Man 1107 - Ch 10
Achieving increased productivity to benefit the worker and the firm was the goal of ______.
Frederick Taylor
What is the difference between Frederick Herzberg's motivator and hygiene factors?
Herzberg found that whereas some factors motivate workers (motivators), others cause job dissatisfaction if missing but are not motivators if present (hygiene or maintenance factors).
Name two forms of job enrichment that increase motivation.
Job enlargement combines a series of tasks into one challenging and interesting assignment. Job rotation makes work more interesting by moving employees from one job to another.
Which element in the work environment was found to be dissatisfying when not present, but when present did not serve as a motivator for workers?
Job security
The tendency for people to act differently when they know they are being studied is:
the Hawthorne effect
What are the hygiene (maintenance) factors?
Company policies, supervision, working conditions, interpersonal relationships, and salary.
What is goal-setting theory?
Goal-setting theory is based on the notion that setting ambitious but attainable goals will lead to high levels of motivation and performance if the goals are accepted and accompanied by feedback, and if conditions in the organization make achievement possible.
The tendency of people to behave differently when they know they are being studied is the ______.
Hawthorne Effect
Which is not an element of scientific management? Rules of work Method Time Human factors
Human factors
hygiene factors
In Herzberg's theory of motivating factors, job factors that can cause dissatisfaction if missing but that do not necessarily motivate employees if increased
motivators
In Herzberg's theory of motivating factors, job factors that cause employees to be productive and that give them satisfaction.
Feeling personal satisfaction because you perform well is which type of reward?
Intrinsic reward
How can managers encourage open communication?
Managers can create an organizational culture that rewards listening, train supervisors and managers to listen, use effective questioning techniques, remove barriers to open communication, avoid vague and ambiguous communication, and actively make it easier for all to communicate.
What did Abraham Maslow find human motivation to be based on?
Maslow studied basic human motivation and found that motivation was based on needs. He said that a person with an unfilled need would be motivated to satisfy it and that a satisfied need no longer served as motivation.
Which item was listed by workers as creating enthusiasm for job content?
Sense of achievement
extrinsic reward
Something given to you by someone else as recognition for good work; extrinsic rewards include pay increases, praise, and promotions.
What levels of need did Maslow identify?
Starting at the bottom of Maslow's hierarchy and going to the top, the levels of need are physiological, safety, social, esteem, and self-actualization.
time-motion studies
Studies, begun by Frederick Taylor, of which tasks must be performed to complete a job and the time needed to do each task.
scientific management
Studying workers to find the most efficient ways of doing things and then teaching people those techniques.
Can managers use Maslow's theory?
Yes, they can recognize what unmet needs a person has and design work so that it satisfies those needs.
A type of chart used to track and plan worker activity developed by a researcher who followed Taylor's principles is called:
a Gantt chart
job enlargement
a job enrichment strategy that involves combining a series of tasks into one challenging and interesting assignment
According to Maslow, needs that have already been satisfied no longer provide _____.
motivation
Herzberg studied the relationship between ______.
motivation and job-related factors
Maslow's theory states that once needs are met they:
no longer motivate
The effects on organizations of unmotivated and unhappy workers include:
poor relationships with customers high recruitment and training costs
What is the purpose of Management by Objectives?
- To motivate all levels of the organization through goal setting and implementation - To monitor the results of implementing goals - To reward the accomplishment of organization goals
Equity theory states that employees:
- perceptions of fairness affect motivation - compare their inputs and outputs to those of others in similar positions - try to maintain equity between what they put into a job and what they get out of it
Place the generational cohorts in the correct order from oldest to youngest. NOTE: the generation with the oldest age members should be the top item in your list.
1. Baby Boomer 2. Generation X 3. Millenials 4. Generation Z 5. Generation Alpha
Baby boomer
1946-1964
Peter Drucker designed the Management by Objectives during which period of time?
1960s
Generation X
1965-1980
Generation Y (Millennial)
1980-1995
Generation Z
1995 and 2009
According to Ouchi's research about the effect of national culture on organizations, Type _____ management relies on individual decision making and achievement.
