LSAT: Premise & Conclusion Indicators
Decode the argument core, using only structural clues. [Idea 1]. After all [Idea 2], since [Idea 3].
1 Main Conclusion 2 Subconclusion 3 Premise There should not be any censorship of finger-painting. After all, finger-painting is protected by the 1st Amendment, since finger-painting is a form of self expression.
Because
ALWAYS introduces premise but also capture conclusions within the SAME sentence either before the premise indicator word or after the premise.
For
ALWAYS introduces premise but also capture conclusions within the SAME sentence either before the premise indicator word or after the premise.
Since
ALWAYS introduces premise but also capture conclusions within the SAME sentence either before the premise indicator word or after the premise.
Which words USUALLY indicate premise(s)?
ALWAYS: For, Since, Because As Given that After all (The previous thought will have been a Conclusion) On the grounds that For this reason that This can be seen from Due to Moreover Furthermore Seeing that [As] indicated by Owing to [For] example In that Inasmuch
After all
Additional Premise After all (The previous thought will have been a Conclusion)
What's more
Additional Premise Indicator
Furthermore
Additional Premise Indicator List of related items List of supporting premises These words are less common in LR than they are in RC but when they appear they typically signal a list of supporting premises. NOTE: Once in a while, they will signal two conclusions - an intermediate conclusion that leads to a final one
Infers
conclusion
nevertheless
despite anything to the contrary (usually following a concession) Counterpoint Indicator Switch context-->argument AKA transition word
nonetheless
despite anything to the contrary (usually following a concession) Counterpoint Indicator Switch context-->argument AKA transition word We can't say for sure what comes before/after this indicator but. When it comes after the opinion of others, though, it is PROBABLY introducing a conclusion. Note: a premise or conclusion could come right before or after it. It's a case-by-case basis.
As indicated by
Premise [as]
Opinion of others/ Context-->other people's argument
""Many people incorrectly believe that ___." "Some people argue that ___." "According to X, ___." "Some people say that" Introduces what some people believe. *This is not a part of the author's argument. *The author's argument begins with switch context-->arg ex "but", as a signal to pay attention to what he has to say. That's his argument. The stuff above is just context, someone else's position. Remember to ask "Where the background info/context end?". "Where does other people's argument end?" Where does our argument begin? "Since .... [some people propose] (conclusion) that we should stop trying to develop such a plan and instead should shut down all present nuclear plants and build no new nuclear plants." Ex. of Some people say introducing the conclusion. Since the author is not clearly stating their own opinion in the excerpt given, we have to take the opinion of 'some people' as the conclusion here, which is supported by the evidence given.
Identify the conclusion and premise by asking:
"What is the author trying to persuade me of/make me believe?" (the answer is the conclusion, the big picture takeaway) "What is wrong with the conclusion?" (Read conclusion) Then, ask "Why?" (the answer to why will be the premises)
Decode the argument core, using only structural clues. [Idea 1]. [Idea 2], and [Idea 3].
1 Main Conclusion. 2 and 3 are Premises. The word "and" does not mean a support relationship between the two claims since it means the claims work in parallel. If two ideas are joined only by "and," then neither one will be the Conclusion. Morris should be fired from his job. He shows up late every day, and the quality of his work is sub-par
Power Players & Argument Parts Drill 1 Therefore, there is the possibility of electric combat 2 Because we must enter the fray 3 Since Aubry cannot walk all the way to England 4 For Tony is simply not good enough to save us 5 Consequently, his claim does not necessarily follow 6 Hence, the inevitable ostrich rise will soon pass 7 It is a given that humans are enemies 8 It follows that Australia may be the first 9 Chris, therefore, cannot be sacrificed to their will. 10 For it is not guaranteed that they will surrender.
