LSAT Flaw Examples 2

"People who participate in opinion surveys often give answers they believe the opinion surveyor expects to hear, and it is for this reason that some opinion surveys do not reflect the actual views of those being surveyed. However, in well-constructed surveys, the questions are worded so as to provide respondents with no indication of which answers the surveyor might expect. So if a survey is well constructed, survey respondents' desire to meet surveyors' expectations has no effect on the survey's results."

Overvalues a Trait - The author takes for granted that since well-constructed surveys remove one way that the respondents could be influenced, that their usual bias can't be in effect anymore - The author fails to consider that respondents could find some other way to guess what the surveyor expects in a response - Perhaps the respondents could use something other than question wording to get a clue

"Grasses and woody plants are planted on dirt embankments to keep the embankments from eroding. The embankments are mowed to keep the grasses from growing too tall; as a result, clippings pile up. These piles of clippings smother the woody plants, causing their roots, which serve to keep the embankments from eroding, to rot; they also attract rodents that burrow into the dirt and damage the woody plants' roots. Therefore, bringing in predators to eradicate the rodents will prevent erosion of the embankments."

Overvalues a Trait - The author takes for granted that suggesting a solution to one of two problems is sufficient to solving the problem - The author fails to consider that the predators may not have an impact on the other cause

"One theory attributes the ability of sea butterflies to avoid predation to their appearance, while another attributes this ability to various chemical compounds they produce. Recently we added each of the compounds to food pellets, one compound per pellet. Predators ate the pellets no matter which one of the compounds was present. Thus the compounds the sea butterflies produce are not responsible for their ability to avoid predation."

Overvalues a Trait - The author takes for granted that the compounds, on their own, will produce the same effect that they would when combined - The author fails to consider that the compounds need to be used together to work correctly

"A group of citizens opposes developing a nearby abandoned railroad grade into a hiking trail. Its members argue that trail users will likely litter the area with food wrappers and other debris. But this objection is groundless. Most trail users will be dedicated hikers who have great concern for the environment. Consequently, development of the trail should proceed."

Overvalues a Trait - The author takes for granted that the conclusion is true just because a criticism of the conclusion is wrong (it doesn't prove that we should develop the trail) - The author fails to consider that there may be other reasons not to develop - Perhaps the trail will be too costly to maintain, not many people will use it, or they'll put a train line back in someday

"Research has shown that inhaling the scent of lavender has measurable physiological effects tending to reduce stress. It is known that intense stress can impair the immune system, making one more susceptible to illness. Therefore, it is likely that the incidence of illness among those who regularly inhale the scent of lavender is reduced by this practice."

Overvalues a Trait - The author takes for granted that the people who regularly inhale the lavender scent would in fact experience the amount of stress that would hurt their immune system - The author fails to consider that if this were not the case, then the lavender would not actually matter

"The chief of police has indicated that gifts of cash or objects valued at more than $100 count as graft. However, I know with certainty that no officer in my precinct has ever taken such gifts, so the recent accusations of graft in my precinct are unfounded."

Overvalues a Trait - The author takes for granted that there are no other instances of graft besides the acceptance of such gifts - The author fails to consider that there may be other instances of graft besides those indicated by the chief of police

"Certain methods of creating high-quality counterfeit banknotes involve making accurate measurements of the images printed on genuine banknotes. Hence, if the production of high-quality counterfeit banknotes is to be prevented, some of the images on banknotes must be made very difficult or impossible to measure accurately."

Overvalues a Trait - The author takes for granted that there isn't any other way to stop counterfeit banknotes, and hence that the proposed method must be implemented - The author fails to consider that there are other ways to stop counterfeit banknotes

"For years, university administrators, corporations, and government agencies have been predicting an imminent and catastrophic shortage of scientists and engineers. But since there is little noticeable upward pressure on the salaries of scientists and engineers, and unemployment is as high in these fields as any other, these doomsayers are turning out to be wrong."

Overvalues a Trait - The author takes for granted that these two facts are, by themselves, enough to show that there is no immune shortage of engineers - The author fails to consider that maybe there are some more pressing concerns [Strengthen] - Point to an additional reason why we won't have a catastrophic shortage of scientists and engineers

"To substantially reduce the amount of carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere, carbon dioxide should be captured and pumped deep into the oceans, where it would dissolve. The cool, dense water in ocean depths takes centuries to mix with the warmer water near the surface, so any carbon dioxide pumped deep into oceans would be trapped there for centuries."

Overvalues a Trait - The author takes for granted that trapping the carbon dioxide for centuries won't have some kind of later negative effect that would counteract the immediate benefit to this solution - Perhaps after centuries pass, the trapped carbon dioxide was released with triple the negative effects it would have otherwise

"To win democratic elections that are not fully subsidized by the government, nonwealthy candidates must be supported by wealthy patrons. This makes plausible the belief that these candidates will compromise their views to win that support. But since the wealthy are dispersed among the various political parties in roughly equal proportion to their percentage in the overall population, this belief is false."

Overvalues a Trait - The author takes for granted that candidates will only compromise their views in response to the uneven distribution of wealthy patrons across parties - The author fails to consider that the views of wealthy patrons might be unevenly distributed within parties, and that candidates could be tempted to alter their views to attract patrons from within their own party

"For the treatment of a particular disease, Dr. Sullivan argues for using nutritional supplements rather than the pharmaceuticals that most doctors prescribe. But this is in his self-interest since he is paid to endorse a line of nutritional supplements. Thus, we should not use nutritional supplements in treating the disease."

Overvalues an Opinion - The author takes for granted that since Dr. Sullivan's solution benefits him, that his recommendation must be wrong - The author fails to consider that Dr. Sullivan's solution may actual have merit to it

"A careful study of the behavior of six individual chameleons concluded that lizards such as chameleons bask in the sun not only for warmth but also to regulate their production of vitamin D. Critics of the study—although correct in observing that its sample size was very small—are wrong to doubt its results. After all, the study's author is well regarded professionally and has been doing excellent work for years."

Overvalues an Opinion - The author takes for granted that since the study's author is well regarded and does good work, that the author cannot be wrong - The author fails to consider that the author may still be wrong, despite being well regarded and doing good work

"Union leaders argue that increases in multinational control of manufacturing have shifted labor to nations without strong worker protections, resulting in a corresponding global decrease in workers' average wages. Given that these leaders have a vested interest in seeing wages remain high, they would naturally want to convince legislators to oppose multinational control. Thus, legislators should reject this argument."