A
Intrinsic reward
A valued outcome that comes from within the individual, such as a sense of accomplishment and self-esteem.
Extrinsic reward
A valued outcome that is tangible, visible to others, and external, such as a raise, promotion, or praise.
Job enrichment theory is based on the higher level motivators of which two theorists?
Abraham Maslow Frederick Herzberg
Which of the following theories of motivation is the basis for Management by Objectives?
Drucker's Goal-setting theory
The idea that setting ambitious, but attainable goals can motivate workers and improve performance if the goals are accepted and accompanied by feedback and facilitated by organizational conditions is at the heart of which motivation theory?
Drucker's goal-setting theory
What theory is based on the idea that employees try to maintain fairness or balance between inputs and outputs as compared to others in similar positions?
Equity
Which theory states that an individual will not put forth effort without first evaluating their ability to perform the task and the value they place on the reward?
Expectancy theory
Hygiene factors
Factors in a job necessary to avoid worker dissatisfaction but do not improve job satisfaction.
The generational group of managers that expect to give and get more feedback on their work are ______.
Gen X
__________ is based on the notion that setting ambitious but attainable goals will improve motivation and performance if the goals are accepted, accompanied by feedback, and facilitated by organizational conditions.
Goal-setting theory
Job enrichment is most closely related to ______.
Herzberg's higher-level motivators
What is the difference between high-context and low-context cultures?
In high-context cultures, people build personal relationships and develop group trust before focusing on tasks. In low-context cultures, people often view relationship building as a waste of time that diverts attention from the task.
Job enlargement
Increasing the scope of the job by combining several tasks into a single, more challenging assignment.
Scientific management
Management approach concerned primarily with the physical efficiency of the work process.
In the 1960s, Peter Drucker designed a method of management that includes employees in goal setting, known as ______.
Management by objectives
Theory Z
Management view that employee involvement in the organization and decision making leads to productivity.
Theory X
Management view that employees are lazy, uninterested in work, and need to be prodded to perform their jobs.
Theory Y
Management view that employees enjoy work and take responsibility for meeting their work requirements.
What two theories concentrate on managers' attitudes and assumptions about workers?
McGregor's Theory X McGregor's Theory Y
Which group of workers postponed their career search because of the poor state of the economy at the time of their graduation?
Millennials
McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y identified assumptions managers have about workers. Select the statements below that represent a Theory X manager's beliefs.
Workers prefer to avoid responsibility Workers are motivated by fear and punishment
Motivators
Workplace factors that provide employees with job satisfaction and presumably motivation.
Theory __________ assumes that the average person likes work and has a relatively high degree of imagination and creativity.
Y
job rotation
a job enrichment strategy that involves moving employees from one job to another
Herzberg's research found that the factor that ranked highest as a motivator was
a sense of achievement.
Angela will be offered the role of team leader if she prepares a year-end profit-and-loss statement in Excel for the department, but she has not been trained to use Excel.
expectancy
Robert does not want to go into work on his day off because he does not really need the overtime pay and that is the only benefit his boss offered.
expectancy
According to __________, the amount of effort employees devote to a task depends on their expectations of the outcome.
expectancy theory
Rewards in recognition of good work that come from someone else are __________ rewards.
extrinsic
Employees of New Belgium Brewing Company receive a red bike on their one-year employment anniversary.
extrinsic reward
lair is a football coach that is motivated by the praise he receives in the media from having a winning season.
extrinsic reward
The characteristic of work that is concerned with the amount of direct and clear information employees receive about their performance is called
feedback.