1 Therefore, possibility Could Conclusion 2 Because, must Must premise 3 Since, cannot Cannot premise 4 For, not good enough Cannot/Must certainty premise 5 Consequently, not nec, not necessarily conclusion 6 Hence, will Must conclusion 7 It is a given, are Must premise 8 It follows that, may Possibility Could Conclusion 9 Therefore, cannot Cannot Conclusion 10 For, not guaranteed Not Necessarily premise
Hybrid argument
A nested claim with a few premises attached. When stimulus is ONLY premises, and a nested claim (no author's conclusion). we call the stimulus a hybrid argument and critique the nested claim. When author doesn't give their own conclusion, nested claim acts as the conclusion of the hybrid arg so we question validity of the nested claim just like a normal conclusion. e.g. (No con from author so we criticize the nested claim and notice how the premises support the findings." Author's con, treat nested claim as premise
In addition/ Additionally
Additional Premise Indicator List of related items List of supporting premises These words are less common in LR than they are in RC but when they appear they typically signal a list of supporting premises. NOTE: Once in a while, they will signal two conclusions - an intermediate conclusion that leads to a final one
Moreover
Additional Premise Indicator List of related items List of supporting premises These words are less common in LR than they are in RC but when they appear they typically signal a list of supporting premises. NOTE: Once in a while, they will signal two conclusions - an intermediate conclusion that leads to a final one
Besides
Additional Premise indicator
Usually ADDITIONAL premise indicators AKA List (of related items) supporting premises
After all Moreover Furthermore Besides What's more In addition Additionally These words are less common in LR than they are in RC but when they appear they typically signal a list of supporting premises. NOTE: Once in a while, they will signal two conclusions - an intermediate conclusion that leads to a final one Also Similarly First Finally And
Explain think like a debater and take a skeptical stance
Ask: What is wrong with the conclusion?
Switch Context --> Argument (Counterpoint)
But Yet However Although Still On the other hand In LR or RC when author introduces OPO, expect they usually follow it with a SWITCH WORD/SWITCH ("but", "yet", "however", "although", "I disagree"). So, if we see, "Most people think cats are antisocial," (OPO) we can ANTICIPATE the author's conclusion will likely be "Cats are social." Note: a premise or conclusion could come right before or after it. It's a case-by-case basis.
Which switch from context to argument?
But Although However Yet "But," "although," "however" indicate a turn. It's the author saying "Now, listen up. Now, I'm going to say something important. Now, this is what I care about persuading you of. " All Jedi are powerful. However, Tom, who is not a Jedi, is powerful. Therefore, one does not have to be a Jedi to be powerful. "However" is introducing the turn. "All Jedi are powerful." Okay, so what? It's just context. The author doesn't actually care if you believe it. He just wants you to believe his conclusion that you don't have to be a Jedi to be powerful. And "why" should you believe him? Well, [because] Tom is not a Jedi, but he is powerful (premise). When authors in LR or RC introduce someone else's opinion OPO, they usually follow it with a SWITCH WORD/SWITCH ("but", "yet", "however", "although"I disagree"). So if we see, "Most people think cats are antisocial," we can anticipate that the author's conclusion will probably be "Cats are social."
How are these two phrases different, structurally: This shows that vs. This can be seen from the fact that
Con: This shows that . Means the previous thought shows, supports, the following thought. Cats help care for each other's young(premise). This shows that cats are social (con). Premise: "This can be seen from the fact" is saying that previous thought is supported (hint: with fact)by the following thought. Cats are social. This can be seen from the fact that cats help care for each other's young.
Although
Concession "Although [concession], [counter-premise]."Note: Although we can use "although" to identify the concession, a premise or conclusion could come right before or after it. It's a case-by-case basis.
Granted
Concession- Expect a counterpoint/switch word (but,etc) (possibly the conclusion) after a concession word.
It is true that
Concession- Expect a counterpoint/switch word (but,etc) (possibly the conclusion) after a concession word.
Naturally
Concession- Expect a counterpoint/switch word (but,etc) (possibly the conclusion) after a concession word.
Of course
Concession- Expect a counterpoint/switch word (but,etc) (possibly the conclusion) after a concession word.
While
Concession- Expect a counterpoint/switch word (but,etc) (possibly the conclusion) after a concession word.
In spite of
Concession- Expect a counterpoint/switch word (but,etc) (possibly the conclusion) after a concession word. " [concession]. In spite of this, [counter-point]
Despite
Concession- Expect a counterpoint/switch word (but,etc) (possibly the conclusion) after a concession word. "Despite [concession], [counter-point]."
Even though
Concession- Expect a counterpoint/switch word AKA transition word (but,etc) (possibly the conclusion) after a concession word.
Admittedly
Concession- author is CONCEDING an Opposing Point, normally before COUNTERING that (COUNTERPOINT/SWITCH WORD)with a Premise that outweighs that opposing point. Expect a counterpoint/switch word (but,etc) (possibly the conclusion) after a concession word. "Admittedly, [concession]. [counterpoint/counterpremise]."