Overvalues an Opinion - The author takes for granted that the union leaders' stance is wrong because they have a vested interested in their position - The author fails to consider that just because someone has a vested interest in a stance they take, that doesn't automatically mean that their stance is wrong

"In one study, hospital patients' immune systems grew stronger when the patients viewed comic videos. This indicates that laughter can aid recovery from illness. But much greater gains in immune system strength occurred in the patients whose tendency to laugh was greater to begin with. So hospital patients with a greater tendency to laugh are helped more in their recovery from illness even when they laugh a little than other patients are helped when they laugh a greater amount."

Reasoning Issue (Falsely Equates Characteristics) - The author fails to consider how much each group laughs - The author takes for granted that the group with a greater tendency to laugh didn't laugh as much - The author fails to consider that those who tend to laugh, laughed more at the comic videos, and this is why they recovered faster

"At one sitting, a typical doughnut eater consumes 4 doughnuts containing a total of 680 calories and 40 grams of fat. The typical bagel eater consumes exactly one bagel, at 500 calories and one or two grams of fat per sitting, though the addition of spreads can raise calories and fat content to the four-doughnut range. Thus, as far as total calories content is concerned, there is very little difference between what a typical doughnut eater and a typical bagel eater each consumes at one sitting."

Reasoning Issue (Falsely Equates Characteristics) - The author fails to consider what else the people eat at one sitting when they sit down to eat doughnuts - Perhaps a doughnut eater would put jam on a doughnut, which would increase the calorie count

"XYZ, a construction company, purchased 20 new trucks 3 years ago, and there is no record of any of those trucks being sold last year. Records indicate, however, that XYZ sold off all of its diesel-powered trucks last year. We can thus conclude that none of the 20 trucks purchased 3 years ago was diesel powered."

Reasoning Issue (Falsely Equates Characteristics) - The author takes for granted that XYZ's records are accurate - The author takes for granted that there wasn't a diesel truck purchased 3 years ago that was sold before last year - Perhaps the real reason that no 3-year-old diesel trucks were sold last year wasn't that none had been purchased, but that they'd all been sold already

"It is likely that most of the new television programs Wilke & Wilke produce for this season will be canceled. Most of the new shows they produced last season were canceled due to insufficient viewership. Furthermore, their new shows are all police dramas, and few police dramas have been popular in recent years."

Reasoning Issue (Falsely Equates Characteristics) - The author takes for granted that all of the new shows that Wilke & Wilke produced last year that were cancelled were police dramas [Strengthen] - Look for an answer choice that makes its more likely that the new television programs that they will produce will be cancelled

"Gamma ray bursts (GRBs) -- explosions of powerful radiation from deep space -- have traditionally been classified as either "short" or "long," terms that reflect the explosion's relative duration. However, an unusual GRB has been sighted. Its duration was long, but in every other respect it had the properties of a short GRB. Clearly, the descriptive labels "short" and "long" have now outlived their usefulness."

Reasoning Issue (Falsely Equates Characteristics) - The author takes for granted that because the GRB does not conform to the traditional classifications that these descriptive labels are no longer useful - The author assumes that other factors may be more important in distinguishing such GRBs

"Satellite navigation systems (satnavs) for cars, in which computer voices announce directions as you drive, save fuel and promote safety. Studies show that, when assigned to novel destinations, drivers using satnavs took, on average, 7 percent fewer miles per journey than drivers using paper maps. Fewer miles driven means, on average, less fuel consumed. Also, the drivers who used satnavs drove more carefully in that they were not taking their eyes off the road to check paper maps."

Reasoning Issue (Falsely Equates Characteristics) - The author takes for granted that drivers not taking their eyes off the road equates to safe driving - The author fails to consider that despite keeping their eyes on the road, satnavs may not entirely promote safety [Strengthen] - Looking for an answer choice that ties satnav given drivers directions to promoting safety

"A study of guppy fish shows that a male guppy will alter its courting patterns in response to feedback from a female guppy. Males with more orange on one side than the other were free to vary which side they showed to a female. Females were drawn to those males with more orange showing, and males tended to show the females their more orange side when courting."

Reasoning Issue (Falsely Equates Characteristics) - The author takes for granted that feedback from the females made the males decide to show their orange side - The author fails to consider that maybe guppies are hardwired to show their orange side, no matter what the females do [Strengthen] - Show that the females definitely influence the males' behavior

"In an experiment, two groups of mice—one whose diet included ginkgo extract and one that had a normal diet—were taught to navigate a maze. The mice whose diet included ginkgo were more likely to remember how to navigate the maze the next day than were the other mice. However, the ginkgo may not have directly enhanced memory. Other studies have found that ginkgo reduces stress in mice, and lowering very high stress levels is known to improve recall."

Reasoning Issue (Falsely Equates Characteristics) - The author takes for granted that gingko could not have directly enhanced memory, as it was likely the reduced stress levels that directly enhanced recall - The author fails to consider that gingko may still have been directly responsible for the improved recall as it facilitated the lowered stress levels [Weaken] - Look for an answer choice that makes it more likely that the gingko in mice's diets may have directly enhanced memory

"There is no doubt that the government is responsible for the increased cost of gasoline, because the government's policies have significantly increased consumer demand for fuel, and as a result of increasing demand, the price of gasoline has risen steadily."

Reasoning Issue (Falsely Equates Characteristics) - The author takes for granted that government policies resulting in increased gasoline prices is sufficient for the government being responsible for such an effect

"A recent study revealed that people who follow precisely all the standard recommendations for avoidance of infection by pathogenic microorganisms in meat-based foods are more likely to contract disease caused by these pathogens than are those who deviate considerably from the standard recommendations. Hence, the standard recommendations for avoidance of infection by these pathogens must be counterproductive."

Context Issue - The author takes for granted that taking precautions are counterproductive as those who follow all the recommendations are more likely to get sick - The author fails to consider that precautions can help, even if they don't eliminate the problem - The author fails to consider that the group that followed the instructions precisely has a higher risk (weaker immune systems, eats more regularly, has less sanitary meat, etc.)

"To cut costs, a high school modified its air-conditioning system to increase its efficiency. The modified system, however, caused the humidity in the school air to decrease by 18 percent. Twenty-four hours after the decrease I air humidity, a 25 percent increase in the number of visits to the school nurse was reported. This shows that a decrease in humidity can make people ill."

