LOGIC
Which proposition seems to need some justification? Or which statement is the most controversial claim
CONCLUSION
Is the following inductive argument strong or weak? Shane tossed a coin ten times, and in each case it came up heads. Therefore, the next toss will be head
Weak. References: That it came up heads ten times in a row has no bearing on the next toss; each coin toss is an independent event, each having a 50-50 chance of heads or tails.
Unstated premise
When analyzing an argument with this premise we must seek to make it explicit , for example: write it out
Directives
When we find these we must reword and paraphrase them to bring out the essential statement as it functions in the argument as a whole
strong argument
Inductive argument that the premises are assumed to be true then the conclusion is probably true
cogent argument
is an inductive argument that is strong and has all true premises. Also, the premises must be true in the sense of meeting the total evidence requirement
cogent argument
is an inductive argument that is strong and has all true premises. Also, the premises must be true in the sense of meeting the total evidence requirement Strong + At Least One False Premise = Uncogent Weak = Uncogent
uncogent argument
is an inductive argument that is weak, has one or more false premises, fails to meet the total evidence requirement, or any combination of these. Strong + At Least One False Premise = Uncogent Weak = Uncogent
premise indicators
since, as indicated by ,because ,for, in that may be inferred from, as given that, seeing that ,for the reason that, in as much as owing to
proposition
the meaning or information content of a statement
Conclusion
the statement that the evidence is claimed to support or imply the supported sentence
premises
the statements that set forth the reasons or evidence The information intended to provide support for a conclusion
Homo habilis
(man of skill) first to make stone tools and have abstract thought. A combination of memory and imagination that allows pattern recognition
conditional
-Neither propositions are asserted -both could be false and conditional could still be true. -if there were a hurricane, class would be cancelled
Conjunction
-both elements(or each conjunct) are asserted as true. -The British were the gates of Hamburg and Bremen
Disjunction
-neither is asserted -for the proposition to be true only one disjunct must be true; sometimes both could be true. -Circuit Courts are useful, or they are not useful.
Statement
An unknown truth value
Diagramming an argument
1. Number the propositions as they appear in the original passage 2. Create a two dimension model of the inferences within the argument 3. With this, you must circle every number and utilize arrows pointing downward to show the inferences be argument as whole.
Culture
A shared system of belief about the level of reality not present to the senses manifesting as a lens through which we create a SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED REALITY
Does the following passage contain an argument? Knowledge is held to be successful cognition, the result of reflective processes characterized by careful thinking and explicit defense of claims via reasoned argument. For something to count as a reason, a thinker must (also) have reason to believe it is true. This straightforwardly implies that knowledge must be based in infinite series of justification.
Argument. References: The conclusion is the last sentence, as indicated by the introductory phrase "this straightforwardly implies that . . . "
Which proposition seems to need some justification?
Conclusion
Which statement has the most controversial claim?
Conclusion
Is the following argument best classified as deductive or inductive? Anyone over 21 years of age can legally play the slot machines in Las Vegas. Sam is 33 years old. Sam can legally play the slot machines in Las Vegas.
Deductive. References: The first premise specifies the minimum age when someone can legally play the slot machines in Las Vegas. The second premise tells us Sam is 33 years old. If both premises are true, then the conclusion is necessarily true. This question is number 13 in the book.
Is the following argument best classified as deductive or inductive? All fires need oxygen. There is no oxygen in that room. So there is no fire in that room.
Deductive. References: The first premise tells us something about all fires. If both premises are assumed to be true, then the conclusion is necessarily true.
Is the following passage an argument or an explanation? Many independent candidates won recent elections, even beating out strong incumbents. It must be because voters are disappointed with the two-party system.
Explanation. References: The first statement establishes that something has already occurred. The statement "It must be because voters are disappointed with the two-party system" is offered as an explanation of the fact.
Is the following passage an argument or an explanation? To make Windows Phone 7 a success, Microsoft has to win over not just phone manufacturers and phone companies, but software developers. The iPhone and Android are popular in part because of the tens of thousands of tiny applications, or "apps," made by outside software developers. - Newspaper article, "Microsoft Bets Big on New Phone Software"
Explanation. References: The information is offered to explain why "the iPhone and Android are popular." It is not clear if the speaker is also trying to support the truth of the first sentence with the second. If it were, that would be an argument. This question is number 13 in the book.
Interwoven arguments
Found in a single passage when there is more than one conclusion
Is the following argument best classified as deductive or inductive? Most Doberman dogs bark a lot. My cousin just got a Doberman dog. Therefore, my cousin's Doberman dog will probably bark a lot.
Inductive. References: We are told something about most Doberman dogs. Also, the use of the word "probably" in the conclusion indicates that it is best classified as an inductive argument. This question is number 17 in the book.
Paraphrasing an argument
List the premises and conclusions, rewording to simplify the language where it's appropriate to get essential propositions
How do you paraphrase an argument?
Listing the premises above a line in order of their appearance in the original passage, and then restating the conclusion below the line.
Logic
Logic is the study of reasoning. Its aim is to distinguish correct from incorrect reasoning by establishing the rules or patterns of successful arguments. Typically, we begin a study of logic with a discussion of certain features of language essential to arguments.
