materlize, then people will die prematurely. Therefore, if stem-cell research is restricted, then people will die prematurely.

Argument Conclusion: If stem-cell research is restricted, people will die prematurely.

Argument? Atoms are the basic building blocks of all matter. They can combine to form molecules, whose properties are generally very different from those of the constituent atom. Table salt, for example, a simple chemical compound formed form chlorine and sodium, resembles niether the poisnous gas not the highly reactive metal.

Argument Conclusion:They can combine to form molecules, whose properties are generally very different from those of the constituent atom.

Criteria for lexical definitions

Because the function of a lexical definition is to report the way a word is actaully used in a languag, its often used the most frequqnetly and is what is often referred to as a defintion in laymen's terms. Therefore, we need to use a set of rules to contruct lexcial defintions of our own and define the lexical defintions of others. 1. It should conform to the standards of proper grammar: Vacation is when you don't have to work or school vs vacation means a period during which acitivty is suspended from work or school 2. It should convey the essential meaning of the word being defined: "humans are featherless biopods" does not convey the essential meaning of human because it says nothing about the other attirbutes that distinguish humans from other animals, like reasonaing capacity or sophisicated language use. "Human means the animal that can reason and use sophisiciated language" is much better. 3. It shouldn't be too broad or narrow: Ex. Any warm blooded animal having wings" is too broad to define birds. Ex. "Any warm blooded animal that can fly" is too narrow to define bird 4. It should avoid circularity: This is when the term is defined in terms of tiself or virtually in terms of itself. 5. It should not be negative when it can be affirmative: Ex of affirmative: Concord means harmony. Ex. of negative: concord means the abscnse of dicord. Although some words, like bald or darkness, are intricically negative

Overlaps in inductive arguments

Can occur..like in casual and prediction arguments.

Two distinct patterns of argumentation: horiztonal

Consists of a single argument in which two or more premises provide indepdnet support for a single conclsuion. If one were omottied, it would continue to support the conclusion. - Ex. The selling of human organs should be outlawed. Poor people will sell their organs when disperate. Also, it will encoruage murders to steal organs.

Vagueness and ambiguity in arguments may be conviently explored in the context or conflicting arguments between indivduals. These are called disputes.

Ex. Neil: Mr. Audran abuses his dogs. And how do I know? I saw him spank one of her dogs the other day after the dog jumped on him. Bill: Don't be silly. Dogs need to learn obedience. He is showing that he loves them. - Problem arises around the vagueness of abuse and discipline. When does discipline become abuse. Example of a verbal dispute (dispute over languge). Brenda: Im afriad that Madison is guilty of arson. Last night he confided to me that he was the one who set fire to the school house. Trey: No, you couldn't be more mistaken. No one is guilty until proven in a court of law. - Problem arises in the vagueness of guilty. Example of Factual Dispute(Disputes arising over agreements on facts Keith: I know Fred stole a computer from the school house. Barber said he say him do it. Phil: Thats ridiculous. He's never stolen anyhting. Barber is out to get him. - Here the dispute centers on the facutal issue of whether he stole and Barber told the truth.

Two functions of language that are important to logic: Convey Information & Express or evoke feelings

Ex. The death penealty is cruel and inhuman form of punishment in which hapless prisoners are dragged from their cells and summairly slaughtered only to satiate the bloodlust of a vengeful public. - Cognitive Meaning: Terminology that conveys information - Emotive Meaning: Terminology that expresses or evokes feelings. Ex. Sluaghted, inhumane, bloodlust, tragic, ...etc

Argument? In areas where rats are a problem, it is very difficult to exterminate them with bait poision. Thats because some rats eat enough poison to die but others eat only enough to become sick and then learn tht particular posion taste in the future.

Explanation and argument

Defintion? Stipulative defintions, Lexical definitions, Precising defintions

Group of words that assigns meaning to some group of words. 1. Situplative : Assgins meaning to a word for the first time; coins a new word or gives meaning to an old word. - Its purposeusally to replace a complex expression with a simplier one. - Can also be needed because of a new phenomenon or development (ex. "Liger"). - Also used to set up secret codes: "Operation Overlord" - Because its a completely aribritary assignment of a word for the first time, there is no true of false definition. 2. Lexical: Reports the meaning of a word that is already in exsistence; so, it may be true or false depending on whehter it reports the way the word is actually used. - Helps repvent ambiguity issues by reporting on the various meanings of a word 3. Precising Definition: Purpose is to reduce the vagueness of a word. With precising defintions, one can break through the vaguness of a word and really see if it applys to a situation. - Whenever words are taken from ordinary usage and used in a highly systemic context, such as science math or law, they must be clarified through a precising defintion.