Correlation ≠ Causation - The author falsely assumes that a correlation between decrease in humidity and increase in illness is sufficient to claim a causal relationship between the two - The author takes for granted that increased reports of visits to the school nurse really indicate an increase in illness - The author takes for granted that there is no other explanation for the increased visits to the school nurse

"Kennel club members who frequently discipline their dogs report a higher incidence of misbehavior than do members who rarely or never discipline their dogs. We can conclude from that that discipline does not improve dogs' behavior; on the contrary, it encourages misbehavior."

Correlation ≠ Causation - The author falsely assumes that a correlation between discipline and misbehavior is sufficient to claim a causal relationship between the two - The author fails to consider that perhaps the misbehavior is the cause of the discipline, and not the other way around

"A survey published in a leading medical journal in the early 1970s found that the more frequently people engaged in aerobic exercise, the lower their risk of lung disease tended to be. Since other surveys have confirmed these results, it must be the case that aerobic exercise has a significant beneficial effect on people's health."

Correlation ≠ Causation - The author falsely assumes that a correlation between frequent exercise and lower risk of lung disease is sufficient to claim a causal relationship between the two - The author fails to consider that something else could be causing the lower risk of lung disease

"The Duke of Acredia argued long ago that only virtuous Arcedian rulers concerned with the well-being of the people will be able to rule successfully. Since then, when Acredian governments have fallen, their falls have always been during the rule of one who viciously disregards the people's needs. The Rule, then, was right about at least one thing: Concern for the welfare of the people is necessary for the successful governance of Acredia."

Correlation ≠ Causation - The author falsely assumes that a correlation between government having fallen during the rule of one who disregards the people's needs is equivalent to a causation between the two - The author fails to consider that the governments are failing for some other reason besides a lack of concern for the people's welfare (i.e., a weak military)

"Recently, some religions have updated the language of their traditional texts and replaced traditional rituals with more contemporary ones. These changes have been followed by increases in attendance at places of worship affiliated with these religions. This shows that any such modernization will result in increased numbers of worshipers."

Correlation ≠ Causation - The author falsely assumes that a correlation between modernization and an increased number of worshipers is sufficient to cite a causal relationship between the two - The author fails to consider that there is some other factor causing the increased number of worshipers, and the timing of the modernization is just a coincidence

"Two lakes in the Pawpaw mountains, Quapaw and Highwater, were suffering from serious declines in their fish populations ten years ago. Since that time, there has been a moratorium on fishing at Quapaw Lake, and the fish population there has recovered. At Highwater Lake, no such moratorium has been imposed, and the fish population has continued to decline. Thus, the ban on fishing is probably responsible for the rebound in the fish population at Quapaw Lake."

Correlation ≠ Causation - The author falsely assumes that a correlation between the moratorium on fishing and the recovery of the fish population at Quapaw Lake is sufficient to cite a causal relationship - The author fails to consider that some other factor may be responsible for the rebound in fish population [Weaken] - Look for an answer choice that points to some other cause for the effect than the one cited by the author

"At a large elementary school researchers studied a small group of children who successfully completed an experimental program in which they learned to play chess. The study found that most of the children who completed the program soon showed a significant increase in achievement levels in all of their schoolwork. Thus, it is likely that the reasoning power and spatial intuition exercised in chess-playing also contribute to achievement in many other areas of intellectual activity."

Correlation ≠ Causation - The author falsely assumes that a correlation between the reasoning power and spatial intuition exercised in chess-playing and increase in academic achievement is sufficient to citing a causal relationship between the two [Weaken] - Find an answer choice that provides a different reason/cause for the phenomenon/effect

"A recent study showed that the immune system blood cells of the study's participants who drank tea but no coffee took half as long to respond to germs as did the blood cells of participants who drank coffee but no tea. Thus, drinking tea boosted the participants' immune system defenses."

Correlation ≠ Causation - The author takes for granted that a correlation between drinking tea and immune system response is sufficient to cite a causal relationship between the two - The author fails to consider the effect that coffee plays on the process - The author takes for granted that coffee didn't play a part in the blood cells' positive response

"The consumer price index is a measure that detects monthly changes in the retail prices of goods and services. The payment of some government retirement benefits is based on the consumer price index so that those benefits reflect the change in the cost of living as the index changes. However, the consumer price index does not consider technological innovations that may drastically reduce the cost of producing some goods. Therefore, the value of government benefits is sometimes greater than is warranted by the true change in costs."

Falsely Equates Subject Matter - The author takes for granted that the cost of producing goods is equivalent to the cost of buying those goods - The author fails to consider that the technological innovations must just help the manufacturers make more profit, without making the stuff they sell any cheaper

"If you buy a watch at a department store and use it only in the way it was intended to be used, but the watch stops working the next day, then the department store will refund your money. So by this very reasonable standard, Bingham's Jewelry Store should give me a refund even though they themselves are not a department store, since the watch I bought from them stopped working the very next day."

Falsely Equates Subject Matter - The author takes for granted that the policy that applies to department stores also applies to Bingham's - The author takes for granted that the watch in question was used the way it was intended to be used, thereby meeting the conditions of the refund

"People want to be instantly and intuitively liked. Those persons who are perceived as forming opinions of others only after cautiously gathering and weighing the evidence are generally resented. Thus, it is imprudent to appear prudent."

Falsely Equates Subject Matter - The author takes for granted that you shouldn't do anything that makes people resent you

"Any action that is fair never injures anyone. An action does not injure anyone ily if that action is just, and thus every action that is fair must also be just. It follows that, because some merciful actions are just, some merciful actions are fair."

Mistakes Necessary for Sufficient Conditions - The author confuses a necessary condition for something to be fair for a sufficient condition

"If you take something that you have good reason to think is someone else's property, that is stealing, and stealing is wrong. However, Meyers had no good reason to think that the compost in the public garden was anyone else's property, so it was not wrong for Meyers to take it."

Mistakes Sufficient for Necessary - The author takes for granted that since knowingly taking something is sufficient to make an action wrong, that the action is necessary in order for an action to be wrong - The author fails to consider that stealing is not the only reason that an action might be wrong - The author takes for granted that just because stealing is wrong doesn't mean that any action that isn't stealing isn't wrong for some other reason

"Punishment for crimes is justified if it actually deters people from committing them. But a great deal of carefully assembled and analyzed empirical data show clearly that punishment is not a deterrent. So punishment is never justified."

Mistakes Sufficient for Necessary Conditions - The author takes for granted that a condition that is sufficient for justifying punishment is equivalent to a necessary condition - The author fails to consider that there are many other things that justify punishment for a crime

"Last year, a software company held a contest to generate ideas for their new logo. According to the rules, everyone who entered the contest would receive several prizes, including a T-shirt with the company's new logo. Juan has a T-shirt with the company's new logo, so he must have entered the contest."

Mistakes Sufficient for Necessary Conditions - The author takes for granted that a condition that is sufficient for receiving prizes is necessary for that outcome - The author fails to consider that there are other ways in which Juan could have received the T-shirt, which were unrelated to the contest - Perhaps his manager gave it to him as a reward, he took it from a supply closet, or the marketing team asked him to wear the T-shirt as advertisement

"Two doctrines have been greatly influential in this century. The first holds that the explanation of any historical event must appeal to economic factors. The second attempts to account psychologically for all historical events, especially in terms of early childhood experience. Both doctrines, however, are mistaken. Certainly there have been events that were due both to economic forces and to the nature of the early childhood experiences of the major participants in the event."

Overvalues a Trait - The author fails to consider that something other than industrial by-products have caused the elevated hormonal activity - The author takes for granted that industrial by-products are the only source of elevated hormonal activity

"A mass of "Black water" containing noxious organic material swept through Laurel Bay last year. Some scientists believe that this event was a naturally occurring but infrequent phenomenon. The black water completely wiped out five species of coral in the bay, including mounds of coral that were more than two centuries old. Therefore, even if this black water phenomenon has struck the bay before, it did not reach last year's intensity at any time in the past two centuries."

Overvalues a Trait - The author takes for granted that any black water phenomenon of the same intensity as the one that struck last year would have wiped out the two-century old coral mounds

"A common genetic mutation that lowers levels of the enzyme cathepsin C severely reduces a person's ability to ward off periodontitis, or gum disease. The enzyme triggers immunological reactions that destroy diseased cells and eliminate infections in the mouth. But researchers are developing ways to restore the enzyme to normal levels. Once that happens, we will be able to eliminate periodontitis."

Overvalues a Trait - The author takes for granted that if a person's cathepsin C levels are normal, then that person will not contract periodontitis

"Radio drama requires its listeners to think about what they hear, picturing for themselves such dramatic elements as characters' physical appearances and spatial relationships. Hence, while earlier generations, for whom radio drama was the dominant form of popular entertainment, regularly exercised their imaginations, today's generation of television viewers do so less frequently."

Overvalues a Trait - The author takes for granted that nothing has compensated for the loss of radio drama as an imaginative stimulus

"From time to time there is a public outcry against predatory pricing -- where a company deliberately sells its products at prices low enough to drive its competitors out of business. But this practice clearly should be acceptable, because even after its competitors go out of business, the mere threat of renewed competition will prevent the company from raising its prices to unreasonable levels."

Overvalues a Trait - The author takes for granted that predatory pricing is fine because it won't lead to unreasonably high prices - The author fails to consider that there may be other relevant concerns - Perhaps predatory pricing is unacceptable because it gives bigger businesses an unfair advantage

"Long-term and short-term relaxation training are two common forms of treatment for individuals experiencing problematic levels of anxiety. Yet studies show that on average, regardless of which form of treatment one receives, symptoms of anxiety decrease to a normal level within the short-term-training time period. Thus, for most people the generally more expensive long-term training is unwarranted."

Overvalues a Trait - The author takes for granted that short-term treatment is a better deal than long-term treatment solely based on the difference in price - The author fails to consider that despite the price difference, long-term treatment might have value that short-term treatment lacks [Weaken] - Look for an answer choice that makes it less likely that long-term training is unwarranted

"Increased fuel efficiency reduces air pollution and dependence on imported oil, which has led some people to suggest that automobile manufactures should make cars smaller to increase their fuel efficiency. But smaller cars are more likely to be seriously damaged in collisions and provide less protection for their occupants. Greater fuel efficiency is not worth the added risk to human lives; therefore, manufacturers should not seek to increase fuel efficiency."

Overvalues a Trait - The author takes for granted that since one way of increasing fuel efficiency (making cars smaller) is a bad idea, that we should not pursue fuel efficiency at all - The author fails to consider that there are other possibilities to increasing fuel efficiency - Perhaps better engines, hybrids, or better aerodynamics are better solutions

"The city's previous recycling program, which featured pickup of recyclables every other week, was too costly. The city claims that its new program, which features weekly pickup, will be more cost effective, since the greater the volume of recyclables collected per year, the more revenue the city gains from selling the recyclables. But this is absurd. People will put out the same volume of recyclables overall; it will just be spread out over a greater number of pickups."

Overvalues a Trait - The author takes for granted that since people will put out the same volume of recyclables, just over a greater number of pickups, the new program will not be more cost-effective - The author fails to consider that there may be other factors that determine whether the new program may, in fact, be more cost-effective [Weaken] - Look for an answer choice that provides a reason for why the new program is, in fact, cost-effective

"A neighborhood group plans to protest the closing go the neighborhood's only recreation center on the grounds that to do so would leave the neighborhood without local access to a recreation center. 'Our neighborhood already has the most residents per center of any neighborhood in the city,' complained one resident, 'and closing this center would make the situation unacceptable since access to recreational facilities is a necessity for this neighborhood."

Overvalues a Trait - The author takes for granted that since the neighborhood has the most residents per center that it would be unacceptable to close the recreation center - The author fails to consider that there may be other considerations in closing the center that render it acceptable [Strengthen] - Look for an answer choice that provides an additional reason for why closing it would be unacceptable or an answer choice that removes a weakener

"Wildlife activists have proposed that the practice of stringing cable TV lines from the same poles that carry electric power lines should be banned because cable TV lines, while electrically neutral themselves, make it easier for animals to climb near electric power lines, risking electrocution. This particular argument for banning the practice fails, however, since some animals are electrocuted by power Iines even where cable TV lines are all underground."

Overvalues a Trait - The author takes for granted that since the proposal is not perfect that we should not adopt the environmentalists' proposal - The author fails to consider that the environmentalists' proposal is better than what we're doing now

"Books updating the classification systems used by many libraries are not free -- in fact they are very expensive. The only way to sell copies of them is to make the potential buyers believe they need to adopt the most recent system. Thus, these frequent changes in the classification systems are just a ploy by the publishers to make libraries buy their products."

Overvalues a Trait - The author takes for granted that since the publishers could be manipulating buyers, that they are certainly manipulating buyers intentionally - The author fails to consider that the updates really are pressing and important

"Camille: Manufacturers of water-saving faucets exaggerate the amount of money such faucets can save. Because the faucets handle such a low volume of water, people using them often let the water run longer than they would otherwise. Rebecca: It is true that showering now takes longer. Nevertheless, I have had lower water bills since I installed a water-saving faucet. Thus, it is not true that the manufacturers' claims are exaggerated."

[Rebecca] Overvalues a Trait - The author takes for granted that the amount she has saved is equal to, or more than, the amount that the manufacturers claimed that she would - The author fails to consider that Rebecca has saved money and the claims have been exaggerated

"According to the latest figures, less than 1 commercial flight in 2 million strays off course while landing, a number low enough to allow runways to be built closer together without a significant increase in risk. Opponents of closer runways claim that the number is closer to 1 in 20,000, but this figure is based on a partial review of air traffic control tapes and so is relatively unreliable compared to the other figure, which is based on a thorough study of the flight reports required of pilots for all commercial flights."

Reasoning Issue (Falsely Equates Characteristics) - The author takes for granted that the thorough flights reports are more reliable than the partial air traffic control tapes - The author fails to consider that air traffic control tapes are more objective than the flight reports that pilots are responsible for - Perhaps pilots make mistakes in either assessing whether they've strayed off course or registering in the report that they strayed off course

"Although the first humans came to Australia 56,000 years ago and undoubtedly brought new diseases with them, human-borne diseases probably did not cause the mass extinction of large land animals and birds that took place over the following 10,000 years. After all, more than 55 different species disappeared at about the same time, and no one disease, however virulent, could be fatal to animals across that many different species."

Reasoning Issue (Falsely Equates Relationships) - The author fails to consider that even though one X (virulent disease) couldn't have caused Y (the extinction of more than 55 different species), it's still possible that several Xs could have caused Y

"The police department has two suspects for the burglary that occurred last night, Schaeffer and Forster. Schaeffer has an ironclad alibi, so Forster must be the burglar."

Reasoning Issue (Falsely Equates Relationships) - The author takes for granted that Schaeffer and Forster are the only two suspects - The author fails to consider that there might be other potential thieves that the police doesn't currently suspect - The author fails to consider that we can't pinpoint Schaeffer until we rule out all the other suspects

"If one is to participate in the regional band, one must practice very hard or be very talented. Therefore, Lily, who is first trombonist in the regional band and is very talented, does not practice hard."

Reasoning Issue (Falsely Equates Relationships) - The author takes for granted that because Lily meets one requirement for a goal (Z) and has attained her goal (X), Lily must not meet the other requirement (Y) - The author fails to consider that Lily could meet both requirement and be in the band - In order to X (participate in the regional band), one must Y (practice very hard) or Z (be very talented) - Therefore, Lily, who is X and Z, is not Y

"It has been hypothesized that our solar system was formed from a cloud of gas and just produced by a supernova -- an especially powerful explosion of a star. Supernovas produce the isotope iron-60, so if this hypothesis were correct, then iron-60 would have been present in the early history of the solar system. But researchers have found no iron-60 in meteorites that formed early in the solar system's history, thereby disproving the hypothesis."

Reasoning Issue (Falsely Equates Relationships) - The author takes for granted that not finding iron-60 in meteorites is equivalent to there not being iron-60 - The author fails to consider that maybe iron-60 does exist, they just haven't found it yet - The author fails to consider that iron-60 could exist even if it didn't leave traces in meteorites

"Some theorists argue that literary critics should strive to be value-neutral in their literary criticism. These theorists maintain that by exposing the meaning of literary works without evaluating them, critics will enable readers to make their own judgements about the works' merits. But literary criticism cannot be completely value-neutral. Thus, some theorists are mistaken about what is an appropriate goal for literary criticism."

Reasoning Issue (Falsely Equates Subject Matter) - The author fails to consider that driving for neutrality may still be appropriate - The author takes for granted that a goal that's impossible to achieve is automatically inappropriate

"A recent magazine article argued that most companies that do not already own videoconferencing equipment would be wasting their money if they purchased it. However, this is clearly not true. In a recent survey of businesses that have purchased such equipment, most of the respondents stated that the videoconferencing equipment was well worth its cost."

Reasoning Issue (Falsely Equates Subject Matter) - The author fails to consider that there may be potential sample bias - The author takes for granted that the magazine's conclusion must be false, on the basis of a nonrepresentative survey consisting of businesses that bought the equipment - The author fails to consider that the businesses most likely to respond to the survey were disproportionately happy with the equipment

"At Tromen University this semester, some students taking French Literature 205 are also taking Biology 218. Every student taking Biology 218 at Tromen is a biology major. Therefore, some of the students taking French Literature are not French-literature majors."

Reasoning Issue (Falsely Equates Subject Matter) - The author takes for granted that Biology majors taking French Literature 205 cannot also be French-literature majors - The author fails to consider that students at Tromen University can major in both Biology and French Literature

"Sanderson intentionally did not tell his cousin about overhearing someone say that the factory would close, knowing that if he withheld this information, his cousin would assume it would remain open. Clearly this was morally wrong. After all, lying is morally wrong. And making a statement with the intention of misleading someone is lying. True, it was Sanderson's failing to state something that misled his cousin. Yet there is no moral difference between stating and failing to state if they are done with the same intention."

Reasoning Issue (Falsely Equates Subject Matter) - The author takes for granted that Sanderson believed that the plant would be closing, and, thus, his failing to disclose this rumor to his cousin amounts to misleading his cousin - The author fails to consider that perhaps Sanderson doesn't actually think the plant will close, in which case he's not misleading his cousin by not spreading the rumor

"Vadim is going to be laid off. Vadim's work as a programmer has been exemplary since joining the firm. But management has already made the decision to lay off a programmer. And this firm strictly follows a policy of laying off the most recently hired programmer in such cases."

Reasoning Issue (Falsely Equates Subject Matter) - The author takes for granted that Vadim is the most recently hired programmer, hence why he is going to be laid off

"The main purpose of most criminal organizations is to generate profits. The ongoing revolutions in biotechnology and information technology promise to generate enormous profits. Therefore, criminal organizations will undoubtedly try to become increasingly involved in these areas."

Reasoning Issue (Falsely Equates Subject Matter) - The author takes for granted that all profit-driven companies will become involved in any endeavor that promises to generate profits

"Eighteenth-century European aesthetics was reasonably successful in providing an understanding of all art, including early abstract art, until the 1960s, when artists self-consciously rebelled against earlier notions of art. Since the work of these rebellious artists is quite beautiful but outside the bounds of the aesthetic theory then current, there can be no complete theory of aesthetics."

Reasoning Issue (Falsely Equates Subject Matter) - The author takes for granted that because the work of rebellious 1960s artists is beautiful and outside the bounds of eighteenth-century European aesthetics, that there can be no complete theory of aesthetics - The author takes for granted that eighteenth-century European aesthetics is the best aesthetic theory there is, and that no alternative theory could be more complete - The author takes for granted that an insufficient theory equates to no aesthetic theory ever being complete

"There is little of social significance in contemporary novels, for readers cannot enter the internal world of the novelist's mind unless they experience that world from the moral perspective of the novel's characters. But in contemporary novels, the transgressions committed by some characters against others are sensationalistic spectacles whose only purpose is to make readers wonder what will happen next, rather than events whose purpose is to be seen as the injustices they are."

Reasoning Issue (Falsely Equates Subject Matter) - The author takes for granted that being unable to get into the mind of novelists amounts to modern novels lacking social significance

"The public square was an important tool of democracy in days past because it provided a forum for disparate citizens to discuss the important issues of the day. Today, a person with Internet access can discuss important issues with millions of people across the nation, allowing the Internet to play the role once played by the public square. Hence, we should ensure that Internet users have at least as much freedom of expression as did people speaking in the public square."

Reasoning Issue (Falsely Equates Subject Matter) - The author takes for granted that citizens discussing issues in the public square possessed freedom of expression - The author fails to consider whether people speaking in the public square actually possessed freedom of expression

"When a group of people starts a company, the founders usually serve as sources both of funding and of skills in marketing, management, and technical matters. It is unlikely that a single individual can both provide adequate funding and be skilled in marketing, management, and technical matters. Therefore, companies founded by groups are more likely to succeed than companies founded by individuals."

Reasoning Issue (Falsely Equates Subject Matter) - The author takes for granted that founders are the only sources of funding and skills in marketing, management, and technical matters - The author fails to consider that companies can receive funding and skills from nonfounders

"The Asian elephant walks with at least two, and sometimes three, feet on the ground at all times. Even though it can accelerate, it does so merely by taking quicker and longer steps. So the Asian elephant does not actually run."

Reasoning Issue (Falsely Equates Subject Matter) - The author takes for granted that if an animal walks with at least two, and sometimes three, feet on the ground at all times, then it doesn't run

"If the economy grows stronger, employment will increase, and hence more parents will need to find day care for their young children. Unfortunately, in a stronger economy many day-care workers will quit to take better-paying jobs in other fields. Therefore, a stronger economy is likely to make it much more difficult to find day care."

Reasoning Issue (Falsely Equates Subject Matter) - The author takes for granted that leaving day-care workers won't be replaced or even exceeded by incoming day-care workers - The author fails to consider that leaving day-care workers will be replaced or even exceeded by incoming day-care workers

"Widespread acceptance of the idea that individuals are incapable of looking after their own welfare is injurious to a democracy. So legislators who value democracy should not propose any law prohibiting behavior that is not harmful to anyone besides the person engaging in it. After all, the assumptions that appear to guide legislators will often become widely accepted."

Reasoning Issue (Falsely Equates Subject Matter) - The author takes for granted that legislators who want to forbid behavior that's only harmful to the actor are assuming that individuals aren't capable of looking after themselves

"The spread of literacy informs more people of injustices and, in the right circumstances, leads to increased capacity to distinguish true reformers from mere opportunists. However, widespread literacy invariably emerges before any comprehensive system of general education; thus, in the interim, the populace is vulnerable to clever demagogues calling for change. Consequently, some relatively benign regimes may ironically be toppled by their own "enlightened" move to increase literacy."

Reasoning Issue (Falsely Equates Subject Matter) - The author takes for granted that literary but no education will lead to a population that will fall for the tricks of clever demagogues - The author takes for granted that the clever demagogues can get enough power in the first place to topple the benign regime in power

"You should buy the most expensive house that you can afford. People who suggest that you buy the cheapest house on the market and fix it up are not considering that you do not have the time or expertise to repair a badly run-down house, nor are they considering the costs of doing such work."

Reasoning Issue (Falsely Equates Subject Matter) - The author takes for granted that reasons against purchasing the cheapest house are sufficient to showing that one must buy the most expensive house - The author fails to consider other possibilities - Perhaps one can buy a moderately-prices house that requires only a few minor repairs

"All scientists have beliefs and values that might slant their interpretations of the data from which they draw their conclusions. However, serious scientific papers are carefully reviewed by many other scientists before publication. These reviewers are likely to notice and object to biases that they do not share. Thus, any slanted interpretations of scientific data will generally have been removed before publication."

Reasoning Issue (Falsely Equates Subject Matter) - The author takes for granted that reviewers will not generally share biases that are present in scientific papers

"Rocket engines are most effective when exhaust gases escape from their nozzles at the same pressure as the surrounding atmosphere. At low altitudes, where atmospheric pressure is high, this effect is best produced by a short nozzle, but when the rocket passes through the thin upper atmosphere, a long nozzle becomes more effective. Thus, to work most effectively throughout their ascents, all rockets must have both short nozzles and long nozzles on their engines."

Reasoning Issue (Falsely Equates Subject Matter) - The author takes for granted that rockets need both short and long nozzles in order to work most effectively - The author is assuming that all rockets will pass through the thin upper atmosphere

"For several centuries there have been hairless dogs in western Mexico and in coastal Peru. It is very unlikely that a trait as rare as hairlessness emerged on two separate occasions. Since the dogs have never existed in the wild, and the vast mountainous jungle separating these two regions would have made overland travel between them extremely difficult centuries ago, the dogs must have been transported from one of these regions to the other by boat, probably during trading expeditions."

Reasoning Issue (Falsely Equates Subject Matter) - The author takes for granted that since overland travel would have been extremely difficult, the hairless dogs must have been transported between these regions by boat - The author fails to consider that there may be other ways in which the hairless dogs were transported to the region

"Reducing speed limits neither saves lives nor protects the environment. This is because the more slowly a car is driven, the more time it spends on the road spewing exhaust into the air and running the risk of colliding with other vehicles."

Reasoning Issue (Falsely Equates Subject Matter) - The author takes for granted that since slower trips lead to greater environmental damage that reducing speed limits, definitely, does not save lives nor protect the environment

"Government statistics show that the real (adjusted for inflation) average income for families has risen over the last five years. Therefore, since this year the Andersen family's income is average for families, the family's real income must have increased over the last five years."

Reasoning Issue (Falsely Equates Subject Matter) - The author takes for granted that since the Andersen family's income is average this year, that it must have been increasing over the last five years - The author fails to consider that their income could have decreased over the last five years

"Given our current state of knowledge and technology, we can say that the generalization that the entropy of a closed system cannot decrease for any spontaneous process has not been falsified by any of our tests of that generalization. So we conclude it to be true universally. Yet, it must be admitted that this generalization has not been conclusively verified, in the sense that it has not been tested in every corner of the universe, under every feasible condition. Nevertheless, this generalization is correctly regarded as a scientific law; indeed, it is referred to as the Second Law of Thermodynamics."

Reasoning Issue (Falsely Equates Subject Matter) - The author takes for granted that something that has not been demonstrated to be conclusively true can nonetheless still be a scientific law [Strengthen] - Look for an answer choice that provides reason to believe that this assumption is true

"An article claims that many medical patients have an instinctual ability to predict sudden changes in their medical status. But the evidence given is anecdotal and should not be trusted. The case is analogous to empirically disproven reports that babies are born in disproportionately high numbers during full moons. Once that rumor became popular, maternity room staff were more likely to remember busy nights with full moons than busy nights without them."

Reasoning Issue (Falsely Equates Subject Matter) - The author takes for granted that the analogy about babies born during full moons and the claim about medical patients are similar enough in order to be analogous - The author fails to consider that the analogy about babies born during full moons and the claim about medical patients are not similar enough to be compared together

"For a free market to function properly, each prospective buyer of an item must be able to contact a large number of independent prospective sellers and compare the prices charged for the item to what the item is worth. Thus, despite advertised prices and written estimates available from many of its individual businesses, the auto repair industry does not constitute a properly functioning free market."

Reasoning Issue (Falsely Equates Subject Matter) - The author takes for granted that the auto repair industry does not constitute a properly functioning free market on the basis of the definition given

"A tax preparation company automatically adds the following disclaimer to every e-mail message sent to its clients: "Any tax advice in this e-mail should not be construed as advocating any violation of the provisions of the tax code." The only purpose this disclaimer could serve is to provide legal protection for the company. But if the e-mail elsewhere suggests that the client do something illegal, then the disclaimer offers no legal protection. So the disclaimer serves no purpose."

Reasoning Issue (Falsely Equates Subject Matter) - The author takes for granted that the disclaimer offers no legal protection if the e-mail doesn't suggest illegal activity - The author takes for granted that suggestions of illegal activity are the only reason the company would need legal protection

"When the ancient fossils of a primitive land mammal were unearthed in New Zealand, they provided the first concrete evidence that the island country had once had indigenous land mammals. Until that discovery, New Zealand had no known native land mammals. The discovery thus falsifies the theory that New Zealand's rich and varied native bird population owes its existence to the lack of competition from mammals."

Reasoning Issue (Falsely Equates Subject Matter) - The author takes for granted that the discovery of one mammal which used to exist in New Zealand is enough to disprove the theory - The author fails to consider that to disprove the theory, they would need to shave that there was competition from mammals - The author fails to consider that the animal didn't provide competition

"Neural connections carrying signals from the cortex (the brain region responsible for though) down to the amygdala (a brain region crucial for emotions) are less well developed than connections carrying signals from the amygdala up to the cortex. Thus, the amygdala exerts a greater influence on the cortex than vice versa."

Reasoning Issue (Falsely Equates Subject Matter) - The author takes for granted that the more developed something is, the greater the influence that that thing exerts

"An art critic, by ridiculing an artwork, can undermine the pleasure one takes in it; conversely, by lavishing praise upon an artwork, an art critic can render the experience of viewing the artwork more pleasurable. So an artworks artistic merit can depend not only on the person who creates it but also on those who critically evaluate it."

Reasoning Issue (Falsely Equates Subject Matter) - The author takes for granted that the pleasure one takes in artwork connects to its artistic merit

"Manufacturers of children's toys often place warnings on their products that overstate the dangers their products pose. Product-warning labels should overstate dangers only if doing so reduces injuries. In fact, however, manufacturers overstate their products' dangers merely for the purpose of protecting themselves from lawsuits brought by parents of injured children. Therefore, manufacturers of children's toys should not overstate the dangers their products pose."

Reasoning Issue (Falsely Equates Subject Matter) - The author takes for granted that the results and intention of overstating warning labels are mutually exclusive - The author takes for granted that the labels can't reduce injuries if they were implemented with a different purpose in mind) - The author fails to consider that a warning label can simultaneously reduce injuries and exist due to selfish motivation on the part of the manufacturers

"The populations of certain species of amphibians have declined dramatically in recent years, an effect many scientists attribute to industrial pollution. However, most amphibian species' populations vary greatly from year to year because of natural variations in the weather. It is therefore impossible to be sure that the recent decline in those amphibian populations is due to industrial pollution."

Reasoning Issue (Falsely Equates Subject Matter) - The author takes for granted that the specific amphibian species cited are among those "most" amphibians that are affected by the weather

"It takes less energy to make molten glass from recycled glass than from raw materials. Once the recycled glass or raw materials have been turned into molten glass, making bottles from recycled glass follows the same process as making bottles from raw materials. Obviously, soft drink bottlers who make a large percentage of their bottles from recycled glass have significant energy savings. Therefore, by using recycled glass instead of glass made from raw materials, bottlers can lower their costs and benefit the environment at the same time."

Reasoning Issue (Falsely Equates Subject Matter) - The author takes for granted that there are no other costs or environmental problems with recycled glass not accounted for in the argument - The author fails to consider that there may be other costs or environmental problems with recycled glass

"It has been said that authors who write in order to give pleasure cannot impart to their readers the truth of their subject matter. That claim cannot be true. If it were, one could determine the truthfulness of a book simply by looking at its sales figures. If the book were very popular, one could reasonably conclude that it gave people pleasure and therefore that at least some of what is written in the book is not true."

Reasoning Issue (Falsely Equates Subject Matter) - The author takes for granted that there is a connection between authors writing in order to give pleasure and a book actually giving pleasure

"Many introductory undergraduate science courses are intended to be "proving grounds," that is, they are designed to be so demanding that only those students most committed to being science majors will receive passing grades in these courses. However, studies show that some of the students in these very demanding introductory courses who are least enthusiastic about science receive passing grades in these courses. Hence, designing introductory science courses to serve as proving grounds has not served its intended purpose."

Reasoning Issue (Falsely Equates Subject Matter) - The author takes for granted that there is a connection between least enthusiastic students and not committed to being science majors

"Sometimes one reads a poem and believes that the poem expresses contradictory ideas, even if it is a great poem. So it is wrong to think that the meaning of a poem is whatever the author intends to communicate to the reader by means of the poem. No one who is writing a great poem intends it to communicate contradictory ideas."

Reasoning Issue (Falsely Equates Subject Matter) - The author takes for granted that there is a connection between what a person believes a poem expresses and the meaning of the poem

"Children fall into three groups -- contesters, regular tasters, and super tasters -- depending on how strongly they experience tastes. Supertasters strongly prefer mild cheddar cheese to sharp, regular tasters weakly prefer mild to sharp, and nontasters show no preference. Also, the more bitter a food tastes, the less children like it. Thus, supertasters experience sharp cheddar as tasting more bitter than mild cheddar, but nontasters experience sharp cheddar as tasting no more bitter than mild cheddar."

Reasoning Issue (Falsely Equates Subject Matter) - The author takes for granted that there is no other reason why children might prefer mild cheese - The author fails to consider that bitterness is not the only factor that dictates whether children prefer mild cheddar more

"Paleontologists had long supposed that the dinosaur Diplodocus browsed for high-growing vegetation such as treetop leaves by raising its very long neck. But now computer models have shown that the structure of Diplodocus's neck bones would have prevented such movement. The neck could, however, bend downward and even extend below ground level, allowing Diplodocus to access underwater vegetation from dry land. Thus, Diplodocus must have fed on plants on or near the ground, or underwater."

Reasoning Issue (Falsely Equates Characteristics) - The author takes for granted that since the Diplodocus's neck bones would have prevented it raising its neck to eat high-growing vegetation, that Diplodocus must have fed on plants on or near the ground, or underwater - The author fails to consider other possibilities - Perhaps Diplodocus fed on medium-growing vegetation which would not have forced Diplodocus to extend its neck [Necessary] - Looking for an answer choice that rules out an alternative possibility

"From observing close friends and relatives, it is clear to me that telepathy is indeed possible between people with close psychic ties. The amazing frequency with which a good friend or family member knows what one is thinking or feeling cannot be dismissed as mere coincidence."

Reasoning Issue (Falsely Equates Characteristics) - The author takes for granted that telepathy is possible because it is the only possible explanation for the observed intuitive connection between friends and family - The author fails to consider that there are other possible explanations - Perhaps family members appear to know what each other are thinking because of years of experience with each other and nuanced understanding of each other's personalities

"Two doctrines have been greatly influential in this century. The first holds that the explanation of any historical event must appeal to economic factors. The second attempts to account psychologically for all historical events, especially in terms of early childhood experience. Both doctrines, however, are mistaken. Certainly there have been events that were due both to economic forces and to the nature of the early childhood experiences of the major participants in the event."

Reasoning Issue (Falsely Equates Characteristics) - The author takes for granted that the doctrines each preclude the possibility of there being more than one factor in any event - The author takes for granted that the first doctrine holds that events can be explained only in economic terms, and that the second doctrine holds that events can be explained only in psychological terms - The author fails to consider that the doctrines may not be exclusive

"Some analysts point to the government's acceptance of the recent protest rally as proof that the government supports freedom of popular expression. But the government supports no such thing. Supporting freedom of popular expression means accepting the expression of ideas that the government opposes as well as the expression of ideas that the government supports. The message of the protest rally was one that the government entirely supports."

Reasoning Issue (Falsely Equates Characteristics) - The author takes for granted that the government wouldn't accept a protest rally that carries a message that the government opposes - The author fails to consider what the government would do in response to a message it opposes

"The proposed tax reform legislation is being criticized by political groups on the right for being too specific and by political groups on the left for being too vague. Since one and the same statement cannot be both too specific and too vague, the criticisms just go to show that the legislation is framed just as it should be."

Reasoning Issue (Falsely Equates Characteristics) - The author takes for granted that the legislation must be just right because both sets of statements contradict each other - The author takes for granted that both sets of contradictory accusations are wrong - The author fails to consider that both parties could have a legitimate reason for believing what they do

"Eighty percent of Neanderthal stone tools ever discovered display asymmetrical chipping, while only 30 percent of Homo erectus stone tools discovered splay asymmetrical chipping. The stone tools discovered by the Shinto expedition display asymmetrical chipping, so they are more likely Neanderthal than Homo erectus."

Context Issue - The author takes for granted that a higher percentage displaying asymmetrical chipping is sufficient to claiming that more Neanderthal tools exist - The author fails to consider that there may exist more Homo erectus tools

"To accommodate the personal automobile, houses are built on widely scattered lots far from places of work and shopping malls are equipped with immense parking lots that leave little room for wooded areas. Hence, had people generally not used personal automobiles, the result would have to have been a geography of modern cities quite different from the one we have now."

Context Issue - The author takes for granted that the landscape would look different without automobiles - The author assumes that only the automobiles could have created this landscape

"When surveyed about which party they would like to see in the legislature, 40 percent of respondents said Conservative, 20 percent said Moderate, and 40 percent said Liberal. If the survey results are reliable, we can conclude that most citizens would like to see a legislature that is roughly 40 percent Conservative, 20 percent Moderate, and 40 percent Liberal."

Falsely Equates Relationships - The author takes for granted that the preferences of a group as a whole are the preferences of most individual members of the group - Perhaps the 40% of respondents who want to see a Conservative party in the legislature could very well want to see a 100% Conservative legislature

"Auto accidents are the most common cause of whiplash injury, a kind of injury that is caused by a sudden sharp motion of the neck. However, many other types of accidents can produce a sudden sharp motion of the neck and thereby result in whiplash injury. A sudden sharp motion of the neck can be caused by a fall, a bump on the head, or even by being shoved from behind. That is why you should insist on receiving Lakeside Injury Clinic's complete course of treatment for whiplash after any accident that involves a fall or a bump on the head."

Falsely Equates Relationships - The author takes for granted that every fall or bump leads to whiplash - The author fails to consider that just because something can sometimes be a cause, it doesn't always have to be a cause - Perhaps many falls and bumps don't lead to whiplash, in which case there's no reason to take the whiplash course after every fall

"There is ample evidence that the model of car one drives greatly affects the chances that one's car will be stolen. The model of car stolen most often in our country last year, for example, was also the model stolen most often in the preceding year."

Falsely Equates Characteristics - The author takes for granted that the number of car thefts equates to the likelihood of car thefts - The author fails to consider that the car that been being stolen so often might be in that category simply because it's the most common car in the country

"The druid stones discovered in Ireland are very, very old. But this particular druid stone was discovered in Scotland; hence, it must be of more recent vintage."

Falsely Equates Relationships - The author takes for granted that since the druid is not discovered in Ireland, it not old - The author fails to consider that the Scotland druid may still be old, even though it is not from Ireland