Proposition
Meaning of a sentence
Does the following passage contain an argument? The only people who really listen to an argument are the neighbors.
No argument. References: The conclusion is "The handprint on the wall had not been made by the librarian himself." The premises are "there hadn't been blood on his hands" and "the print did not match his [the librarian's]." This question is number 41 in the book.
Does the following passage contain an argument? Look here Vita—throw over your man, and we'll go to Hampton Court and dine on the river together and walk in the garden in the moonlight and come home late and have a bottle of wine and get tipsy, and I'll tell you all the things I have in my head, millions, myriads—They won't stir by day, only by dark on the river. Think of that. Throw over your man, I say, and come. - From a letter by Virginia Woolf
No argument. References: While Woolf is definitely trying to convince Sackville-West to "throw over [her] man," describing what they will do together does not give premises to establish the truth of a conclusion. Spinning an enticement is not necessarily an argument.
Does the following passage contain an argument? Authoritarian governments are identified by ready government access to information about the activities of citizens and by extensive limitations on the ability of citizens to obtain information about the government. In contrast, democratic governments are marked by significant restrictions on the ability of government to acquire information about its citizens and by ready access by citizens to information about the activities of government. - Robert G. Vaughn, "Transparency—The Mechanisms"
No....References: The passage provides a definition of "authoritarian governments" and a definition of "democratic governments." Although there is no direct conclusion, the author's choice of definitions indicates his point of view.
Does the following passage contain an argument? The greatest tragedy in mankind's entire history may be the hijacking of morality by religion. - Arthur C. Clarke, Collected Essays
No...References: This is a claim, but no reasons are given to show it is true.
Statement
Not a question, commend, or explanation
Cascade of arguments
One special form of interwoven arguments is THE CASCADE OF ARGUMENTS, in which a single proposition functions as both conclusion and premise of another 3 Arrow 2 Arrow 1
Which proposition is a reason for believing the true or probability of another proposition?
PREMISE
Which proposition is a reason for believing the truth or probability of another proposition?
Premise
Conclusion
Proposition that is affirmed on the basis of the other propositions of the argument
Rhetorical questions
Sometimes we find sentences in an apparent argument that are not in declarative form
Premise =
Statement
Conclusion
Statement claimed to follow from the premise
Premise
Statement intended to provide support for a conclusion
Is the following inductive argument strong or weak? Most fruit have seeds. I am eating an orange, so I am eating something with seeds.
Strong. References: If the premise is true, most fruit have seeds, this is a fruit, and so it probably follows that the conclusion is true. This question is number 9 in the book.
Argument
Structure group of propositions reflecting an inference
In the following argument, identify the conclusion. At one time Gary Kasparov had the highest ranking of any chess grand master in history. However, he was beaten in a chess tournament by a computer program called Deep Blue, so the computer program should be given a ranking higher than Kasparov.
The computer program should be given a ranking higher than Kasparov..
Inference
The reasoning process expressed by an argument
Inference
The relationship of support from the premise or premises to the conclusion
Conclusion indicators
Therefore, wherefore, thus, consequently, we may infer, accordingly, we may conclude, it must be that for this reason, so, entails that, hence, it follows that, implies that as a result
Why do you paraphrase an argument?
This technique allows us to see the most basic structure of argument... what are the premises and what is the main conclusions
In the following argument, identify the conclusion. We should never take our friends for granted. True friends are there when we need them. They suffer with us when we fail, and they are happy when we succeed.
We should never take our friends for granted..
Does the following passage contain an argument? She won the lottery, so she will quit her job soon.
Yes...References: The premise "She won the lottery" is offered as a reason to conclude that "she will quit her job soon." This question is number 9 in the book.
invalid deductive argument
a deductive argument in which it is possible for the conclusion to be false given that the premises are true.
unsound argument
a deductive argument that is invalid, has one or more false premises, or both
sound argument
a deductive argument that is valid and has all true premises.
Argument
a group of statements, one or more of which (the premises) are claimed to provide support for, or reasons to believe, one of the oth- ers (the conclusion). 2 or more propositions involving an inference
statement
a sentence that is either true or false—in other words, typically a declarative sentence or a sentence component that could stand as a declarative sentence. A statement is a sentence that is either true or false, that is, a statement has a truth value. Statements are the primary building blocks of an argument.
valid deductive argument
an argument in which it is impossible for the conclusion to be false given that the premises are true
deductive argument
an argument incorporating the claim that it is impossible for the conclusion to be false given that the premises are true.
inductive argument
an argument incorporating the claim that it is improbable that the conclusion be false given that the premises are true
explanation
an expression that purports to shed light on some event or phenomenon. e event or phenomenon in question is usually accepted as a matter of fact
weak argument
an inductive argument such the premises are assumed to be true, then the conclusion is probably not true
Does the following passage contain an argument? She doesn't eat pork, chicken, beef, mutton, veal, venison, turkey, or fish. It follows that she must be a vegetarian.
yes... References: The phrase "It follows that" identifies the conclusion "she must be a vegetarian."