Gen X managers understand that:
flexibility and consensus building work well there is more to life than work results are more important than hours spent in the workplace
When using MBO, a manager must do which of the following?
formulate goals cooperatively with employees develop commitment to goals
Gen X managers generally:
give employees good feedback are good at allowing workers to have autonomy to get the job done value results rather than hours at work
Gwen was glad she could sit down with her boss and plan the best schedule to accomplish her goals and objectives for the first quarter of this year.
goal-setting
Jason is meeting with his manager to review the list of goals they spelled out last month to see what he has accomplished so far.
goal-setting
Characteristics of the Millennial Generation include:
having been raised by indulgent parents always having the Internet in their world having cell phones
In the work environment, __________ means to work with an employee, doing part of the work if necessary.
helping
While workers in the United States are more task oriented and require information to do their jobs, workers from Korea are more motivated by strong relationships and developing trust to do the same job. That is because Korea is a ______ context culture and the U.S. is a ______ context culture.
high, low
Maslow was mainly concerned with explaining how
human motivation was related to a hierarchy of needs
Company policies and rules
hygiene
Herzberg's research identified several __________ factors that were related to the job environment and did not necessarily motivate employees if they were increased but could cause employees to become dissatisfied if they were missing or inadequate.
hygiene
Job security
hygiene
Pay
hygiene
Peer and group relationships
hygiene
Status
hygiene
Supervisor's fairness
hygiene
Supervisor's friendliness
hygiene
Working conditions
hygiene
According to Herzberg, a sense of achievement, earned recognition, and interest in the work itself were all
important motivators.
Management by objectives means that managers ______.
include employees in setting goals so the employees are self motivated
The personal satisfaction people feel when they have done a job well is a(n) __________ reward.
intrinsic
Ananda is involved in decision making and feels that she is making a significant contribution to the organization.
intrinsic reward
Jalen is a motorcycle mechanic who is motivated by the sense of satisfaction he gets from fixing customers' motorcycles.
intrinsic reward
Moving workers from one task to the next to make work more interesting and motivating is called ______.
job rotation
The practice of moving employees from one job to another to make work more interesting is called
job rotation.
Managers must recognize that motivating individuals today requires:
knowing that generations have different cultures understanding of different cultures within a country familiarity with a variety of cultures from around the world
In a recent survey, what reason was given by nearly half of the respondents when asked what their reason was for changing jobs?
lack of appreciation
Management by objectives is most effective in stable situations that allow managers to make _____-_____ plans with few changes.
long range or term
According to Herzberg, another name for hygiene factors is ______.
maintenance factors
What are two items that have always been a part of the Millennial generation and are a daily part of their lives?
mobile phones the Internet
Frank and Lillian Gilbreth developed the principle of __________, which said that every job could be broken down into a therblig.
motion economy
Earned recognition
motivator
Importance of responsibility
motivator
Interest in the work itself
motivator
Opportunity for advancement
motivator
Opportunity for growth
motivator
Sense of achievement
motivator
What did Herzberg call job factors that caused employees to be productive and give them satisfaction?
motivators
An assumption about people made by a Theory Y manager is that people ______.
naturally like to work
More people leave their jobs for:
opportunities to advance their careers
Nathaniel has been late so much this month that he was not put on the project that he requested to lead.
reinforcement
Rebecca's manager gave her a gift card to her favorite restaurant for having the highest sales volume in her department last month!
reinforcement
To use self-managed teams to improve productivity, management must reinvent work by:
respecting workers allowing autonomy developing workers' skills
Job ______ involves moving workers from one task to the next to make work more interesting and motivating.
rotation
The elements of scientific management include:
rules of work method time
Maslow called the needs people have for security at work and at home
safety needs.
Taylor's method of studying workers to find the most efficient ways of doing things and then teaching people those techniques is called _____ _____.
scientific management
The responsibilities of a manager implementing MBO include:
setting goals with the employee rewarding employee accomplishments
The Management by Objectives system is most effective in _____ situations that allow long-range planning.
stable
What are the five characteristics important to motivation as defined by job enrichment?
task identity, task significance, skill variety, autonomy, feedback
As a group Millennials tend to be ______.
tech-savvy, efficient, and tolerant
The reason many millennials are still unemployed or underemployed is ______.
the last recession hurt younger workers more than others
When reflecting upon the newer generation, each older generation says the same thing:
the newer generation "breaks the rules."
Hawthorne effect
the tendency for people to behave differently when they know they are being studied
Gen X managers recognize the need to balance _____ and life needs.
work or career
Frederick Taylor's studies were the foundation of Henry Gantt's chart development.
True Reason: Gantt was a follower of Taylor.
It is more expensive to recruit and train a new employee than to motivate an existing one.
True Reason: The costs of replacing an employee include both hard and "soft" costs.
expectancy theory
Victor Vroom's theory that the amount of effort employees exert on a specific task depends on their expectations of the outcome.
Job rotation
Motivation strategy in which employees are moved between two or more jobs in a planned manner.
MBO
Motivation technique in which managers and subordinates collaborate in establishing performance goals and objectives.
Job enrichment
Motivation technique to improve job satisfaction by incorporating task variety and responsibility.
Equity theory
Motivation theory stating that employees seek a balance between their inputs/outputs compared to others in similar positions.
Expectancy theory
Motivation theory stating that motivation depends on how much we want something and how likely we believe we are to get it.
How does open communication improve employee motivation?
Open communication helps both top managers and employees understand the objectives and work together to achieve them.
Select assumptions made by a Theory Y manager about people.
People seek responsibility. People like to work.
Management by objectives was designed by _____ _____ in the 1960s.
Peter Drucker
management by objectives (MBO)
Peter Drucker's system of goal-setting and implementation; it involves a cycle of discussion, review, and evaluation of objectives among top and middle-level managers, supervisors, and employees.
According to Ouchi's Theory, which of these elements are included in Type A management?
Rapid promotion Individual decision making
What is a characteristic of a low-context culture?
Relationship building is considered very important and occurs before performing business tasks.
Which type of management became the dominant strategy for improving productivity in the early 1900s?
Scientific
Hierarchy of needs
Sequence of human motivation needs arranged by ascending order of importance, developed by Abraham Maslow.
Which of the following are characteristics of job enrichment?
Task significance Skill variety Task identity
Which management theory uses time-motion studies to find the one best method for workers to perform each task and then teaches them that method?
Taylor's Scientific Management
Frederick Taylor wrote:
The Principles of Scientific Management
What is an essential factor for employee empowerment?
The free flow of communication and information
What led to the more human-based managerial styles?
The greatest impact on motivation theory was generated by the Hawthorne studies in the late 1920s and early 1930s. In these studies, Elton Mayo found that human factors such as feelings of involvement and participation led to greater productivity gains than did physical changes in the workplace.
What characteristics of work affect motivation and performance?
The job characteristics that influence motivation are skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback.
intrinsic reward
The personal satisfaction you feel when you perform well and complete goals.
Self-actualization
The process of growing and developing as a person to achieve individual potential.
Douglas McGregor described two very different sets of managerial attitudes about employees, which he called
Theory X and Theory Y.
What is Theory X?
Theory X assumes the average person dislikes work and will avoid it if possible. Therefore, people must be forced, controlled, and threatened with punishment to accomplish organizational goals.
What is Theory Y?
Theory Y assumes people like working and will accept responsibility for achieving goals if rewarded for doing so.
A manager that views most employees as motivated to do work is operating under ______, while a manager that views most employees as lazy, is operating under ______.
Theory Y; Theory X
Gen Xers seek economic security by doing which of the following?
They focus on career security and change jobs to find it
What feature of self-managed teams allows them to improve productivity?
They have the freedom to make decisions.
Characteristics of Millennials in the workplace are being:
adaptable tolerant multitaskers
Vroom's expectancy theory states that the ______.
amount of effort an employee exerts on a specific task depends on expectations of the outcome
The belief that your work makes a difference and gives you satisfaction is an example of:
an intrinsic reward
Generation X employees are likely to
be more concerned with career security than with job security.
An employee that is part of Generation X is likely to ______.
be more concerned with economic and career security
Equity theory states that employees will perform well if they
believe the reward they receive fairly compensates them for their efforts when compared to others in similar positions.
