LTM Encoding and Retrieval

Forming Visual Images Study

(Bower and Winzenz) Testing wether visual Imagery can create connections that enhance memory using pair-associated learning. One group repeated pairs silently and the other formed a metal picture in wich the two items were interacting. Second group remembered twice as many words.

Organizational tree

(Bower) Found that when items are presented in an organized/categorized way people remember it in the organized way. Organization also enables better recal as compared with then the same tree that has been randomized (73 words recalled vs. 21)

Meaningful Framework Study

(Bransford and Johnson) Disorganized passage was difficult to remember and understand but when participants saw the picture before reading the passage they found it easier to understand remembered twice as much compared to those that didn't.

Placing words in complex sentences Study

(Craik & Tulving) Task of remembering the word chicken, complex vs. simple sentences. More complex sentences create more connections and cues

Organizing Information Study

(Jenkins & Russell) Found that participants spontaneously organize random items as they recall them. Therefore by grouping similar items together, they create retrieval cues and the recall list is more organized then the original list

Power of self-generated retrieval cues study

(Mantyla) Participants presented with a list of 600 nouns, during learning were asked to write down 3 words they associated with each noun. When they were given a surprise memory test they were given their 3 words and recalled 90% of original words. The C. group that was given 3 cues generated by someone else they remember 55% additionally participants who had not seen the original words were able to determine 17% from random cues.

Transfer-appropriate processing study (morris)

(Morris) 2 part experiment; encoding&retrieval encoding: participants given sentence with a blank then hear target word, yes or no if it made sense/rhymed when word replaced blank, two conditions: A. meaning condition participants focused on meaning of word and B. rhyming condition participants focused on sound of word Retrieval: participants from both groups given a rhyming recognition test (does this word rhyme with one of the original target words) and they controlled for cues by using different rhyming words. The B group 49% correct yes's compared to 33% for A group. Demonstrating importance of 1) task matching in encoding and retrieval and 2) Deeper processing does not always result in better retrieval vs. level-of-processing theory which would predict that "deeper processing" meaning group would preform better.

Generating information

(Slameka & Graf) Using Pair-Associated learning researchers demonstrated the generation effect by demonstrating that those who generated the second word in pair remembered 28% more than those who just read the pair list

Cued vs. Free Recall study

(Tulving and Pearlstone) Study remember words from specific categories (ie. birds, furniture). For the memory test, participants in the free recall group wrote down as many words as they could 40%, whereas the cued group were given categories and recalled 75% of words demonstrating that retrieval cues aid memory

Name 3 Factors that aid encoding, list 2 research examples for each factor

1. Create connections: Complex sentences, Imagery, Self-reference 2. Active Creation: Generate information, testing 3. Organization: Recall by groups, Organized presentation, Meaningful framework

List 6 Ways to increase effectiveness of Studying by facilitating encoding an retrieval and give one example for each

1. Elaborate-creating connections (ie. images and associations) 2.Generate and test-active creation of material (ie. teaching others, making up questions) 3. Organize-Create a framework to relate information in a way that makes it more meaningful and reduces memory load 4. Take Breaks-Spacing effect, sleep enhances memory performance 5. Match learning and testing conditions-study in many different locations, prevent association with just one place 6. Avoid illusions of learning- rereading creates fluency-ie. reading gets easier with repetition- and the familiarity effect- recognizing isn't the same as knowing

3 Situations where retrieval is increased

1. Encoding specificity-matching context of encoding and retrieval 2. State-dependant learning-matching internal mood present during encoding and retrieval 3. Transfer-appropriate processing-matching task involved in encoding and retrieval

6 Research examples showing the encoding influences retrieval

1. Placing words in complex sentences (Craik & Tulving) 2. Forming Visual Images (Bower and Winzenz) 3. Linking words to yourself (Rodgers) 4. Generating information (Slameka & Graf) 5. Organizing Information (Bower) 6. Testing

Steps of the process of consolidation described by the standard model

1. incoming information activates diverse areas of the cortex (ex smells, emotions etc.) 2. The hippocampus coordinates the activity of different cortical areas which, at this point, are not connected in the cortex 3. Reactivation.