As a result
Conclusion
Clearly
Conclusion
Consequently
Conclusion
So
Conclusion
That is why
Conclusion
Therefore
Conclusion
Thus
Conclusion
We may conclude
Conclusion
Accordingly
Conclusion (usually)
As a result
Conclusion (usually)
Clearly
Conclusion (usually)
Hence
Conclusion (usually)
It follows that
Conclusion (usually)
It implies that
Conclusion (usually)
It must be that
Conclusion (usually)
So
Conclusion (usually)
Therefore
Conclusion (usually)
This shows that
Conclusion (usually)
We may infer that
Conclusion (usually)
It entails
Conclusion (usually) also "entails that"
But
Counterpoint Indicator Switch context-->argument We can't say for sure what comes before/after this indicator but. When it comes after the opinion of others, though, it is PROBABLY introducing a conclusion. Note: a premise or conclusion could come right before or after it. It's a case-by-case basis.
However
Counterpoint Indicator Switch context-->argument We can't say for sure what comes before/after this indicator but. When it comes after the opinion of others, though, it is PROBABLY introducing a conclusion. Note: a premise or conclusion could come right before or after it. It's a case-by-case basis.
In contrast
Counterpoint Indicator Switch context-->argument We can't say for sure what comes before/after this indicator but. When it comes after the opinion of others, though, it is PROBABLY introducing a conclusion. Note: a premise or conclusion could come right before or after it. It's a case-by-case basis.
Still
Counterpoint Indicator Switch context-->argument We can't say for sure what comes before/after this indicator but. When it comes after the opinion of others, though, it is PROBABLY introducing a conclusion. Note: a premise or conclusion could come right before or after it. It's a case-by-case basis.
Whereas
Counterpoint Indicator Switch context-->argument We can't say for sure what comes before/after this indicator but. When it comes after the opinion of others, though, it is PROBABLY introducing a conclusion. Note: a premise or conclusion could come right before or after it. It's a case-by-case basis.
Yet
Counterpoint Indicator Switch context-->argument We can't say for sure what comes before/after this indicator but. When it comes after the opinion of others, though, it is PROBABLY introducing a conclusion. Note: a premise or conclusion could come right before or after it. It's a case-by-case basis.
On the other hand
Counterpoint Indicator Switch context-->argument AKA transition word We can't say for sure what comes before/after this indicator but. When it comes after the opinion of others, though, it is PROBABLY introducing a conclusion. Note: a premise or conclusion could come right before or after it. It's a case-by-case basis.
Concession indicators
Despite In spite of Even though Admittedly Whereas Granted,... Naturally,... Of course,... It is true that,... While... These suggest that the author is CONCEDING an Opposing Point, normally before COUNTERING(COUNTERPOINT/SWITCH WORD) that with a Premise that outweighs that opposing point. Ex: "Admittedly, [concession]. [counterpoint/counterpremise]." "Even though [concession], [counter-point]." Lebron James is the best NBA player of the past 20 years. GRANTED, Kobe Bryant has won more championships than Lebron has, BUT Lebron's all-around skill set is more impressive Note: a premise or conclusion could come right before or after it. It's a case-by-case basis.
The following ALWAYS introduce a premise but CONTAIN the conclusion either before the word or after the premise in the SAME sentence
For Since Because It's because they always appear in sentences where the conclusion is also a part of the sentence. ut, you just have to remember that these three words are locked in to introduce premises and you'll always find the conclusion in the same sentence. Either it'll appear before the indicator word, or it'll appear after the premise. I am thirsty for I haven't drank all day. The premise is "I haven't drank all day." The conclusion is "I am thirsty" Why? Because I haven't drank all day. It's an argument. For I haven't drank all day, I am thirsty. The conclusion now drops in after the premise in the saem sentence.
Premise indicators
For Since Because ALWAYS introduces premise but also capture conclusions within the SAME sentence either before the premise indicator word or after the premise. Also remember the following Loophole premises: As Given that After all (idea before it is the conclusion Mprep)
For instance
For ALWAYS introduces premise but also capture conclusions within the SAME sentence either before the premise indicator word or after the premise.
If I said that "He offered X as an adequate defense/proof of Y", which half would be the conclusion, which would be the premise?
If I said that "He offered X as an adequate defense/proof of Y", which half would be the conclusion, which would be the premise? X would be the Premise. It's the basis/grounds for defending/proving Y.
Infers ___on the basis of ___
Infers _[conc]_ on the basis of __[prem]__
Infers, from the claim that ____, that _____
Infers, from the claim that _[prem]_, that __[conc]___
These words usually introduce conclusions:
It follows that This shows that As a result It entails/entails that We may infer that It must be that It implies that That is why Therefore Thus Accordingly Hence Consequently As a result Clearly In conclusion We may conclude
Also
List of related items List of supporting premises These words are less common in LR than they are in RC but when they appear they typically signal a list of supporting premises. NOTE: Once in a while, they will signal two conclusions - an intermediate conclusion that leads to a final one
Finally
List of related items List of supporting premises These words are less common in LR than they are in RC but when they appear they typically signal a list of supporting premises. NOTE: Once in a while, they will signal two conclusions - an intermediate conclusion that leads to a final one
and
List of related items List of supporting premises These words are less common in LR than they are in RC but when they appear they typically signal a list of supporting premises. NOTE: Once in a while, they will signal two conclusions - an intermediate conclusion that leads to a final one
first
List of related items List of supporting premises These words are less common in LR than they are in RC but when they appear they typically signal a list of supporting premises. NOTE: Once in a while, they will signal two conclusions - an intermediate conclusion that leads to a final one
similarly
List of related items List of supporting premises These words are less common in LR than they are in RC but when they appear they typically signal a list of supporting premises. NOTE: Once in a while, they will signal two conclusions - an intermediate conclusion that leads to a final one
It appears ___
Not only do these words indicate the conclusion, they often indicate the location of support for example "suggests" tells us that what follows it will be the conclusion and what's before the word suggests will be support/premise.
Suggests
Not only do these words indicate the conclusion, they often indicate the location of support for example "suggests" tells us that what follows it will be the conclusion and what's before the word suggests will be support/premise.
What can you expect if you see OPO Other people's opinion?
OPO "Some people say/claim" then Concession "Admittedly/Granted/It is true that" then Counters OPO with Counterpoint/Switch word "But, However, Although, Yet" (likely a conclusion IF OPO is there)
What introduces a counterpoint?
OPO Other People's Opinion Some people claim... It is often thought... Most scientists assume... Many pundits believe... usually introduce a Counterpoint In LR or RC when author introduces OPO, expect they usually follow it with a SWITCH WORD/SWITCH ("but", "yet", "however", "although", "I disagree"). So, if we see, "Most people think cats are antisocial," (OPO) we can ANTICIPATE the author's conclusion will disagree, "Cats are social."
Some people say
OTHER person's argument "Some people say" (and its variations) are a common way for LR passages to begin. This always introduces someone else's argument. Ex "Some managers believe that the best way to incentivize employees to work harder is to intimidate them. But, employees who are intimidated cannot concentrate on their work. Therefore, there is a better way to incentivize employees to work harder." The variation of "some people say" is "some managers believe." What do the managers believe? That "the best way to incentivize employees to work harder is to intimidate them." Ok, but that's simply the author saying what some people believe. *This is not a part of the author's argument. *The author's argument begins with "but." With "but", he's signaling to us that now he wants us to pay attention to what he has to say. First, he wants us to believe that employees who are intimidated cannot concentrate on their work. From that, he really wants us to believe that there is probably a better way to incentivize employees to work harder. That's his argument. The stuff above is just context, someone else's position. Remember to ask "where the background info/context end?". "Where does other people's argument end?" Where does our argument begin? When authors in LR or RC introduce someone else's opinion OPO, they usually follow it with a SWITCH WORD/SWITCH ("but", "yet", "however", "although"I disagree"). So if we see, "Most people think cats are antisocial," we can anticipate that the author's conclusion will probably be "Cats are social."
As
Premise
Given that
Premise
We know this by
We know this by [premise]."Note: We don't know if the conclusion is a main conclusion or a sub-conclusion.
Opinion of others/ Nested claims
When someone besides the author makes a claim. If the author concludes anything themselves, they will use the NESTED CLAIM as a PREMISE for their own conclusion. So, treat the nested claim as a premise and critique the author's conclusion. e.g. Hamilton says Red Bull gives you wings. But, he's wrong. I've never grown wings after drinking it.
If we're reading a question stem, what is difference between referring to the stimulus as argument / reasoning vs. statements / information
argument / reasoning reading a Conclusion (opinion) supported by at least one piece of Evidence. Assumption Family questions. statements / information indicates that we're just reading facts. means we're doing an Inference question.
Still
counterpoint We can't say for sure what comes before/after this indicator but. When it comes after the opinion of others, though, it is PROBABLY introducing a conclusion.
Due to
premise
On the basis of
premise
Owing to
premise
[Infers from] the claim that
premise
as evidence
premise
assumption underlying this opinion is
premise
inasmuch
premise
seeing that
premise
support
premise
On the grounds that
premise (support)
in that
premise (support)
this can be seen from
premise (support)
for example
premise [for]
For this reason that,
premise [for] ***"For" ALWAYS introduces premise but also capture conclusions within the SAME sentence either before the premise indicator word or after the premise. Not only do these words indicate the conclusion, they often indicate the location of support for example "suggests" tells us that what follows it will be the conclusion and what's before the word suggests will be support/premise.