Tip 3 on decision over whether inductive or deductive: Form of argument: categorical syllogism, hypothetical syllogism, disjunctive syllogism, argument based on math; argument based on definition

If no indicator words and does not follow probably or necessairly, this is good to use. - Many arguments have a distincitve character of form that indicates that the premises are supposed to provide absolute support for the conclusion: 1. Argument based on math: argument thats conclusion depends purely on some arthematic or geometirc (not usally statisitcs) computation or measurement. Ex. Shopper places 2 ornages and 2 apples in a bag and then conlcudes that the bag contains 4 pieces of fruit. OR surveying sqaure land with 10 feet on each side and conclude its area is 100 feet. 2. Argument from definition: argument in which the conlclusion is claimed to depend on the definiotn of some word or phrase used in premise on conclusion. Ex. Because Doug is fat, he has a unusal amount of body weight. 3. Catergorical Syllogism: Syllogism is an argument with two premises and one conclusion. This is a syllogism with each statement begining with the words "all, no, or some." (All German forest are a source of wonder. Some German forest are targets of the timber industry. Therefore, some soruces of wonder are targets of the timber timber industry). 4. Hypothetical syllogism: has an If/then statement for one or both of its premises. (If estate taxes are abolished, then wealth will accumulate disproportiately. If wealth accumulates disproportiately, then democracy will be threatend. Therefore, if estate taxes are abolished, democracy will be threatened). 5. Disjunctive syllogism: has a disjunstive either/or statment. ( Either global warming will be arrested, or hurricanes will become more intense. Global warming will not be arrested. Therefore, hurricanes will become more intense.)

Unlike validity with valid deductive arguments (if premises true conclusion HAS to be true if it follows), inductive allows for degrees.

If probability is 50% of higher, then conclusion is probably true and this strong. As probability increases, argument becomes stronger. - Ex. "Barrell has 100 oranges. Three apples selected a random were found to be ripe. Therefore, probably all 100 apples were right." Weak; could be strenthend or weakend by larger or smaller sample - Ex. "Barell contains 100 apples. Eighty apples selcted at random were found to be ripe. Therefore, probably all 100 apples are ripe. " Strong; could be strengthened or weakend by larger or stronger sample.

How do we know its an argument? Implicit vs explicit claims

It is trying to prove something. It will have at least one premise and one conclusion. - It is NOT necessary that the premises present actual evidence or true reasons nor the premises actually support the conlsuion in order to be an argument. But, the premises must claim to present evidence or reasoning and there must be a claim that the evidence or reasoning supports or implies something. - Explicit claims are usually asserted by premise or conclusion indicator words. Ex. Flu virus has yet to be eradicated, and it kills on average 25% of those it infects. Thus, the Flu remains a threat. - Implicit claim: exsist if there is an inferential relationship between the statements in the passage, but the passage contains no indicator words. Ex. Genetically modifying foods is risky. It can introduce unitneded changes to the DNA of the food-producing organism, and these changes can be toxic to the consumer. *First sentence is the conlsuon, and the second setnece is a premise that is implicit in supporting the conclusion.

Intentional definitions

One that assigns meaning to a word by indicating the qualities or attirbutes that the word connotates. 4 types: 1. Synonymous: defintion that is a single word that connotes the same attributes as the word being defined. Aka the defintion is a sysnomn for the word being defined. Ex. Physciian means "doctor" 2. Etymological defintion: Defines a word by discolsing the word's ancestory in its own language and others. 3. By genus and differnce:defines by assinging a meaning to a term by identifying its genus term and one or more difference words that, when combined, convey the menaing of the term being defined. In logic, genus is a relatively larger class to which the term belongs. Ex. Cat belongs to the genus animal. A specicies is a subclass within a genus. Ex. Feline is a subclass for animal. Specific diffence distunguises one speciees from another within a genus (ex. Felines are furry and have claws and purr)Genus and speciies consist of combining a term denoted by genus with a word or gorup of words connoting a specific difference so that the combination idintifies the meaning of the term denoting the speciies. Ex. Ice's genus is water, and and we now denote a specific diffence/attribute that makes ice a speicifcla form (species) of water: "Ice is water that is frozen." 4. Operational defintion: Assigns meaning to a word by specifying certain experimental producesures that determine whether or not it applys to a certain thing. Ex. "Brain acivity means a oscograph shows osicillations when applied to a patient's head."

Simple Noninferential Passages: warnings, pieces of advice, Statement of beleif/opinion; loosely associated statements; report

Passages that lack a claim that anything is being proved. Such passages contain statemetns that could be premsies or conclsuons, or both. Whats missing is a claim that any potential premises support a conclusion or a potential conclusion is supported by premises. Examples include warnings, pieces of advice, statements of belief or opinion, loosely associated statements, and reports. - Warning: a form of expression that is intended to put someone on guard against a dangerous or detrimental situtation. "Watch out that you don't slip on ice." "Never tell blabbermouth Jenny your secrets!" If no evidence is given to prove that such statements are true, there is no argumenet. - Piece of advice: Form of expresision that makes a reccoemndation about some future decison or course of conduct; with usally no suport or reasons offered if no evidence intended to prove anything, its not an argument. Ex. "Before accepting a job, I suggest you examne your coruse load. Will you have time for it all?" - Opinion: expression of what someone believes about something; if no claim that is is supproted by evidence or that it is in itself supporting evidence, its not an argument. "We believe that our company must produce great products that meet our cusotmer's needs." - Loosely associated statements: may be about same general subject, but it lacks claim that a claim that one of them is proved by the others. "Not to honor men of worth will keep the people from contention; not to value goods that are hard to come by will keep them from theft; not to display what is deseriable will keep their mind from being unsettled." - Report: a group of statements that convey info about some topic or event. "The Civil war was mainly fought in the South, and the North had many advantages, etc" OR "Witnesses say they heard a loud crash as the plane hit the building. At least 1,000 people were injured, etc..." -

Identify premise and conclusion: The stakes in whistleblowing are high. Take the nurse who alleges that physicans enrich themselves in her hostpital through unecessary surgery, the engineer who discloses safety defects in a fleet of new rapid-transit vechicles, the Defense Department offical who alerts Congress to military graft and overspending: all know theybpose a threat to those whom they denounce and their own careers may be at risk,

Premise:Take the nurse who alleges that physicans enrich themselves in her hostpital through unecessary surgery, the engineer who discloses safety defects in a fleet of new rapid-transit vechicles, the Defense Department offical who alerts Congress to military graft and overspending: all know theybpose a threat to those whom they denounce and their own careers may be at risk, - Conclusion:The stakes in whistleblowing are high.

Statements can have a congnotive meaning and emotive meaning.

Since logic is concerned with cognotive menaings, we must learn to untangle the cognotive meaning of emotiaonl statements like "The Death Penealty is a cruel and inhuman form of punishment." The cognotive meaning in such a statement is the value claim (a claim that something is good, bad, right, wrong, better, wrose, more or less important, etc). - Why do people use emotive language in value claims? Value claims oftern need evidence to support them, and emotive language plays a faux role in that regard. - Example of someone using emoitve language to boolster their argument: "Now that we know that the rocks on the moon are similar to those in our backyard and that tadpoles can exsist in a weightless enviroment, and now that we have put the Middle East in order, can we concentrate on the problees here at home? Like paying the baby boomers their social security." The conclusion is that our government should spend more money solving domestic problems. He uses degrading and exaggerating langauge in the process of his argument. -I can recontruct this argument to value it on its merits: The space program consist of studying rocks and tadpoles. Domestic problems are more important than rocks or tadpoles. We have instilled order in the Middle East but not our own nation. All of these efforts are less important than our domestic problems, so therefore our governement should redirect funds to our domestic problems. - We now see that this argument is riddled with falsehoods and is thus not very strong.

Valid arguments in which the form is not apparent:

The argument in the previous excerise did not have an apparent form because it was incomplete. So how can he reconclie the exsistene of such argument with the claim that validity is determined by form? When such arguments are completed and correctly phrased, the form becomes apparent Ex. Geese are migratoty waterfowl, so they fly fouth for the winter......this has a missing premise that all migratory waterfowl fly south for the winter. When added in to complete the argument, the form becomes apparent: All A's are B. All B's are C. All A's are C. - The invalid form of this argument: All A are B. All C are B. All A are C. Every substituion instance of a valid form is a valid argument, but it is not the case that evey substituion instance of an invalid form is an invalid argument....some substition instances of invalid forms are also subsittuion instances of valid forms (ex. All bachelors are persons. All unamrried men are persons. Therefore, all bachleors are unmarried men; this is valid because bachelors also means unamrried men), but this is the only exception, otherwise its invalid.

Inductive Argument Forms: prediction, analogy; generalization; from authority; signs; causal inference

Usually the conclusion goes beyond the content of the prmeises; premises are usally familiar subjects and the conlusion moves to something less familiar. 1. Argument proceeds from knowledge about the past to a claim about the future. (ex. Because certain whether patterns have been observed in OIB, a storm will occur today 2. Argument that depends on analogy or similairty between two things or states of affairs; because of the exsistence of this analogy, a certain condition that affects the betteer-known thing is conlcuded to affect the similar lesser known situation. (Because Dad's toyota has been reliable, my truck will be reliable too). 3. An argument that proceeds from a selcted sample to make a claim about a whole group. 4. Argument from authority: Argument that premuses somthing is true because an alledged expert said it is. (HP's stock will go up because a famous stock broker said so OR the person is guilty because an eyewitness said so) 5. Proceeds from a sign (any kind of message produced by an intelligent being; ex. road sign) to a claim about the thing or situation that the sign symbolizes. 6. Proceeds from knowledge about a cause to a claim about an effect or from knowledge about n affect to a claim about a cause.

How to test argument for validity

We begin by assuming all premises are true, and then we determine if it is possible, in light of that assumption, for the conclusion to be false. - Ex. "All televison networks are media companines. NBC is a televison network. Therefore, NBC is a media company." It is impossible for the conclusion to be false. - Ex 2. "All colleges are philantropist. The Red Cross is a philantorpist. Therefore, The Red Cross is a college." We gain assume that both premises are true, and in this case it is possible for the conlcusion to be false. This demonstrates that validity is indepent of the truth value of the premises or conclusion; rather, validity is determined by the relationship between the premises and conclusion (aka do the premises support the conclusion?). Exception: if premises are true and conclusion is false, its still invalid.