Reconsolidation

A process proposed by Nader and others that occurs when a memory is reactivated. this process is similar to the consolidation that occurs after initial learning, although it apparently occurs more rapidly. Therefore making memory susceptible to be changed or disrupted every time it is retrieved (reinforcing/updating memories) Practical outcome for alleviating symptoms of PTSD (Brunet)

The Multiple Trace Hypothesis

According to the __________ hippocampus is involved in the retrieval of remote memories, especially episodic memories therefore not restricting its importance solely to eh beginning of consolidation. Ex. (Gilboa) Found that Hippocampus was activated during retrieval of both recent and remote episodic memories that were elicited by showing participants photos of themselves engages in activites

Reactivation

According to the standard model of consolidation _______ is a process that occurs during memory consolidation, in which the hippocampus replays the neural activity associated with a memory. During reactivation, activity occurs in the network connecting the hippocampus and the cortex. This activity results in the formation of connections between the cortical areas and occurs during sleep, relaxed wakefulness and can be enhanced by conscious rehearsing of memory

Shallow processing

An approach to memorization that involves focusing on the superficial characteristics of the stimulus, such as the sound of a word or the typeface in which it's printed.

Long-term potentiation

An increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation, believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory. Important because it shows that increased firing not only create structural changes but also enhanced responding.

Amygdala

Area important for emotional memory

Enthorhinal Area

Area involved with recognition memory

Concussions

Brain injury that disrupts the consolidation process of fragile new memories. Seen to cause retrograde, usually less severe for remote memories (memories from long ago) and anterograde amnesia

Medial Temporal Lobe

Brian area that includes the hippocampus, amygdala, and adjacent areas of the cerebral cortex (ex. perirhinal cortex, parahippocampal area, Enthorhinal Area); converts memory from short term to long term

Circularity in Defining depth of processing

Defining depth of processing in terms of memory is circular reasoning because it cannot be defined independantly of memory preformance ie. a) memory is better following desert island task b) dessert island task causes deeper processing c) memory will be better folling desert island task

Survey of Student Study techniques (Karpicke) Methods and Results

Demonstrated the advantages of testing, students read prose passage (7m) followed by 2m of math problems. After, one group did 7m recall test where they wrote down everything they remembered, the other reread material for 7m. Second phases after either 5min 2days, 1week delay they did a recall test and wrote down what they remembered. Little difference after 5 min delay but in other conditions preformance dropped less for testing groups

Davachi experiment

Encoding of 200 words while in a brain scanner, instructed to create an image of specific place that went with each word. 20hrs later (not in scanner) they were presented with same 200 words as well as 200 new words and asked to indicate which words were new vs old, remember 54% of old words. Only found increased activity in the Perirhinal cortex for remembered vs. forgotten words

Testing Effect

Enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply reading, information. Also sometimes referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning

hippocampus

Found in the Medial Temporal Lobe this brain structure is crucial for forming new L.T.M as seen with H.M.

systems consolidation

Involves the gradual reorganization of circuits within brain regions and takes place on a longer time scale, lasting weeks, months, or even years

Hebbs Theory

Learning and memory are represented in the brain by physiological changes that take place at the synapse, and activation strengthens synapses by causing structural changes as a result of chemical reactions causing protein synthesis, greater transmitter release and increased firing. Memory for a particular experience is probably represented by a pattern of firing across a group of neurons thus, synaptic changes provide a neural record of experience.

State-dependant learning

Matching internal mood or state of awareness present during encoding and retrieval. Ex: (Eich and Metcalfe) positive thoughts- merry music vs. melancholic music-negative thoughts; rated their mood and studied words.

Transfer-appropriate processing

Matching task involved in encoding and retrieval based on the idea that memory is likely to transfer from one situation to another when we process information in a way that is appropriate to the retrieval cues that will be available later. ex. morris rhyming/meaning based encoding

Rehearsal

Method of getting information into LTM, by repeting information over and over. types: Maintenance (keeps information in the STM) and Elaborative-making connections or thinking about meaning (more effective for tansfering information into LTM)

Cued Recall

Method of reproducing information from memory by making use of some kind of aid or hint to assist retrieval.