A Gantt _____ is used by managers to plot the work of employees.
chart
A researcher whose work was based on Taylor's was Henry L. Gantt who developed _____ to plot and track production.
charts or graphs
Findings during the Hawthorne Studies that still affect management today include:
consulting employees during the decision making process and using their ideas
Globalization has created a need for managers to understand _____ differences in order to motivate employees around the world.
cultural or culture
Taylor's method was to:
determine the one "best" way study the most efficient way to do a task teach people the one best way to do their jobs
Workers in a high context culture find it important to ______.
develop relationships before starting tasks
Free-flowing communication and information throughout an organization are the key to successful ______.
empowerment
Daniel gave up his day off to help his boss, hoping that he would be appointed team leader, but the position was awarded to a co-worker who never helps out on weekends!
equity
Ruth found out that Liz is getting paid more per hour for doing the same job! Ruth has been at the company longer and her output is higher.
equity
Maslow would classify the need for recognition from others and for self-respect as __________ needs.
esteem
Frederick Taylor was nicknamed the ______ of scientific management:
father
An extrinsic reward is ______.
given to you by someone else
According to Herzberg, ______ factors are ones that did not necessarily motivate employees if they were increased, but could cause employees to become dissatisfied if they were missing or inadequate.
hygiene
Frederick Gilbreth was the "Father of Scientific Management".
False Reason: Frederick Taylor was the Father of Scientific Management.
What is the basis of expectancy theory?
According to Victor Vroom's expectancy theory, employee expectations can affect an individual's motivation.
Who developed Theory X and Theory Y?
Douglas McGregor held that managers have one of two opposing attitudes toward employees. He called them Theory X and Theory Y.
According to Herzberg's study, what two factors were listed by workers as among the top 5 factors that create motivation instead of being dissatisfiers on the job?
Earned recognition for a job Sense of achievement
What are the key elements of expectancy theory?
Expectancy theory centers on three questions employees often ask about performance on the job: (1) Can I accomplish the task? (2) If I do accomplish it, what's my reward? and (3) Is the reward worth the effort?
principle of motion economy
Theory developed by Frank and Lillian Gilbreth that every job can be broken down into a series of elementary motions.
Maslow's hierarchy of needs
Theory of motivation based on unmet human needs from basic physiological needs to safety, social, and esteem needs to self-actualization needs.
What kind of study analyzes which tasks must be performed to complete a job and the time needed to do each task?
Time-motion
What is Theory Z?
William Ouchi based Theory Z on Japanese management styles and stresses long-term employment; collective decision making; individual responsibility; slow evaluation and promotion; implicit, informal control with explicit, formalized control; moderately specialized career paths; and a holistic concern for employees (including family).
Which of the following are examples of factors that contributed to increased worker productivity during the Hawthorne studies?
Worker involvement in managerial decisions Management respect and interaction Social group membership and informality
According to McGregor, Theory X managers view employees as ______.
wishing to avoid responsibility
The principle of motion economy was developed by ______.
Frank and Lillian Gilbreth
What is Frederick Taylor known for?
Human efficiency engineer Frederick Taylor was one of the first people to study management and has been called the father of scientific management. He conducted time-motion studies to learn the most efficient way of doing a job and then trained workers in those procedures. He published his book The Principles of Scientific Management in 1911. Henry L. Gantt and Frank and Lillian Gilbreth were followers of Taylor.
Studying workers as they shovel different types of materials with different types of shovels in order to determine the most efficient tool and method to use is an example of ______.
a time-motion study
While not motivators, the absence of certain factors from the job environment will cause _____.
dissatisfaction or discontent
The Japanese approach, which Ouchi called Type J, included
lifetime employment, consensual decision making, collective responsibility for the outcomes of decisions, slow evaluation and promotion, implied control mechanisms, nonspecialized career paths, and holistic concern for employees.
A key technique here is empowerment, giving employees authority to
make decisions and tools to implement the decisions they make
The idea that every job could be broken down into a series of elementary motions and analyzed to make it more efficient was the Gilbreths' ______.
principle of motion economy
The unexpected results in the first set of Hawthorne Experiments that led to the second set of experiments was:
productivity continued to increase regardless of changing conditions
The use of time motion studies to increase efficiency was important because:
the findings were used to set standards and goals
equity theory
the idea that employees try to maintain equity between inputs and outputs compared to others in similar positions
goal-setting theory
the idea that setting ambitious but attainable goals can motivate workers and improve performance if the goals are accepted, accompanied by feedback, and facilitated by organizational conditions
A(n) _____-_____ study occurs when a manager observes workers as they shovel different types of materials with different types of shovels in order to determine the most efficient tool and method to use.
time motion
Studies about which tasks must be performed to complete a job and the time needed to do each task are referred to as ______ studies.
time-motion
What are the factors called motivators?
work itself, achievement, recognition, responsibility, growth and advancement
Who wrote The Principles of Scientific Management?
Frederick Taylor
Researchers David Nadler and Edward Lawler modified Vroom's theory and suggested that managers follow five steps to improve employee performance:
1. Determine what rewards employees value. 2. Determine each employee's desired performance standard. 3. Ensure that performance standards are attainable. 4. Guarantee rewards tied to performance. 5. Be certain that employees consider the rewards adequate.
For empowerment to be a real motivator, management should follow these three steps:
1. Find out what people think the problems in the organization are. 2. Let them design the solutions. 3. Get out of the way and let them put those solutions into action.
The most important Herzberg's Motivating Factors
1. Sense of achievement. 2. Earned recognition. 3. Interest in the work itself. 4. Opportunity for growth. 5. Possibility for advancement. 6. Importance of responsibility. 7. Peer and group relationships. 8. Pay. 9. Supervisor's fairness. 10. Company policies and rules. 11. Status. 12. Job security. 13. Supervisor's friendliness. 14. Working conditions.
Those who advocate job enrichment believe that five characteristics of work are important in motivation and performance:
1. Skill variety. The extent to which a job demands different skills. 2. Task identity. The degree to which the job requires doing a task with a visible outcome from beginning to end. 3. Task significance. The degree to which the job has a substantial impact on the lives or work of others in the company. 4. Autonomy. The degree of freedom, independence, and discretion in scheduling work and determining procedures. 5. Feedback. The amount of direct and clear information given about job performance.
job enrichment
A motivational strategy that emphasizes motivating the worker through the job itself.
How are Generation X managers likely to be different from their Baby Boomer predecessors?
Baby Boomers tend to be willing to work long hours to build their careers and often expect their employees to do likewise. Gen Xers may strive for a more balanced lifestyle and are likely to focus on results rather than on how many hours their teams work. Gen Xers tend to be better than previous generations at working in teams and providing frequent feedback. They usually are not bound by traditions that may constrain those who have been with an organization for a long time and are willing to try new approaches to solving problems.
Taylor's Scientific Method became the dominant strategy for improving productivity in the early 1900s. What other researchers worked with him?
Frank and Lillian Gilbreth Henry L. Gantt
The study that asked workers to rank a list of job-related factors in order of what motivated them most was a new direction taken by ______.
Frederick Herzberg
According to equity theory, employees try to maintain equity between inputs and outputs compared to other employees in similar positions. What happens when employees perceive that their rewards are not equitable?
If employees perceive they are underrewarded, they will either reduce their effort or rationalize that it isn't important. If they perceive that they are overrewarded, they will either increase their effort to justify the higher reward in the future or rationalize by saying, "I'm worth it!" Inequity leads to lower productivity, reduced quality, increased absenteeism, and voluntary resignation.
What were the goals of Taylor's scientific management?
Increase worker productivity Benefit the firm Benefit the worker
Which are costs directly associated with recruiting and training a new employee?
Lowered productivity Recruiting costs Pay for trainers
What is management by objectives (MBO)?
MBO is a system of goal setting and implementation; it includes a cycle of discussion, review, and evaluation of objectives among top and middle-level managers, supervisors, and employees.
What are some common characteristics of Millennials and Gen Zers?
Millennials tend to be adaptable, tech-savvy, able to grasp new concepts, practiced at multitasking, efficient, and tolerant. They often place a higher value on work-life balance, expect their employers to adapt to them, and are more likely to rank fun and stimulation in their top five ideal-job requirements. Gen Zers tend to be more cautious and securityminded but inspired to improve the world. They want to confront rather than hide from problems. Like Millennials, Gen Zers are tech-savvy and are looking to be part of a community within their workplaces. However, Gen Zers are interested in more practical benefits like health care and 401(k)s, and are less likely to job hop than Millennials.
Something given to you by someone else in recognition of good work is referred to as a(n) _____ reward.
extrinsic
During the first set of Hawthorne Experiments,
productivity continued to increase regardless of changing conditions researchers thought they had failed due to the unexpected results researchers realized there had to be another factor affecting productivity
According to Herzberg's study, motivators that gave employees satisfaction and motivated them ______.
related mostly to job content
The idea that all jobs can be broken down into elemental steps that can be made more efficient is the principle of ______.
scientific management
Procedures for encouraging open communication include the following:
■ Create an organizational culture that rewards listening. Top managers must create places to talk and show employees that talking with superiors matters—by providing feedback, adopting employee suggestions, and rewarding upward communication— even if the discussion is negative. Employees must have the freedom to say anything they deem appropriate and believe their opinions are valued. ■ Train supervisors and managers to listen. Most people receive no training in how to listen, in school or anywhere else, so organizations must do such training themselves or hire an expert to do it.
Theory Y makes entirely different assumptions about people:
■ Most people like work; it is as natural as play or rest. ■ Most people naturally work toward goals to which they are committed. ■ The depth of a person's commitment to goals depends on the perceived rewards for achieving them. ■ Under certain conditions, most people not only accept but also will seek responsibility. ■ People are capable of using a relatively high degree of imagination, creativity, and cleverness to solve problems. ■ In industry, the average person's intellectual potential is only partially realized. ■ People are motivated by a variety of rewards. Each worker is stimulated by a reward unique to him or her (time off, money, recognition, and so on).
The assumptions of Theory X management are:
■ The average person dislikes work and will avoid it if possible. ■ Because of this dislike, workers must be forced, controlled, directed, or threatened with punishment to make them put forth the effort to achieve the organization's goals. ■ The average worker prefers to be directed, wishes to avoid responsibility, has relatively little ambition, and wants security. ■ Primary motivators are fear and punishment.
Procedures for encouraging open communication include the following:
■ Use effective questioning techniques. We get information through questioning. Different kinds of questions yield different kinds of information. Closed questions that generate yes/no answers don't encourage the longer, more thoughtful responses that open questions do. Appropriate personal questions can create a sense of camaraderie between employee and manager. ■ Remove barriers to open communication. Separate offices, parking areas, bathrooms, and dining rooms for managers only set up barriers. Other barriers are different dress codes and different ways of addressing one another (like calling workers by their first names and managers by their last). Removing such barriers may require imagination and managers' willingness to give up special privileges. ■ Avoid vague and ambiguous communication. Passive voice appears weak and tentative. Statements such as "Mistakes were made" leave you wondering who made the mistakes. Hedging is another way managers send garbled messages. Terms like possibly and perhaps sound wishy-washy to employees who are seeking definitive direction. ■ Make it easy to communicate. Encouraging organization members to eat together at large lunch tables, allowing employees to gather in conference rooms, having organizational picnics and athletic teams, and so on can help workers at all levels mix with one another. ■ Ask employees what is important to them. Managers shouldn't wait until the exit interview to ask an employee, "What can I do to keep you?" At that point, it's too late. Instead they should have frequent stay interviews to find out what matters to employees and what they can do to keep them on the job.