Free Recall

Method of reproducing information from memory in any order without the assistance of cues.

The standard model of consolidation

Model that proposes that retrieval depends on hippocampus during consolidation but then after is no longer needed. During reactivation (the major mechanism of consolidation) the hippocampus is used to retrieve memory

Hupbach's Reconsolidation Experiment

Participants learned a list of words, next day A) learned a new list and B) Reminder of first list then new list. A) recalled 45% of words and mistakenly recalled 5% B) recalled 36% of words and mistakenly recalled 24% of words from list 2. Thus by reactivating memory from list 1 results support the idea that reactivation and reconsolidation can change human memory

Reconsolidation and PTSD

Practical outcome for alleviating symptoms of PTSD (Brunet) Reactivation of memory followed by probanolol- blocks stress hormone in amygdala (emotional components of memory), reducing emotional reaction associated with event

Pair-Associated learning

Procedure used by (Bower and Winzenz) that presents a list of word pairs, later the first word of each pair is presented and the participant must remember the word it was paired with

Perirhinal cortex

Some of the most severe memory deficits result from damage to this cortex. The anterograde amnesia resulting from lesions here are not specific to information from a particular sense modality, reflecting the convergence of input from association cortex from multiple sensory systems.

(Rodgers) Exp. Linking words to yourself

Testing Self-reference effect, participants were presented with words and asked yes or no questions associated with the word such as: rhyming, phys. characteristics of the word, meaning and self-reference (does this word describe you) for yes response people were most likely to remember words related to themselves

Self-reference effect

The finding that information bearing on the self is processed more thoroughly and more deeply, and hence remembered better, than other information

Retrieval

The process of getting information out of memory storage. Most memory failures are failures of retrieval. Retrieval can be increased by matching conditions at retrieval to conditions at encoding

Levels of Processing Theory

The theory holding that deeper levels of mental processing result in longer-lasting memory codes, overall contribution is that memory retrieval is influenced by how items are encoded. In experiments the depths of processing that an item recieves is related to memory. ie. Desert island task, difficult to define

Nader's Consolidation experiment

This experiment used classical conditioning: Day 1: rat+fear (tone-shock)=fear response IV anisomycin (antibiotic that inhibits protien synthesis, therefore memory formation) Conditions: A) Received anisomycin day 2 (after consolidation); day 3 showed fear response B) Received anisomycin before consolidation on day 1; day 3 showed no fear response C) Received anisomycin on day 2 right after rat receives tone and shock and displays fear response for the second time; day 3 shows no fear response -This response is reactivation-eliciting a memory after the initial event, made it as vulnerable as it was when it was just formed and therefore subject to disruption

The consolidation process

This process involves a reorganization in the nervous system which occurs at two levels: synaptic consolidation and systems consolidation. It is important because new memories are fragile and therefore can be easily disrupted. As time passes after an event this processes stabilizes memory from a fragile state to a more permanent state where they are more resistant to disruption. Demonstrated by memory loss after concussions.

Graded amnesia

This type of memory loss occurs because memory for recent events is more fragile then memory for remote effects. Demonstrated by memory loss after concussions.

Retrieval

Transfering infromation from the LTM to the working memory

synaptic consolidation

a process of consolidation that involves structural changes at synapses that happen rapidly, over a period of minutes. Hebb's research on the role of synapse and memory focused on this

Parahippocampal area

a region of cortex in the temporal lobe of humans that appears to respond with particular strength to images of places (as opposed to isolated objects)

Retrieval cues

cues associated with the original learning that facilitate the retrieval of memories. Example, physical location, smell, a song

Deep processing

in the encoding of information, the processing of meaning rather than simply the physical or sensory features of a stimulus. Craik and Tulving measured varrying levels of processing (word, rhyme, sentence fit)

Encoding specificity

matching context of encoding and retrieval. Ex:(Godden and Baddeley) "diving experiment' underwater vs. on land; (Grant) Quite vs. noisy studying

Generation effect

memory for material is better when a person generates the material him- or herself, rather than passively receiving it.

Encoding

the processing of aquiring information and transfering it into the LT memory system

Spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice